What is the History of Books?

Transcription

1 Wht is Hisry Books? The Hrvrd community hs mde this rticle openly vilble. Plese shre how this ccess benefits you. Your sry mtters. Cittion Published Version Accessed Citble Link Terms Use Drnn, Robert Wht is hisry books? Dedlus 111(3): December 18, :04:18 PM EST This rticle ws downloded from Hrvrd University's DASH reposiry, is mde vilble under terms conditions pplicble Or Posted Mteril, s set forth t (Article begins on next pge)

2 ROBERT DARNTON Wht Is Hisry Books? "Hisire du livre" in Frnce, "Geschichte des Buchwesens" in Germny, "hisry books" or " book" in English-speking countries?its nme vries from plce plce, but everywhere it is s n new being recognized importnt discipline. It even might be clled socil culturl hisry communic tion print, if tht were not such mouthful, becuse its purpose is underst how ides were trnsmitted through print how exposure printed word ffected thought behvior mnkind during lst five hundred yers. Some book hisrins pursue ir subject deep in period before invention movble type. Some students printing concentrte on newsppers, brodsides, or forms besides book. The field cn be extended exped in mny wys; but for most prt, it concerns books since time n re Gutenberg, reserch tht hs developed so rpidly during lst few yers, tht it seems likely win plce longside fields like hisry science hisry rt in cnon scholrly disciplines. Whtever hisry books my become in future, its pst shows how field cn knowledge tke on distinct scholrly identity. It rose from convergence severl on disciplines common set problems, ll m hving do with process communiction. Initilly, problems ok form concrete questions in unrelted brnches scholrship: Wht were Shkespere's originl texts? Wht cused French Revolution? Wht is connection between culture socil strtifiction? In pursuing those ques tions, scholrs found mselves crossing pths in no-mn's-l locted t intersection hlf-dozen fields study. They decided constitute field ir own invite in hisrins, literry scholrs, sociologists, librrins, nyone else who wnted underst book s force in hisry. The hisry books begn cquire its own journls, reserch centers, confer ences, lecture circuits. It ccumulted tribl elders s well s Young Turks. And lthough it hs not yet developed psswords or secret hshkes or its own popultion Ph.D.'s, its dherents cn recognize one nor glint in ir eyes. They belong common cuse, one few secrs in humn sciences where re is mood expnsion flurry fresh ides. To be sure, hisry hisry books did not begin yesterdy. It stretches bck scholrship Renissnce, if not beyond; it begn in ernest during nineteenth century, when study books s mteril objects led rise nlyticl bibliogrphy in Engl. But current 65

3 66 ROBERT DARNTON work represents deprture from estblished strins scholrship, which my be trced ir nineteenth century origins through bck issues The Librry B?rsenbltt f?r den Deutschen Buchhel or ses in Ecole des Chrtes. The new strin developed during 1960s in Frnce, where it ok root in institutions like Ecole Prtique des Hutes Etudes spred through publictions like LApprition du livre (1958), Lucien Febvre Henri-Jen Mrtin, Livre et soci?t? dns l Frnce du XVII le si?cle (two volumes ) group connected with Vie section Ecole Prtique des Hutes Etudes. The new book hisrins brought subject within rnge mes studied "Annles school" socioeconomic hisry. Insted on dwelling fine points bibliogrphy, tried uncover generl pttern book production consumption over long stretches time. They compiled sttistics from requests for privil?ges ( kind copyright), nlyzed contents privte librries, trced ideologicl currents through neglected genres like biblioth?que bleue (primitive pperbcks). Rre books fine editions hd no interest for m; concentrted insted on most ordinry sort books, becuse wnted discover literry experience ordinry reders. They put fmilir phenomen like Counter Reformtion Enlightenment in n unfmilir light showing how much trditionl culture outweighed vnt-grde in literry fre entire society. Although did not come up with firm set conclusions, demonstrted importnce new new sking questions, using methods, new tpping sources.1 Their exmple spred throughout Europe United Sttes, reinforcing indigenous trditions, such s reception studies in Germny printing hisry in Britin. Drwn ger ir commitment common enterprise, nimted enthusism for new ides, book hisrins begn meet, first in cf?s, n in conferences. They creted new journls?publishing Hisry, Bibliogrphy Newsletter, Nouvelles du livre ncien, Revue frn?ise d'hisire du livre (new series), Buchhelsgeschichte, Wolfenb?tte 1er Notizen zur Buchge schichte. They founded new centers? Institut d'etude du Livre in Pris, Arbeitskreis f?r Geschichte des Buchwesens in Wolfenb?ttel, Center for Book in Librry Congress. Specil colloqui?in Genev, Pris, Bosn, Worcester, Wolfenb?ttel, Ans, nme only few tht ok plce in lte 1970s?disseminted ir reserch on n interntionl scle. In brief spn two decdes, hisry books hd become rich vried field study. So rich did it prove, in fct, tht it now looks less like field thn tropicl rin forest. The explorer cn hrdly mke his wy cross it. At every step he becomes entngled in luxurint undergrowth journl rticles, disoriented crisscrossing disciplines?nlyticl bibliogrphy pointing in this direction, sociology knowledge in tht, while hisry, English, comprtive literture stke out overlpping terriries. He is beset clims newness?"l nouvelle bibliogrphie mt?rielle," " new literry hisry"? bewildered competing methodologies, which would hve him collting editions, compiling sttistics, decoding copyright lw, rems wding through t mnuscript, heving br reconstructed common press,

4 WHAT IS THE HISTORY OF BOOKS? 67 psychonlyzing mentl processes reders. The hisry books hs become so crowded with ncillry disciplines, tht one cn no see longer its generl conurs. How cn book hisrin neglect hisry librries, publishing, pper, type, reding? But how cn he mster ir technologies, especilly when pper in imposing foreign formultions, like Geschichte der Appellstruktur Bibliom?trie bibliologique? It is enough mke one wnt retire rre book room count wtermrks. To get some distnce from run interdisciplinrity riot, see subject s whole, it might be useful propose generl model for nlyzing wy books come in being spred through society. To be sure, conditions hve vried so much from plce plce from time time since invention movble type, tht it would be vin expect biogrphy every book conform sme pttern. But printed books generlly pss through roughly sme life cycle. It could be described s communictions circuit tht runs from uthor publisher (if bookseller does not ssume tht role), printer, shipper, bookseller, reder. The reder completes circuit, becuse he influences uthor both before fter ct composition. Authors re reders mselves. By reding ssociting with or reders writers, form notions genre style generl sense literry enterprise, which ffects ir texts, wher re composing Shkesperen sonnets or directions for ssembling rdio kits. A writer my respond in his writing criticisms his previous work or nticipte rections tht his text will elicit. He ddresses implicit reders hers from explicit reviewers. So circuit runs full cycle. It trnsmits messges, trnsforming m en route, s pss from thought writing printed chrcters bck thought gin. Book hisry concerns ech phse this process process s whole, in ll its vritions over spce time in ll its reltions with or systems, economic, socil, politicl, culturl, in surrounding environment. Tht is lrge undertking. To keep ir tsk within mngeble proportions, book hisrins generlly cut in one segment communictions circuit nlyze it ccording procedures single discipline?printing, for exmple, which study mens nlyticl bibliogrphy. But prts do not tke on ir full significnce unless re relted whole, some holistic view book s mens communiction seems necessry if book hisry is void being frgmented in esoteric speciliztions, cut f from ech or rcne techniques mutul misundersting. The model shown in Figure 1 provides wy envisging entire communiction process. With minor djustments, it should pply ll periods in hisry printed book (mnuscript books book illustrtions will hve be considered elsewhere), but I would like discuss it in connection with period I know best, eighteenth century, tke it up phse phse, showing how ech phse is relted (1) or ctivities tht given person hs underwy t given point in circuit, (2) or persons t sme point in or circuits, (3) or persons t or points in sme circuit, (4) or elements in society. The first three considertions ber on directly trnsmission text, while lst concerns outside influences, which could vry endlessly. For ske

5 3 o u u C S e o U H S.

6 WHAT IS THE HISTORY OF BOOKS? 69 simplicity, I hve reduced ltter three generl ctegories in center digrm. Models hve wy freezing humn beings out hisry. To put some flesh blood on this one, show how it cn mke sense n ctul cse, I will pply it publishing hisry Voltire's Questions sur l'encyclop?die, n importnt work Enlightenment, one tht uched lives gret mny eighteenth century bookmen. One could study circuit its trnsmission t ny point?t stge its composition, for exmple, when Voltire shped its text orchestrted its diffusion in order promote his cmpign ginst religious inlernce, s his biogrphers hve shown; or t its printing, stge in which bibliogrphicl nlysis helps estblish multipliction editions; or t point its ssimiltion in librries, where, ccording sttisticl studies literry hisrins, Voltire's works occupied n impressive shre shelf spce.2 But I would like consider lest fmilir link in diffusion process, role bookseller, tking Isc Pierre Rigud s n Montpellier exmple, working through four considertions mentioned bove.3 1. On August 16, 1770, Rigud ordered thirty copies nine-volume octvo edition Questions, which Soci?t? typogrphique de Neuch?tel (STN) hd recently begun print in Prussin principlity Neuch?tel on Swiss side French-Swiss border. Rigud generlly preferred red t lest few pges new book before scking it, but he considered Questions such good bet, tht he risked mking firly lrge order for it, sight unseen. He did not hve ny personl sympthy for Voltire. On contrry, he deplored philosphe's tendency tinker with his books, dding mending pssges while cooperting with pirted editions behind bcks originl publishers. Such prctices produced complints from cusmers, who objected receiving inferior (or insufficiently udcious) texts. "It is snishing tht t end his creer M. de Voltire cnnot refrin from duping booksellers," Rigud complined STN. "It would not mtter if ll se little ruses, fruds, deceits were blmed on uthor. But unfortuntely printers still more retil booksellers re usully held responsible."4 Voltire mde life hrd for booksellers, but he sold well. There ws nothing Voltiren bout most or books in Rigud's shop. His sles ctlogues show tht he specilized somewht in medicl books, which were lwys in dem in Montpellier, thnks university's fmous fculty medicine. Rigud lso kept discreet line Protestnt works, becuse Montpellier ly in Huguenot terriry. And when uthorities looked or wy, he brought in few shipments forbidden books.5 But he generlly supplied his cusmers with books ll kinds, which he drew from n invenry worth t lest forty-five thous livres, lrgest in Montpellier probbly in ll Lnguedoc, ccording report from intendnt's subd?l?gu?.6 Rigud's wy ordering from STN illustrtes chrcter his business. Unlike or lrge provincil delers, who speculted on hundred or more copies book when smelled best seller, he rrely ordered more thn hlf dozen copies single work. He red widely, consulted his

7 70 ROBERT DARNTON cusmers, ok soundings mens his commercil correspondence, studied ctlogues tht STN his or sent suppliers him ( 1785 STN's ctlogue included 750 titles). Then he chose bout ten titles ordered just enough copies m mke up crte fifty pounds, minimum weight for t shipment rte chepest chrged wgoners. If books sold well, he reordered m; but he usully kept his orders rr smll, mde four or five m yer. In this wy, he conserved cpitl, minimized risks, built up such lrge vried sck, tht his shop becme cleringhouse for literry dem every kind in region. The pttern Rigud's orders, which sts out clerly from STN's ccount books, shows tht he fered his cusmers little everything?trvel books, hisries, novels, religious works, occsionl scientific or philosophicl tretise. Insted following his own preferences, he seemed trnsmit dem firly ccurtely live ccording ccepted wisdom book trde, which one STN's or cusmers summrized s follows: "The best book for bookseller is book tht sells."7 Given his cutious style business, Rigud's decision n plce dvnce order for thirty nine volume sets Questions sur seems l'encyclop?die especilly significnt. He would not hve put so much money on single work if he hd not felt certin dem? his lter orders show tht he hd clculted correctly. On June 19, 1772, soon fter receiving lst shipment lst volume, Rigud ordered nor dozen sets; he ordered two more two yers lter, lthough n STN hd exhusted its sck. It hd printed huge edition, twenty five hundred copies, pproximtely twice its usul pressrun, booksellers hd fllen ll over mselves in rush it. So purchse Rigud's purchse ws no berrtion. It current Voltirenism tht hd expressed spred fr wide mong reding public Old Regime. 2. How does purchse Questions look when exmined from perspective Rigud's reltions with or booksellers Montpel lier? A book-trde lmnc listed nine m in 1777:8 Printer-Booksellers: Aug. Frnc. Rochrd Jen Mrtel Booksellers: Isc-Pierre J. B. Fure Albert Pons Tournel Bscon C?zry Fontnel Rigud But ccording report from trveling slesmn STN, re were only seven.9 Rigud Pons hd merged, completely dominted locl trde; C?zry Fure scrped long in middle rnks; rest teetered on brink bnkruptcy in precrious boutiques. The occsionl binder under--clok peddler lso provided few books, most m illegl, more dventuresome reders city. For exmple, demoiselle Bring,

8 WHAT IS THE HISTORY OF BOOKS? 71 known s " students' mor," scked some forbidden fruit "under bed on room right on second floor," ccording report rid tht ws engineered estblished booksellers.10 The trde in most provincil cities fell in sme pttern, which cn be s envisged series concentric circles: t center, one or two firms tried monopolize mrket; round mrgin, few smll delers survived specilizing in chpbooks old volumes, setting up reding clubs (cbinets litt?rires) binderies, or peddling ir wres in bck country; beyond fringe leglity, dventurers moved in out mrket, selling forbidden literture. When he ordered his shipment Questions, Rigud ws consolidting his t position center locl trde. His merger with Pons in 1770 provided him with enough cpitl ssets ride out mishps?delyed shipments, defulting debrs, liquidity crises?tht ten upset smller businesses. Also, he plyed rough. When C?zry, one middling delers, filed meet some his pyments in 1781, Rigud drove him out business orgnizing cbl his credirs. They refused let him reschedule pyments, hd him thrown in prison for debt, forced him sell f his sck t n uction, where kept down prices gobbled up books. By dispensing ptronge, Rigud controlled most Montpellier's binderies; exerting pressure on binders, he produced delys sngs in ffirs or booksellers. In 1789 only one m remined, Abrhm Fontnel, he styed solvent only mintining cbinet litt?rire, "which provokes terrible fits jelousy sieur Rigud, who wnts be only one left who shows his htred me every s dy,"11 Fontnel confided STN. Rigud did not eliminte his competirs simply outdoing m in dog-et-dog style commercil cpitlism erly modern Frnce. His letters, irs, correspondence mny or booksellers show tht book trde contrcted during lte 1770s 1780s. In hrd times, big booksellers squeezed out smll, ugh outlsted tender. Rigud hd been ugh cusmer from very beginning his reltions with STN. He hd ordered his copies Questions from Neuch?tel, where STN ws printing pirted edition, rr thn from Genev, where Voltire's regulr printer, Gbriel Crmer, ws producing originl, becuse he hd extrcted better terms. He lso demed better service, especilly when or booksellers in Montpellier, who hd delt with Crmer, received ir copies first. The dely produced volley letters from Rigud STN. Why couldn't STN work fster? Didn't it know tht it ws mking him lose cusmers his competirs? He would hve order from Crmer in future if it could not provide quicker t shipments lower price. When volumes one through three finlly rrived from Neuch?tel, volumes four through six from Genev were on lredy sle in or shops. Rigud compred texts, word for word, found tht STN's edition contined none dditionl mteril tht it hd climed receive on sly from Voltire. So how could he push me "dditions corrections" in his sles tlk? The recrimintions flew thick fst in mil between Montpellier Neuch?tel, showed tht Rigud ment exploit every inch every dvntge tht he could gin on his competirs. More importnt, lso

9 72 ROBERT DARNTON reveled tht Questions were being sold ll over even Montpellier, though in principle could not circulte leglly in Frnce. Fr from being confined under--clok trde mrginl chrcters like " students' mor," Voltire's work turned out be prize item in scrmble for prits t very hert estblished book trde. When delers like Rigud scrtched clwed for ir shipments it, Voltire could be sure tht he ws succeeding in his ttempt propel his ides through min lines Frnce's communictions system. 3. The role Voltire Crmer in diffusion process rises problem how Rigud's opertion fit in or stges in life cycle Questions. Rigud knew tht he ws not getting first edition; STN hd sent circulr letter him its or min cusmers, explining tht it would reproduce Crmer's text, but with corrections dditions provided uthor himself, so tht its version would be superior originl. One STN's direcrs hd visited Voltire t Ferney in April 1770, hd returned with promise tht Voltire would uch up printed sheets he ws receive from Crmer n would forwrd m Neuch?tel for pirted edition.12 Voltire ten plyed such tricks. They provided wy improve qulity increse quntity his books, refore served his min ws purpose?which not mke money, for he did not sell his prose printers, but spred Enlightenment. The prit motive kept rest system going, however. So when Crmer got wind STN's ttempt rid his mrket, he protested Voltire, Voltire retrcted his promise STN, STN hd settle for delyed version text, which it received from Ferney, but with only miniml dditions corrections.13 In fct, this setbck did not hurt its sles, becuse mrket hd plenty room bsorb editions, not only STN's but lso one tht Mrc Michel Rey produced in Amsterdm, probbly ors s well. The booksellers hd ir choice suppliers, chose ccording whtever mrginl dvntge could obtin on mtters price, qulity, speed, relibility in delivery. Rigud delt regulrly with publishers in Pris, Lyon, Rouen, Avignon, Genev. He plyed m f ginst ech or, sometimes ordered sme book from two or three m so s be certin getting it before his competirs did. By working severl circuits t sme time, he incresed his room for mneuver. But in cse Questions, he ws outmneuvered hd receive his goods from circuius Voltire Crmer-Voltire-STN route. Tht route merely ok copy from uthor printer. For printed sheets rech Rigud in Montpellier from STN's shop in Neuch?tel, hd wind ir wy one through most complex stges in book's circuit. They could follow two min routes. One led from Neuch?tel Genev, Turin, Nice (which ws not yet French), Mrseilles. It hd dvntge skirting French terriry? refore dnger confisction?but it involved huge deurs expenses. The books hd be over lugged Alps pss through whole rmy middlemen? shipping gents, brgemen, wgoners, entrep?t keepers, ship cptins, dockers?before rrived in Rigud's sreroom. The best Swiss shippers

10 WHAT IS THE HISTORY OF BOOKS? 73 climed could get crte Nice in month for thirteen livres, eight sous per hundredweight; but ir estimtes proved be fr o low. The direct route from Neuch?tel Lyon down Rh?ne ws fst, chep, esy? but dngerous. The crtes hd be seled t ir point entry in Frnce inspected booksellers' guild royl book inspecr in Lyon, n reshipped inspected once more in Montpellier.14 Alwys cutious, Rigud sked STN ship first volumes Questions roundbout route, becuse he knew he could rely on his gent in Mrseilles, Joseph Coulomb, get books in Frnce without mishp. They left on December 9, 1771, but did not rrive until fter Mrch, when first three volumes Crmer's edition were lredy being sold Rigud's competirs. The second third volumes rrived in July, but loded down with shipping chrges dmged rough hling. "It seems tht we re five or six thous legues prt," Rigud complined, dding tht he regretted he hd not given his business Crmer, whose shipments hd lredy reched volume six.15 By this time, STN ws worried enough bout losing cusmers throughout sourn Frnce set up smuggling opertion in Lyon. Their mn, mrginl bookdeler nmed Joseph-Louis Berthoud, got volumes four five pst guild inspecrs, but n his business collpsed in bnkruptcy; mke mtters worse, French government imposed tx sixty livres per on hundredweight ll book imports. The STN fell bck on Alpine route, fering get its s shipments fr s Nice for fifteen livres per hundredweight if Rigud would py rest expenses, including import duty. But Rigud considered duty such hevy blow interntionl trde, tht he suspended ll his orders with foreign suppliers. The new triff policy hd mde it prohibitively expensive disguise illegl books s legl ones pss m through norml commercil chnnels. In December, STN's gent in Nice, Jcques Dereis, somehow got shipment volume six Questions Rigud through port S?te, which ws supposed be closed book imports. Then French government, relizing tht it hd nerly destroyed foreign book trde, lowered triff twenty-six livres per hundredweight. Rigud proposed shring cost with his foreign suppliers: he would py one third if would py two thirds. This proposl suited STN, but in spring 1772, Rigud decided tht Nice route ws o expensive be used under ny conditions. Hving herd enough complints from its or cusmers rech sme conclusion, STN disptched one its direcrs Lyon, he persuded more dependble Lyonnis deler, J.-M. Brret, cler its shipments through locl guild forwrd m its provincil clients. Thnks this rrngement, lst three volumes Rigud's Questions rrived sfely in summer. It hd required continuous effort considerble expense get entire order Montpellier, Rigud STN did not sp religning ir supply routes once hd completed this trnsction. Becuse economic politicl pressures kept shifting, hd constntly redjust ir rrngements within complex world middlemen, who linked printing houses with bookshops, ten determined, in lst nlysis, wht literture reched French reders.

11 74 ROBERT DARNTON How reders ssimilted ir books cnnot be determined. Bibliogrphicl nlysis ll copies tht cn be locted would show wht vrieties text were vilble. A study notril rchives in Montpellier might indicte how mny copies turned up in inheritnces, sttistics drwn from uction ctlogues might mke it possible estimte number in substntil privte librries. But given present stte documenttion, one cnnot know who Voltire's reders were or how responded his text. Reding remins most difficult stge study in circuit followed books. 4. All stges were ffected socil, economic, politicl, intellec tul conditions time; but for Rigud, se generl influences mde mselves felt within locl context. He sold books in city thirty-one thous inhbitnts. n Despite importnt textile industry, Montpellier ws n essentilly old-fshioned dministrtive religious center, richly endowed with culturl institutions, n including university, cdemy sciences, twelve Msonic lodges, sixteen monstic communities. And becuse it ws set provincil esttes Lnguedoc n intendncy, hd s well n rry courts, city hd lrge popultion lwyers royl ficils. If resembled ir counterprts in or provincil centers,16 probbly provided Rigud with good mny his cusmers probbly hd tste for Enlightenment literture. He did not discuss ir socil bckground in his correspondence, but he noted tht clmored for works Voltire, Rousseu, Ry nl. They subscribed hevily Encyclop?die, even sked for istic tretises like Syst?me de l nture Philosophie de l nture. ws no Montpellier intellectul bckwter, it ws good book terriry. "The book trde is quite extensive in this wn," n observer remrked in "The booksellers hve kept ir shops well scked ever since inhbitnts developed tste for hving librries."17 These fvorble conditions previled when Rigud ordered his Questions. But hrd times set in during erly 1770s; in 1780s, Rigud, like most booksellers, complined severe decline in his trde. The whole French economy contrcted those during yers, strd ccount ccording C. E. Lbrousse.18 Certinly, stte's finnces went in tilspin: hence disstrous book triff 1771, which belonged Terry's unsuccessful ttempt reduce deficit ccumulted during Seven Yers' Wr. The govern ment lso tried stmp out pirted forbidden books, first more severe police work in , n generl reform book trde in These mesures eventully ruined commerce Rigud's with STN with or publishing houses tht hd grown up round Frnce's borders during prosperous mid-century yers. The foreign publishers produced both originl editions books tht could not pss censorship in Pris pirted editions books put out Prisin publishers. Becuse Prisins hd cquired virtul monopoly over legl publishing industry, ir rivls in provinces formed llinces with foreign houses looked or wy when shipments from brod rrived for inspection in provincil guild hlls (chmbres syndicles). Under Louis XIV, government hd used Prisin s n guild instrument suppress illegl trde; but under Louis XV, it becme incresingly lx, until new er severity begn with fll

12 WHAT IS THE HISTORY OF BOOKS? 75 Choiseul's ministry (December 1770). Thus Rigud's reltions with STN fit perfectly in n economic politicl pttern tht hd previled in book trde since erly eighteenth century tht begn fll prt just s first crtes Questions were mking ir wy between Neuch?tel Montpellier. Or ptterns might show up in or reserch, for model need not be pplied in this mnner, nor need it be t pplied ll. I m not rguing tht book hisry should be written ccording strd formul, but trying show how its disprte segments cn be brought ger within single conceptul scheme. Different book hisrins might prefer different schemt. They might concentrte on book trde ll s Lnguedoc, Mdeleine Ventre hs done; or on generl bibliogrphy Voltire, s Giles Brber, Jeroom Vercruysse, ors re or on doing; overll pttern book production in eighteenth century Frnce, in mnner Frn?ois Furet Robert Estivls.19 But however define ir subject, will not drw out its full significnce unless relte it ll elements tht worked s ger circuit for trnsmitting texts. To mke point clerer, I will go over model circuit once more, noting questions tht hve been or investigted successfully tht seem ripe for furr reserch. 1. Authors. Despite prolifertion biogrphies gret writers, bsic conditions uthorship remin obscure for most periods hisry. At wht point did writers free mselves from ptronge welthy noblemen stte in order live ir pens? Wht ws nture literry creer, how ws it pursued? How did writers del with publishers, printers, booksellers, reviewers, one nor? Until those re questions nswered, we will not hve full understing trnsmis sion texts. Voltire ws ble mnipulte secret llinces with pirte publishers becuse he did not on depend writing for living. A century lter, Zol proclimed tht writer's cme independence from selling his prose highest bidder.20 How did this trnsformtion tke plce? The work John Lough begins n provide nswer, but more systemtic reserch on evolution republic letters in Frnce could be done from police records, literry lmncs, bibliogrphies {L Frnce litt?rire gives nmes publictions 1,187 writers in ,089 in 1784). The sitution in Germny is more obscure, owing frgmenttion Germn sttes before But Germn scholrs re beginning tp sources like Ds gelehrte Teutschl, which lists four thous writers in 1779, trce links between uthors, publishers, reders in regionl monogrphic stud ies.21 Mrino Berengo hs shown how much cn be discovered bout uthor publisher reltions in Itly.22 And work A. S. Collins still n provides excellent ccount uthorship in Engl, lthough it needs be brought up dte extended beyond eighteenth century Publishers. The key role publishers is now becoming clerer, thnks rticles ppering in Journl Publishing Hisry monogrphs like Mrtin Lowry's The World Aldus Mnutius, Robert Ptten's Chrles Dickens His Publishers, Gry Strk's Entrepreneurs Ideology: Neoconservtive

13 76 ROBERT DARNTON Publishers in Germny, But evolution publisher s distinct figure in contrst mster bookseller printer still needs systemtic study. Hisrins hve brely begun tp ppers publishers, lthough re richest ll sources for hisry books. The rchives Cott Verlg in Mrbch, for exmple, contin t lest one hundred fifty thous documents, yet hve only been skimmed for references Goe, Schiller, or fmous writers. Furr investigtion lmost certinly would turn up gret del informtion bout book s force in nineteenth century Germny. How did publishers drw up contrcts with uthors, build llinces with booksellers, negotite with politicl uthorities, hle finnces, supplies, shipments, publicity? The nswers those questions would crry hisry books deep in terriry socil, economic, politicl hisry, ir mutul benefit. The Project for Hisricl Biobibliogrphy t Newcstle upon Tyne Institut de Litt?rture et de Techniques Artistiques de Msse t Bordeux illustrte directions tht such interdisciplinry work hs lredy tken. The Bordeux group hs tried trce books through different distribution systems in order uncover literry experience different groups in contemporry Frnce.24 The reserchers in Newcstle hve studied diffusion process through quntittive nlysis subscription lists, which were widely used in sles cmpigns British publishers from erly seventeenth erly nineteenth centuries.25 Similr work could be done on publishers' ctlogues prospectuses, which hve been collected in reserch centers like Newberry Librry. The whole subject book dvertising needs investigtion. One could lern gret del bout ttitudes wrd books context ir use studying wy were presented? strtegy ppel, vlues invoked phrsing?in ll kinds publicity, from journl notices wll posters. Americn hisrins hve used newspper dvertisements mp spred printed word in bck reches colonil society.26 By consulting ppers publishers, could mke deeper inrods in nineteenth twentieth centuries.27 Unfortuntely, however, publishers usully tret ir rchives s grbge. Although sve occsionl letter from fmous uthor, throw wy ccount books commercil correspondence, which re usully most sources importnt informtion for book hisrin. The Center for Book in Librry Congress is now compiling guide publishers' rchives. If cn be preserved studied, might provide different on perspective whole course Americn hisry. 3. Printers. The printing shop is fr better known thn or stges in production diffusion books, becuse it hs been fvorite subject study in field nlyticl bibliogrphy, whose purpose, s defined R. B. McKerrow Philip Gskell, is " elucidte trnsmis sion texts explining processes book production."28 Bibliogrphers hve mde importnt contributions textul criticism, especilly in Shke speren scholrship, building inferences bckwrd from structure book process its printing hence n originl text, such s missing Shkespere mnuscripts. Tht line resoning hs been undercut

14 WHAT IS THE HISTORY OF BOOKS? 77 recently D. F. McKenzie.29 But even if cn never reconstruct n Ur cn Shkespere, bibliogrphers demonstrte existence different editions text different sttes n edition, necessry skill in diffusion studies. Their techniques lso mke it possible decipher records printers so hve opened up new, rchivl phse in hisry printing. Thnks work McKenzie, Leon Voet, Rymond de Roover, we now Jcques Rychner, hve cler picture how printing shops operted throughout hpress period (roughly ).30 More work needs be done on lter periods, new questions could be sked: How did printers clculte costs orgnize production, especilly fter spred job printing journlism? How did book budgets chnge fter introduction mchine-mde pper in first decde nineteenth century Linotype in 1880s? How did technologicl chnges ffect mngement lbor? And wht prt did n journeymen printers, unusully rticulte militnt secr working clss, ply in lbor hisry? Anlyticl bibliogrphy my seem rcne outsider, but it could mke gret contribution socil s well s literry hisry, especilly if it were sesoned with reding printers' mnuls ubiogrphies, beginning with those Thoms Pltter, Thoms Gent, N. E. Restif de l Brenne, Benjmin Frnklin, Chrles Mn Smith. 4. Shippers. Little is known bout wy books reched booksres from printing shops. The wgon, cnl brge, merchnt vessel, post fice, rilrod my hve influenced hisry literture more thn one would suspect. Although trnsport fcilities probbly hd little effect on trde in gret centers publishing like London Pris, sometimes determined ebb flow business in remote res. Before nineteenth century, books were usully sent in sheets, so tht cusmer could hve m bound ccording his tste his bility py. They trveled in lrge bles wrpped in hevy pper, were esily dmged rin friction ropes. Compred with commodities like textiles, ir intrinsic vlue ws slight, yet ir shipping costs were high, owing size weight sheets. So shipping ten ok up lrge proportion book's tl cost lrge plce in mrketing strtegy publishers. In mny prts Europe, printers could not count on getting shipments booksellers in August September, becuse wgoners boned ir routes work hrvests. The Bltic trde frequently ground hlt fter Ocber, becuse ice closed ports. Routes opened shut everywhere in response pressures wr, politics, even insurnce rtes. Unorthodox literture hs trveled under ground in huge quntities from sixteenth century present, so its influence hs vried ccording effectiveness smuggling industry. And or genres, like chpbooks penny dredfuls, circulted through specil distribution systems, which need much more study, lthough book hisrins re now beginning cler some ground Booksellers. Thnks some clssic studies?h. S. Bennett on erly modern Engl, L. C. Wroth on colonil Americ, H.-J. Mrtin on seventeenth century Frnce, Johnn Goldfriedrich on Germny?it is

15 78 ROBERT DARNTON possible piece ger generl picture evolution book trde.32 But more work needs be done on bookseller s culturl gent, middlemn who medited between supply dem t ir key point contct. We still do not know enough bout socil intellectul world men like Rigud, bout ir vlues tstes wy fit in ir communities. They lso operted within commercil networks, which exped collpsed like llinces in diplomtic world. Wht lws governed rise fll trde empires in publishing? A comprison ntionl hisries could revel some generl tendencies, such s centripetl force gret centers like London, Pris, Frnkfurt, Leipzig, which drew provincil houses in ir orbits, counterviling trend wrd lignments between provincil delers suppliers in independent enclves like Li?ge, Bouillon, Neuch?tel, Genev, Avignon. But re comprisons difficult, becuse trde operted through different institutions in different countries, which generted different kinds rchives. The records London Sttioners' compny, Communut? des librires et imprimeurs de Pris, Leipzig Frnkfurt book firs hve hd gret del do with different courses tht book hisry hs tken in Engl, Frnce, Germny.33 Neverless, books were sold s commodities everywhere. A more unbshedly economic study m would provide new perspective hisry literture. Jmes Brnes, John Tebbel, Fr?d?ric Brbier hve demonstrted importnce economic element in book trdes nineteenth century Engl, Americ, Frnce.34 But more work could be done?on credit mechnisms, for exmple, techniques negotiting bills exchnge, defense ginst suspensions pyment, exchnging printed sheets in lieu pyment in specie. The book trde, like or businesses during Renissnce erly modern periods, ws lrgely confidence gme, but we still do not know how it ws plyed. 6. Reders. Despite considerble literture on its psychology, phenom enology, texlogy, sociology, reding remins mysterious. How do reders mke sense on signs printed pge? Wht re socil effects tht experience? And how hs it vried? Literry scholrs like Wyne Booth, Stnley Fish, Wolfgng Iser, Wlter Ong, Jonthn Culler hve mde reding centrl concern textul criticism, becuse underst literture s n ctivity, construl mening within system communi ction, rr thn cnon texts.35 The book hisrin could mke use ir notions fictitious udiences, implicit reders, interpretive communities. But he my find ir observtions somewht time-bound. Although critics know ir wy round literry hisry ( re especilly strong on seven teenth century seem ssume Engl), tht texts hve lwys worked on sensibilities reders in sme wy. But seventeenth century London burgher inhbited different mentl universe from tht twentieth century Americn pressor. Reding itself hs over chnged time. It ws ten done loud in groups, or in secret with n we intensity my not be ble imgine dy. Crlo Ginsburg hs shown how much mening sixteenth century miller could infuse in text, Mrgret Spufford hs demonstrted

16 WHAT IS THE HISTORY OF BOOKS? 79 tht still humbler workmen fought ir wy mstery over printed word in er Areopgitic.36 Everywhere in erly modern Europe, from rnks Montigne those Menocchio, reders wrung significnce from books; did not merely decipher m. ws Reding pssion long before "Lesewut" "Werrfieber" romntic er; re is Strum und Drng in it yet, despite vogue for speed-reding mechnistic view literture s encoding decoding messges. But texts shpe response reders, however ctive my be. As Wlter Ong hs observed, opening pges The Cnterbury Tles A Frewell Arms crete frme cst reder in role, which he cnnot void no mtter wht he thinks pilgrimges civil wrs.37 In fct, s typogrphy well s style syntx determine wys in which texts convey menings. McKenzie hs shown tht bwdy, unruly Congreve erly qur editions settled down in decorous neoclssicist Works 1709 s consequence book design rr thn bowdleriztion.38 The hisry reding will hve tke ccount wys tht texts constrin reders s well s wys tht reders tke liberties with texts. The tension between those tendencies hs existed wherever men confronted books, it hd some produced extrordinry results, s in Lur's reding Pslms, Rousseu's reding Le Misnthrope, Kierkegrd's reding scrifice Isc. If it is possible recpture gret reredings pst, inner experience ordinry reders my lwys elude us. But we should t lest be ble reconstruct good del socil context reding. The debte bout silent reding during Middle Ages hs produced some impressive evidence bout reding hbits,39 studies reding societies in Germny, where n proliferted extrordinry degree in eighteenth nineteenth centuries, hve shown importnce reding in development distinct bourgeois culturl style.40 Germn scholrs hve lso done gret del in hisry librries in reception studies ll kinds.41 Following notion Rolf Engelsing, ten mintin tht reding hbits becme trnsformed t end eighteenth century. Before this "Leserevolution," reders tended work lboriously through smll number texts, especilly Bible, over over gin. Afterwrds, rced through ll kinds mteril, seeking musement rr thn edifiction. The shift from intensive extensive reding coincided with descrliztion printed word. The world begn be cluttered with reding mtter, texts begn be treted s commodities tht could be discrded s csully s yesterdy's newspper. This interprettion hs recently been disputed Reinhrt Siegert, Mrtin Welke, or younger scholrs, who hve discovered "intensive" reding in reception fugitive works like lmncs newsppers, notbly Noth und H?lfsb?chlein Rudolph Zchris Becker, n extrordinry best seller Goezeit.*2 But wher or not concept reding revolution will hold up, it hs helped lign reserch on reding with generl questions socil culturl hisry.43 The sme cn be sid reserch on litercy,44 which hs mde it possible for scholrs detect vgue outline diverse reding two publics three centuries go trce books reders t severl levels society. The lower level, more intense study. Populr literture

17 80 ROBERT DARNTON hs been fvorite pic reserch during lst decde,45 despite growing tendency question notion tht chep booklets like biblioth?que bleue n unomous represented culture common or people tht one cn distinguish clerly between strins "elite" "populr" culture. It now seems indequte view culturl s chnge liner, or trickle-down, movement influences. Currents flowed up s well s down, merging s blending went. Chrcters like Grgntu, Cinderell, Busc?n moved bck forth through orl trditions, chpbooks, sophisticted literture, chnging in s ntionlity well s genre.46 One could even trce metmorphoses sck figures in lmncs. Wht does Poor Richrd's reincrntion s le Bonhomme Richrd revel bout literry culture in Americ Frnce? And wht cn be lerned bout Germn-French reltions following Lme Messenger (der hinkende Bote, le messger boiteux) through trffic lmncs cross Rhine? Questions bout who reds wht, in wht conditions, t wht time, with wht effect, link reding studies with sociology. The book hisrin could lern how pursue such questions from work Dougls Wples, Bernrd Berelson, Pul Lzrsfeld, Pierre Bourdieu. He could drw on reding reserch tht flourished in Grdute Librry School University Chicgo from , tht still turns up in occsionl Gllup report.47 And s n exmple sociologicl strin in hisricl writing, he could consult studies reding ( nonreding) in English working clss during lst two centuries Richrd Altick, Robert Webb, Richrd Hoggrt.48 All this work opens on lrger problem how exposure printed word ffects wy men think. Did invention movble type trnsform mn's mentl universe? There my be no single stisfcry nswer tht question, becuse it bers on so mny different spects life in erly modern s Europe, Elizbeth Eisenstein hs shown.49 But it should be possible rrive t firmer understing wht books ment people. Their use in tking oths, exchnging gifts, wrding prizes, beswing legcies would provide clues ir significnce within different societies. The iconogrphy books could indicte weight ir uthority, even for illiterte lborers who st in church before pictures tblets Moses. The plce books in folklore, folk motifs in books, shows tht influences rn both wys when orl trditions cme in contct with printed texts, tht books need be studied in reltion or medi.50 The lines reserch could led in mny directions, but ll should issue ultimtely in lrger understing how printing hs shped mn's ttempts mke sense humn condition. One cn esily lose sight lrger dimensions enterprise, becuse book hisrins ten stry in esoteric wys unconnected speciliztions. Their work cn be so even frgmented, within limits literture on single country, tht it my seem hopeless conceive book s hisry single subject, be studied from cross comprtive perspective whole rnge hisricl disciplines. But books mselves do not respect limits, eir or linguistic ntionl. They hve ten been written uthors who n belonged interntionl republic letters, composed printers who

18 WHAT IS THE HISTORY OF BOOKS? 81 did not work in ir ntive ngue, sold booksellers who operted cross ntionl boundries, red in one lnguge reders who spoke nor. Books lso refuse be contined within confines single discipline when treted s objects study. Neir nor hisry literture nor economics nor nor cn sociology bibliogrphy do justice ll spects life book. By its very nture, refore, hisry books must be interntionl in scle interdisciplinry in method. But it need not lck conceptul coherence, becuse books belong circuits communiction tht operte in consistent ptterns, however complex my be. By unerthing those circuits, hisrins cn show tht books do not merely recount hisry; mke it. References!For exmples this work, see, in ddition books nmed in essy, Henri-Jen Mrtin, Livre, pouvoirs et soci?t?? Pris u XVIIe si?cle ( ) (Genev: 1969), 2 volumes; Jen Qu?nirt, VImprimerie et l libririe? Rouen u XVIIle si?cle (Pris: 1969); Ren? Moulins, U Impri merie, l libririe et l presse? Avignon u XVIIIe si?cle (Grenoble: 1974); Fr?d?ric Brbier, Trois cents ns de libririe et d'imprimerie: Berger-Levrult, (Genev: 1979), in series "Hisire et civilistion du livre," which includes severl monogrphs written long similr lines. Much French work hs ppered s rticles in Revue frn?ise d'hisire du livre. For survey field two most importnt contriburs it, see Roger Chrtier Dniel Roche, "Le livre, un chngement de perspective," Fire de l'hisire (Pris: 1974), 3, pp , Chrtier Roche, "L'Hisire quntittive du livre," Revue frn?ise d'hisire du livre 16 (1977): For symptic ssessments two Americn fellow trvelers, see Robert Drnn, "Reding, Writing, Publishing in Eighteenth-Century Frnce: A Cse Study in Sociology Literture," Dedlus, Winter 1971, pp , Rymond Birn, "Livre et soci?t? fter ten yers: formtion discipline," Studies on Voltire Eighteenth Century 151, (1976): As exmples se pproches, see Theodore Bestermn, Voltire (New York: 1969), pp ; Dniel Mornet, "Les enseignements des biblioth?ques priv?es ( )," Revue d'hisire litt?rire de l Frnce 77(1910): pp ; bibliogrphicl studies now being prepred under direction Voltire Foundtion, which will replce outdted bibliogrphy Georges Bengesco. 3The following ccount is bsed on ninety-nine letters in Rigud's dossier in ppers Soci?t? typogrphique de Neuch?tel, de l ville de Biblioth?que Neuch?tel, Switzerl (henceforth referred s STN), supplemented or relevnt mteril from vst rchives STN. 4Rigud STN, July 27, The pttern Rigud's orders is evident from his letters STN STN's "Livres de Commission," where it tbulted its orders. Rigud included ctlogues his mjor holdings in his letters June 29, 1774, My 23, Mdeleine Ventre, L'Imprimerie et l libririe en u Lnguedoc dernier si?cle de l'ancien R?gime (Pris The Hgue: 1958), p B. Andr? STN, August 22, ^Mnuel de l'uteur et du librire (Pris: 1777), p Jen-Frn?ois Fvrger STN, August 29, Theproc?s-verbl rids is in Biblioth?que Ntionle, Ms. frn?is 2207'5, fo "Fontnel STN, Mrch 6, STN Gosse Pinet, booksellers The 13STN Voltire, September 15, Hgue, April 19, This ccount is bsed on STN's correspondence with intermediries ll long its routes, notbly shipping gents Nicole Gllird Nyon Secretn De l Serve Ouchy.,5Rigud STN, August 28, Robert Drnn, The Business Enlightenment: A Publishing Hisry Encyclop?die (Cmbridge, Mss.: 1979), pp Anonymous, "Ett et description de l ville de Montpellier, fit en 1768," in en Montpellier 1768 et en 1836 d'pr?s deux mnuscrits in?dits, edited J. Berl? (Montpellier: 1909), p. 55. This rich contemporry description Montpellier is min source bove ccount. 18C. E. Lbrousse, L crise de l'?conomie frn?ise? l fin de l'ancien et u R?gime d?but de l R?volution (Pris: 1944). 19Ventre, et L'Imprimerie l libririe en Lnguedoc; Frn?ois Furet, "L 'libririe' du royume de Frnce u 18e si?cle," Livre et soci?t?, 1, pp. 3-32; Robert Estivls, L sttistique bibliogrphique de

19 82 ROBERT DARNTON l Frnce sous l monrchie u XVIIIe si?cle (Pris The Hgue: 1965). The bibliogrphicl work will be published under uspices Voltire Foundtion. 20John Lough, Writer Public in Frnce from Middle Ages Present Dy (Oxford: 1978), p For surveys selections recent Germn reserch, see Helmuth Kiesel Pul Munch, Gesellschft und Litertur im 18. Jhrhundert. Vorussetzung und Entstehung des literrischen Mrktes in Deutschl (Munich: 1977); Aufkl?rung, Absolutismus und B?rgertum in Deutschl, edited Frnklin Kopitzsch (Munich: 1976); Herbert G. G?pfert, Vom Aur zum Leser (Munich: 1978). 22Mrino Berengo, Intellettuli e libri nell Milno dell Resturzione (Turin: 1980). On whole, however, French version hisire du livre hs received less enthusistic reception in Itly thn in Germny: see Furio Diz, "M?do quntittivo e sri delle idee," Rivist sric itlin 78 (1966): A. S. Collins, Authorship in Dys Johnson (London: 1927) The Pression Letters ( ) (London: 1928). For more recent work, see John Fer, "John Nourse His Authors," Studies in Bibliogrphy 34 (1981): Robert Escrpit, Le litt?rire et le socil. El?ments pour une sociologie de l litt?rture (Pris: 1970). 25Peter John Wllis, The Socil Index. A New Technique for Mesuring Socil Trends (Newcstle upon Tyne: 1978). 26Willim Gilmore is now n completing extensive reserch on project diffusion books in colonil New Engl. On politicl economic spects colonil press, see " Stephen Botein, 'Meer Mechnics' n Open Press: The Business Politicl Strtegies Colonil Americn Printers," Perspectives in Americn Hisry 9 (1975): ; The Press Americn Revolution, edited Bernrd Bilyn John B. Hench (Worcester, Msschusetts: 1980), which contin mple references work on erly hisry book in Americ. 27For generl survey work on lter hisry books in this country, see Hellmut Lehmnn-Hupt, The Book in Americ (New York: revised edition, 1952). 28Philip Gskell, A New Introduction Bibliogrphy (New York Oxford: 1972), prefce. Gskell's work n provides excellent generl survey subject. 29D. F. McKenzie, "Printers Mind: Some Notes on Bibliogrphicl Theories Printing House Prctices," Studies in Bibliogrphy 22 (1969): (,D. F. McKenzie, The Cmbridge University Press (Cmbridge: 1966), 2 volumes; Leon Voet, The Golden Compsses (Amsterdm: ), 2 volumes; Rymond de Roover, "The Business Orgniztion Plntin Press in Setting Sixteenth-Century Antwerp," De gulden psser 24 (1956): ; Jcques Rychner, "A l'ombre des Lumi?res: coup d'oeil sur l min-d'oeuvre de quelques imprimeries du XVIIIe si?cle," Studies on Voltire Eighteenth Century, 155 (1976): "Running Printing House in Eighteenth-Century Switzerl: Workshop Soci?t? typogrphique de Neuch?tel," The Librry, sixth series, 1 (1979): ,For see exmple, J.-P. Belin, Le commerce des livres prohib?s? Pris de 1750? 1789 (Pris: 1913); Jen-Jcques Drmon, Le colportge de libririe en Frnce sous le second empire (Pris: 1972); Reinhrt Siegert, Aufkl?rung und Volkslekt?re n exemplrisch drgestellt Rudolph hchr?s Becker und seinem 'Noth und H?lfsb?chlein' mit einer Bibliogrphie zum Gesmtm (Frnkfurt m Min: 1978). 32H. S. Bennett, English Books & Reders (Cmbridge: 1952) English Books & Reders (Cmbridge: 1965); L. C. Wroth, The Colonil Printer (Portl: 1938); H.-J. Mrtin, Livre, pouvoirs et soci?t?; Johnn Goldfriedrich Friedrich Kpp, Geschichte des Deutschen Buchhels (Leipzig: ), 4 volumes. 33Compre Cyprin Blgden, The Sttioners' Compny, A Hisry, (Cmbridge: 1960); Mrtin, Livre, pouvoirs et soci?t?; Rudolf Jentzsch, Der deutsch-lteinische B?chermrkt nch den Leipziger Ostermessktlogen von 1740, 1770 und 1800 in seiner Gliederung und Wlung (Leipzig: 1912). 34Jmes Brnes, Free Trde in Books: A Study London Book Trde Since 1800 (Oxford: 1964); John Tebbel, A Hisry Book Publishing in United Sttes (New York: ), 3 volumes; Fr?d?ric Brbier, Trois cents ns de libririe et d'imprimerie. 35See, for exmple, Wolfgng Iser, The Implied Reder. Ptterns Communiction in Prose Fiction from Bunyn Beckett (Bltimore: 1974); Stnley Fish, Self-Consuming Artifcts: The Experience Seventeenth-Century Literture (Berkeley Los Angeles: 1972) Is There Text in This Clss? The Authority Interpretive Communities (Cmbridge, Msschusetts: 1980); Wlter Ong, "The Writer's Audience Is Alwys Fiction," PMLA (Publiction Modern Lnguge Assocition Americ) 90 (1975): 9-21; for smpling or vritions on se mes, Susn R. Suleimn Inge Crosmn, The Reder in Text: Essys on Audience Interprettion (Princen, New Jersey: Princen University Press 1980). 36Crlo Ginzburg, The Cheese Worms. The Cosmos Sixteenth-Century Miller (Bltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1980); Mrgret Spufford, "First steps in litercy: reding writing experiences humblest seventeenth-century spiritul ubiogrphers," Socil Hisry, Ong, "The Writer's Audience Is Alwys Fiction."

20 WHAT IS THE HISTORY OF BOOKS? 83 38D. F. McKenzie, "Typogrphy Mening: The Cse Willim Congreve," Wolfenb?tteler zur Schriften Geschichte des Buchwesens, volume 4 (Hmburg: Dr. Ernst Huswedell & Co., 1981), pp See Pul Senger, "Silent Reding: Its Impct on Lte Medievl Script Society," forthcoming in Vir. ^'See Lesegesellschften und b?rgerliche Emnziption. Ein europ?ischer Vergleich, edited Ot Dnn (Munich: C. H. Beck, 1981), which hs thorough bibliogrphy. 4,For exmples recent work, see?ffentliche und Privte Biblioken im 17. und 18. Jhrhundert: Rrit?tenkmmern, Forschungsinstrumente oder Bildungsst?tten? edited Pul Rbe (Bremen Wolfenb?ttel, 1977). Much stimulus for recent reception studies hs come from oreticl work Hns Robert Juss, notbly Literturgeschichte ls Provoktion (Frnkfurt m Min: 1970). 42Engelsing, Anlphbetentum und Lekt?re. Zur Sozilgeschichte des Lesens in Deutschl zwischen feudler und industrieller Gesellschft (Stuttgrt: 1973) Der B?rger ls Leser. Lesergeschichte in Deutschl (Stuttgrt: 1974); Reinhrt Siegert, Aufkl?rung und Volkslekt?re; Mrtin Welke, "Gemeinsme Lekt?re und fr?he Formen von Gruppenbildungen im 17. und 18. Jhrhundert: Zeitungslesen in Deutschl," m Lesegesellschften und b?rgerliche Emnziption, pp As n exmple this lignment, see Rudolf Schend, Volk ohne Buch (Frnkfurt m Min: 1970), for exmples more recent work, Leser und Lesen im Achtzehntes Jhrhundert, edited Riner Gruenter (Heidelberg: 1977) Lesen und Leben, edited Herbert G. G?pfert (Frnkfurt m Min: 1975). "See Frn?ois Furet Jcques Ozouf, Lire et?crire: l'lphb?tistion des Frn?is de Clvin? Jules Ferry (Pris: 1978); Lwrence Sne, "Litercy Eduction in Engl, ," Pst Present 42 ( 1969): ; Dvid Cressy, Litercy Socil Order: Reding Writing in Tudor Sturt Engl (Cmbridge: 1980); Kenneth A. Lockridge, Litercy in Colonil New Engl (New York: 1974); Crlo Cipoll, Litercy Development in West (Hrmondsworth: 1969). 45For survey synsis this reserch, see Peter Burke, Populr Culture in Erly Modern Europe (New York: 1978). 46As n exmple older view in which biblioth?que bleue serves s key understing populr culture, see Robert Mrou, De l culture ux populire XVHe et XVIIIe si?cles. L Biblioth?que bleue de Troyes (Pris: 1964). For more nunced up--dte view, see Roger Chrtier, Figures de l gueuserie (Pris: 1982). 47 Dougls Wples, Bernrd Berelson, Frnklyn Brdshw, Wht Reding Does People (Chicgo: 1940); Bernrd Berelson, The Librry's Public (New York: 1949); Elihu Ktz, "Communiction Reserch Imge Society: The Convergence Two Trditions," Americn Journl 65 Sociology (1960): ; Reding in Americ 1978, edited John Y. Cole Crol S. Gold (Wshingn, D.C.: 1979). For Gllup report, see volume published Americn Librry Assocition, Book Reding Librry Usge: A Study Hbits Perceptions (Chicgo: 1978). Much in this older vriety sociology still seems vlid, it cn be studied in conjunction with current work Pierre Bourdieu; see especilly his L distinction. Critique socile du jugement (Pris: 1979). 48Richrd D. Altick, The English Common Reder: A Socil Hisry Mss Reding Public (Chicgo: 1957); Robert K. Webb, The British Working Clss Reder (London: 1955); Richrd Hoggrt, The Uses Litercy (Hrmondsworth: 1960; 1st edition, 1957). 49Elisbeth L. Eisenstein, The Printing Press s n Agent Chnge (Cmbridge: 1979), 2 volumes. For discussion Eisenstein's sis, see Anthony T. Grfn, "The Importnce Being Printed," Journl Interdisciplinry Hisry 11 (1980): ; Michel Hunter, "The Impct Print," The Book Collecr 28 (1979): ; Roger Chrtier, "L'Ancien R?gime typogrphique: R?flexions sur quelques trvux r?cents," Annles. Economies, soci?t?s, civilistions, 36 (1981): Some se generl mes re tken up in Eric Hvelock, Origins Western Litercy (Toron: 1976); Litercy in Trditionl Societies, edited Jck Goody (Cmbridge: 1968); Jck Goody, The Domestiction Svge Mind (Cmbridge: 1977); Wlter Ong, The Presence Word (New York: 1970); Ntlie Z. Dvis, Society Culture in Erly Modern Frnce (Stnford: Stnford University Press, 1975).