Uses Examples Adverbs of frequency / Time

Transcription

1 Grammar Review FORM present simple Affirmative Negative Interrogative I / You go I / You do not (don t) go Do I / you go? He / She / It goes He / She / It does not (doesn t) go Does he / she / it go? We / You / They go We / You / They do not (don t) go Do we / you / they go? Uses Examples Adverbs of frequency / Time A regular habit or routine A general truth or scientific fact Stative verbs Janet often goes to the library. (Jane vai a miúdo á biblioteca.) Most British people don t speak any foreign languages. (A maior parte dos británicos non falan ningunha lingua estranxeira.) This cake tastes wonderful. (Esta torta sabe marabillosamente.) expressions always, usually, occasionally, frequently, often, sometimes, rarely, seldom, never once a month, every week, in the morning, at three o clock, on Mondays, at night, how often? FORM present continuous Affirmative Negative Interrogative I am working I am (I m) not working Am I working? You are working You are not (aren t) working Are you working? He / She / It is working He / She / It is not (isn t) working Is he / she / it working? We / You / They are working We / You / They are not (aren t) working Are we / you / they working? An action which is happening now A temporary action Uses Examples Time expressions A definite plan for the near future Mum is working at the moment. (Mamá está a traballar neste momento.) My friends are learning Italian this year. (Os meus amigos están a aprender italiano este ano.) I m meeting Martin tonight. (Atopei a Martin esta noite.) now, right now, at the moment today, these days, this year, at present tonight, tomorrow, this afternoon, next Sunday / week / month stative verbs Son verbos que expresan estados máis que accións e polo tanto adoitan empregarse en Present Simple, non en Continuous. Están relacionados con: os gustos e os sentimentos (dislike, hate, hope, like, love, prefer, want) a mente e o pensamento (believe, forget, guess, know, remember, think, understand) os prezos e as medidas (cost, weigh, measure) a percepción e os sentidos (feel, hear, see, smell, sound, taste, touch) a posesión (belong, have, own). []

2 Algúns poden indicar estado e actividade e empregarse na forma simple e na continua. Por exemplo think. Donna thinks the book is wonderful. (Dona cre/opina que o libro é marabilloso.) He is thinking about going to Ireland in the summer. (Está a pensar en ir a Irlanda no verán.) FORM past simple Affirmative Negative Interrogative I / You finished I / You did not (didn t) finish Did I / you finish? He / She / It finished He / She / It did not (didn t) finish Did he / she / it finish? We / You / They finished We / You / They did not (didn t) finish Did we / you / they finish? Uses Examples Time expressions A completed action in the past I finished lunch late yesterday. (Acabei de comer tarde onte.) yesterday, last year, two days ago, in 2004, when, then FORM past continuous Affirmative Negative Interrogative I was writing I was not (wasn t) writing Was I writing? You were writing You were not (weren t) writing Were you writing? He / She / It was writing He / She / It was not (wasn t) writing Was he / she / it writing? We / You / They were writing We / You / They were not (weren t) writing Were we / you / they writing? Uses Examples Time expressions An incomplete action in progress at a specific time in the past An incomplete action interrupted by another action At 10 o clock last night, I was writing an to my friend Rose. (As dez en punto desta noite, eu estaba a escribirlle un correo electrónico á miña amiga Rose.) He was watching TV when I called. (Estaba a ver televisión cando eu chamei.) last night / week / year, at nine o clock when, while, as Two incomplete actions in progress at the same time in the past Last year he was teaching English while he was studying at university. (O ano pasado estaba ensinando inglés mentres estudaba na universidade.) FORM present perfect simple Affirmative Negative Interrogative I / You have lived I / You have not (haven't) lived Have I / you lived? He / She / It has lived He / She / It has not (hasn't) lived Has he / she / it lived? We / You / They have lived We / You / They have not (haven't) lived Have we / you / they lived? Uses Examples Time expressions An action that began in the past and continues in the present An action that took place at an undetermined time in the past and has importance in the present I have lived in London for two years. (Vivín en Londres dous anos.) How long have you been in the shop? (Canto tempo estiveches na tenda.) We have recently moved house. (Mudámonos de casa hai pouco.) I m not hungry, thanks. I ve already had dinner. (Non teño fame, grazas. Xa ceei.) for, since, how long...?, ever, never, recently, lately, yet, just, already []

3 FORM past perfect simple Affirmative Negative Interrogative I / You had stopped I / You had not (hadn't) stopped Had I / you stopped? He / She / It had stopped He / She / It had not (hadn't) stopped Had he / she / it stopped? We / You / They had stopped We / You / They had not (hadn't) stopped Had we / you / they stopped? Uses Examples Time expressions A completed action which took place before another action in the past The rain had already stopped before I left. (A chuvia xa parara antes de marchar.) By the time she arrived, he had already gone home. (Cando ela chegou, el xa marchara da casa.) already, by the time, after, before, until, never, just FORM future simple Affirmative Negative Interrogative I / You will come I / You will not (won t) come Will I / you come? He / She / It will come He / She / It will not (won t) come Will he / she / it come? We / You / They will come We / You / They will not (won t) come Will we / you / they come? A prediction Uses Examples Time expressions Don't shout. I'm sure the teacher will come in a minute. (Non berres. Estou seguro de que o profesor virá nun minuto.) A timetable Dr Brown will see the patient at (O Dr. Brown atenderá ao paciente ás cinco.) A spontaneous decision There is no meat left. Then I will have fish for lunch. (Non queda carne. Logo tomarei peixe para comer.) this evening, later, next month, soon, at eleven o clock, in an hour, tomorrow, in a few weeks, on 8th May, in the future FORM be going to Affirmative Negative Interrogative I am going to study I am not going to study Am I going to study? You are going to study You are not (aren t) going to study Are you going to study? He / She / It is going to study He / She / It is not (isn t) going to study Is he / she / it going to study? We / You / They are going to study We / You / They are not (aren t) going to study Are we / you / they going to study? Uses Examples Time expressions A planned action for the future An action that is about to happen Paul is going to study medicine next year. (Paul vai estudar medicina o ano vindeiro.) Be careful! The dog is going to bite you. (Ten coidado! O can vai trabarte.) this evening, later, next month / year, soon, at eleven o clock, in an hour, tomorrow, in a few weeks, on 8th May, in the future []

4 Present Continuous con valor de FUTURo Chámase dese xeito porque anuncia accións fixadas ou acordadas de antemán que ocorrerán no futuro próximo. My parents are arriving tomorrow afternoon. (Meus pais chegan / chegarán mañá pola tarde.) We are having lunch in an hour. (Comemos / Comeremos nunha hora.) Na práctica, este presente con valor de futuro emprégase case que igual que be going to pois apenas hai diferenza entre eles. O único que os distingue é que o Present Continuous se reserva máis para proxectos persoais. Como é lóxico, o Present Continuous con valor de futuro distínguese do Present Continuous normal porque as expresións temporais que o acompañan sinalan un tempo futuro e non presente. Nicole is coming to study with me later. (Logo virá Nicole estudar comigo. / Nicole vén logo para estudar comigo.) I m seeing the doctor on Thursday. (Xoves verei ao médico [xa teño a citación].) FORM future perfect Affirmative Negative Interrogative I / You will have finished I / You will not (won t) have finished Will I / you have finished? He / She / It will have finished He / She / It will not (won t) have finished Will he / she / it have finished? We / You / They will have finished We / You / They will not (won t) have finished Will we / you / they have finished? Uses Examples Time expressions A completed action at a certain future time Patients will have finished their treatment in two months. (Os pacientes terán rematado o seu tratamento en dous meses.) by this time next week, by ten o clock, by the end of..., by then, by August, in two months / years... FORM future CONTINUOUS Affirmative Negative Interrogative I / You will be flying I / You will not (won t) be flying Will I / you be flying? He / She / It will be flying He / She / It will not (won t) be flying Will he / she / it be flying? We / You / They will be flying We / You / They will not (won t) be flying Will we / you / they be flying? Uses Examples Time expressions An action in progress at a certain time in the future At this time tomorrow, Jack and Brian will be flying to Manchester. (Mañá a esta hora, Jack e Brian estarán a voar cara a Manchester.) at this time tomorrow, at this time next..., on Thursday, in six months time, in the next decade []

5 unit 1 are you mobile? as oracións de relativo DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES Uses who and that refer to people which and that refer to objects when and that refer to a moment in time where refers to a particular place whose refers to possession Uses who, which, when, where, whose can all be used, but that cannot be used Examples People who / that send many text messages have got larger thumbs. (A xente que envía moitas mensaxes de texto ten os polgares máis grandes.) This is the new mobile phone (which / that) I ve just bought. (Este é o novo teléfono móbil que veño de mercar.) It was in 1973 when / that the mobile phone was invented. (Foi en 1973 cando se inventou o teléfono móbil.) Japan is a country where people are very sensitive to noise. (Xapón é un país onde a xente é moi sensíbel ao ruído.) He s the boy whose book I found in the cafeteria. (El é o rapaz cuxo libro atopei na cafetaría.) NON-DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES Examples My brother, who is an engineer, designs computers. (O meu irmán, que é enxeñeiro, deseña ordenadores.) This MP3 player, which is rather old, has got poor sound quality. (Este reprodutor de MP3, que é bastante antigo, ten unha pobre cualidade de son.) Son oracións subordinadas adxectivas introducidas por un pronome ou un adverbio relativo, e hainas de dous tipos: defining (especificativas) e non-defining (explicativas). Defining Relative Clauses As especificativas achegan información tan esencial sobre o seu antecedente que sen elas a frase quedaría incompleta. As máis comúns comezan cos pronomes who, which e that, que se poden omitir sempre e cando non sexan o suxeito da oración subordinada. It was Mike who called. (Foi Mike quen chamou.) Who refírese só a persoas e which a cousas, pero that pode referirse a persoas e a cousas. She is the girl (who / that) I want to meet. (Ela é a rapaza que quero coñecer.) I did not get the (which / that) you sent. (Non recibín o que me mandaches.) Whose xamais se pode omitir nin substituír por that. This is a book whose author is unknown. (Este é un libro cuxo autor é descoñecido.) Whom emprégase logo das preposicións, pero adoita omitirse e pásase a preposición logo do verbo. The man to whom I talked was very rude. The man I talked to was very rude. (O home co que falei era moi groseiro.) What só se emprega cando o antecedente está omitido. I don't know what to do. (Non sei qué facer.) Os adverbios relativos son when, where e why. When pódese omitir ou substituír por that. I won t forget the day (when / that) I met her. (Non esquecerei o día en que a coñecín.) Where xamais se pode omitir nin substituír por that. I visited the area where all the trendy shops are. (Visitei a zona onde están todas as tendas de moda.) Why pódese omitir ou substituír por that. Tell us the reason (why / that) you ran away. (Dinos a razón pola que escapaches.) Non-defining Relative Clauses As explicativas engaden información extra sobre o seu antecedente, por iso van entre vírgulas. Fórmanse con who, which, when, where e whose mais nunca con that e ademais non se pode omitir o relativo. Jack, who is English, works for a French firm. (Jack, que é inglés, traballa nunha empresa francesa.) London, where Kim was born, is a great city. (Londres, onde naceu Kim, é unha cidade fantástica.) Son moi formais polo que non se empregan no inglés falado. []

6 VERB collocations Algúns verbos van seguidos de certas palabras que só se asocian con eles e forman expresións denominadas collocations. Son moi habituais no inglés coloquial e convén aprendelas de memoria. Por exemplo: run an errand (facer un recado) run a temperature (ter febre) run in the family (ser cousa de / vir de familia) break a habit (deixar un hábito) break a record (superar unha marca) break the law (infrinxir a lei) No glosario podes atopar outras máis formadas cos verbos run e break. IDIOMS Son modismos ou frases feitas que se foron formando ao longo do tempo e que teñen un sentido figurado. A maioría das persoas que falan unha mesma lingua coñécenos e enténdenos; mais cando se trata dunha lingua estranxeira a cousa é outra, pois ás veces o seu significado non ten nada que ver co significado individual das palabras que os forman. Por exemplo: speak one's mind (falar claro, dicir o que se pensa) like talking to the wall (como falarlle á parede) straight from the horse's mouth (de primeira man) not breathe a word (non dicir unha palabra) can t get a word in edgeways (non poder dicir nada / non deixarlle falar a un/unha) be all ears (ser todo ouvidos) beat about the bush (andar con voltas) unit 2 remember when... FORM present perfect continuous Affirmative Negative Interrogative I / You have been working I / You have not been working Have I / you been working? He / She / It has been working He / She / It has not been working Has he / she / it been working? We / You / They have been working We / You / They have not been working Have we / you / they been working? Uses Examples Time expressions An action that started in the past and which continues in the present An action whose results are still apparent I have been working in London for a year. (Leva traballando en Londres un ano.) How long have you been waiting? (Canto tempo levas a esperar?) I am tired. I have been driving all night. (Estou canso. Levo a conducir toda a noite.) for a year, since 2002, how long...? all night / morning / day / week... Forma Afirmativa: o Present Perfect Continuous ( Estiven traballando, etc.) fórmase con have / has been + un verbo na forma ing. Negativa: engádese not a have / has ou empregamos as formas contraídas haven't e hasn't. Interrogativa: nas preguntas cómpre poñer o suxeito entre o auxiliar have / has e o participio been. Usos Expresar accións que comezaron no pasado e que aínda continúan. Como o Present Perfect Continuous resalta o tempo que está a durar a acción, adoitamos traducilo por levar en presente + un verbo en xerundio ou a + infinitivo ( Levo traballando / a traballar... ). Expresar accións rematadas mais recentemente cuxos efectos son visíbeis aínda. As expresións temporais empregadas con este tempo verbal cómpre que indiquen un período, non un intre concreto. []

7 FORM past perfect continuous Affirmative Negative Interrogative I / You had been waiting I / You had not been waiting Had I / you been waiting? He / She / It had been waiting He / She / It had not been waiting Had he / she / it been waiting? We / You / They had been waiting We / You / They had not been waiting Had we / you / they been waiting? Uses Examples Time expressions An action which continued up to another past action He had been waiting for ten minutes when she arrived. (El estivera a esperar dez minutos cando ela chegou.) for hours, since last April, all morning..., when, until, before... Forma Afirmativa: O Past Perfect Continuous ( Estivera a esperar, etc.) é igual en todas as persoas: had been + un verbo na forma ing. Negativa: Engadimos not a had ou empregamos hadn't. Interrogativa: Poñemos had diante do suxeito. Usos Falar dunha acción prolongada que ocorreu no pasado antes que outra acción curta tamén pasada. É moi común traducilo como levar en pretérito pluscuamperfecto + un verbo en xerundio ou a + infinitivo. I had been looking for a job for months until finally I found one. (Levaba meses procurando / a procurar traballo até que por fin atopei un.) O habitual é que esas dúas accións vaian unidas por unha conxunción, que pode ser temporal como as que hai no cadro da páxina anterior (when, until, before), concesiva (although) ou causal (because). The child got ill because he had been playing outside in such cold weather. (O neno enfermou porque estivera a xogar fóra co frío que ía.) o xerundio e o infinitivo O xerundio En inglés non é a forma en ing empregada nos tempos continuos, senón a que funciona coma un substantivo. Por iso podemos atopalo: como suxeito, falando de feitos en xeral. Being a student in the 1950s was not easy. (Ser estudante nos anos cincuenta non era doado.) como obxecto directo dalgúns verbos. continue like / dislike prefer enjoy love / hate recommend finish miss suggest He enjoys doing sport. (Gústalle facer / Goza facendo deporte.) Logo das preposicións. We talked about going on holiday together in July. (Falamos de marchar xuntos de vacacións en xullo.) Logo destas formas verbais: can t help be / get used to can t stand look forward to feel like spend (time) it s no use don t mind / would mind We spent the afternoon watching films. (Pasamos a tarde vendo películas.) Would you mind closing the window, please? (Importaríache pechar a ventá, por favor?) O infinitivo É a forma base do verbo precedida de to e úsase deste xeito: Como suxeito, falando dun feito concreto. To leave now would be a mistake. (Marchar agora sería un erro.) Logo de verbos como: agree expect plan appear / seem hope promise choose learn refuse decide manage want / wish Did you manage to finish your project on time? (Puideches rematar o teu traballo a tempo?) Detrás dalgúns adxectivos (busy, happy, ready, tired...) e adverbios (slowly, fast, low, high...). I am too tired to go out. (Estou cansa de máis para saír.) He ran too slowly to win the race. (Correu despacio de máis para gañar a carreira.) detrás do obxecto indirecto de verbos como advise, invite, tell, warn, teach ou persuade. She persuaded me to join the team. (Ela convenceume para que entrase no equipo.) Algúns verbos de percepción (hear, feel, see...), let e make van seguidos de verbos na forma base (sen to). I saw Jim leave the office. (Vin a Jim saír da oficina.) []

8 My parents don t let me stay out late. (Meus pais non me deixan saír até tarde.) Verbos seguidos de xerundio e de infinitivo Verbos como begin, propose, forbid, intend ou start poden ir con xerundio ou infinitivo e significan o mesmo. I started to use / using the Internet about two years ago. (Comecei a usar Internet hai uns dous anos.) Mais stop, remember, regret e forget non significan o mesmo se van seguidos dun xerundio ou dun infinitivo. Stop + xerundio significa deixar un hábito. My father stopped smoking last month. (Meu pai deixou de fumar o mes pasado.) Stop + infinitivo significa interromper unha acción para facer outra cousa. Can we stop to have some coffee? (Podemos parar para tomarmos café?) Remember + xerundio refírese a algo pasado. I don t remember talking to her before. (Non lembro ter falado con ela antes.) Remember + infinitivo refírese ao futuro e emprégase para dicirlle a alguén. Remember to call Jane before you go. (Lembra chamar a Jane antes de marchares.) Regret + xerundio significa laiarse de algo pasado. He regrets breaking up with Helen. (Arrepíntese de ter roto con Helen.) Regret + infinitivo anuncia unha mala noticia. I regret to tell you that we can t accept your proposal. (Lamento dicirlle que non podemos aceptar a súa proposta.) Forget + xerundio indica que esquecemos algo que fixemos no pasado. I forgot seeing that film. (Esquecín que vira esa película.) Forget + infinitivo significa esquecer facer algo. I forgot to tell you. (Esquecín dicircho.) Don t forget to lock the door. (Non esquezas pechar a porta con chave.) phrasal verbs Os phrasal verbs, ou verbos con partícula, chámanse así porque van seguidos dunha preposición, un adverbio ou as dúas cousas, formando con elas unha palabra nova. Por exemplo, come significa vir, mais come in significa entrar e come down, baixar ; stand significa estar a pé pero stand up, erguerse / pórse en pé. In the past, students stood up when the teacher came into the classroom. (Antes, os alumnos poñíanse en pé cando o profesor entraba na clase.) En casos como os amentados é doado adiviñar o que significa o phrasal verb, mais a maioría das veces non é así pois teñen un significado moi distinto do que poderiamos agardar considerando as palabras que os forman. Por exemplo: come across (atopar por casualidade) come down on (rifar, botar unha reprimenda a) Hai phrasal verbs transitivos e intransitivos, e os transitivos poden ser separábeis e inseparábeis. Os separábeis permiten intercalar o obxecto directo entre o verbo e a partícula, mentres que cos inseparábeis non se pode facer iso. I was cleaning my room when I came across these pictures. (Estaba a limpar o meu cuarto cando atopei estas fotos.) No exemplo anterior o obxecto directo vai detrás do phrasal verb e non en medio porque come across é inseparábel. (Non se pode dicir *...when I came these pictures across.) Na unidade 2 vense os phrasal verbs máis comúns formados cos verbos come e stand. Repara nos seus significados na listaxe que hai na páxina 22. OS sufixos Os sufixos son terminacións que engadimos a algunhas palabras para formarmos outras novas. Sufixos para formaren substantivos Para formarmos substantivos a partir de verbos empregamos os sufixos ment, tion / sion e er / or. agree (acordar) invite (convidar) conclude (concluír) drive (conducir) act (actuar) agreement (acordo) invitation (invitación) conclusion (conclusión) driver (condutor) actor (actor) Tamén se forman substantivos engadindo os sufixos ity, ship, ness e ence / ance a algúns adxectivos, substantivos ou verbos. personal (persoal) friend (amigo/a) happy (feliz) obedient (obediente) annoy (amolar) Sufixos para formaren adxectivos personality (personalidade) friendship (amizade) happiness (felicidade) obedience (obediencia) annoyance (molestia) Os sufixos ed e ing engádense aos verbos para formaren adxectivos. Os adxectivos rematados en ed describen como se sente un/unha e os rematados en ing, o que fai que un/unha se sinta así. amaze (sorprender) amazed (sorprendido/a) amazing (sorprendente) Os suxijos ful e less engádense a algúns substantivos e axudan a saber o significado dos adxectivos resultantes, pois ful significa con e less sen. care (coidado) careful (coidadoso/a) careless (descoidado/a) []

9 Por último, tamén se forman adxectivos engadindo os sufixos ous, al, able, ive e ant / ent a algúns substantivos e verbos. danger (perigo) dangerous (perigoso/a) nation (nación) national (nacional) predict (predicir) attract (atraer) resist (resistir) confide (confiar) predictable (predicíbel) attractive (atractivo/a) resistant (resistente) confident (seguro/a de si mesmo) unit 3 crazy english os modais FORM Modal Examples Time expressions can Mary can swim very fast. (Mary pode nadar moi rápido.) Ability Can you call me tonight? (Podes chamarme á noite?) I can meet you later. (Podo verte máis tarde.) Request Possibility be able to can t could I was able to finish my homework on time. (Fun quen de rematar os deberes a tempo.) I can t eat a whole cake by myself. (Non podo comer unha torta enteira eu só.) You can t drive without a licence. (Non podes conducir sen permiso.) That can t be the price it s much too cheap! (Ese non pode ser o prezo: é demasiado barato!) She could run fast when she was a child. (Ela podía correr rápido cando era unha nena.) Could you help me with the suitcases? (Podería axudarme coas maletas?) You could exercise and eat healthier food. (Poderías facer exercicio e comer comida máis sa.) Mark could join us at the cinema. (Mark podería unirse a nós no cinema.) Ability Inability Prohibition Disbelief Past ability Polite request Polite suggestion Possibility may / might It may / might rain tomorrow. (Podería chover / Poida que chova mañá.) Possibility may May I join this team? (Podo incorporarme a este equipo?) Polite request would Would you open the window, please? (Poderías abrir a ventá, por favor?) Formal request Would you like something to drink? (Que queres para beber?) Offer must You must bring your books to class. (Debes traer os teus libros á clase.) Obligation, strong necessity She s got a great job. She must be very happy. (Ela conseguiu un gran traballo. Debe de estar moi feliz.) Certainty that something is true have to I have to buy the tickets today. (Teño que comprar as entradas hoxe.) Obligation, necessity need to I need to buy the tickets today. (Teño que preparar a cea esta noite.) Obligation, necessity needn t You needn t bring anything to the party. (Non tes que traer nada á festa.) Lack of necessity []

10 don t have to I don t have to get up early tomorrow. (Non teño que erguerme cedo mañá.) Lack of necessity mustn t You mustn t exceed the speed limit. (Non podes exceder o límite de velocidade.) Prohibition should / ought to You should / ought to improve your pronunciation. (Debes mellorar a túa pronuncia.) Advice, opinion shall Shall I help you with your luggage? (Podo axudarlle coa súa equipaxe?) Offer, suggestion Os modais son verbos especiais que teñen estes trazos: son invariábeis, isto é, iguais en todas as persoas; non precisan do para formaren a negativa nin a interrogativa; sempre van seguidos dun verbo na forma base, e non teñen infinitivo, participio nin futuro, formas en ing nin tempos compostos. Be able to e have to son semimodais, pois pódense conxugar, e need to non é un modal, mais os tres se incluíron no cadro pois comparten algúns usos dos modais: habelencia, obriga e necesidade. can / be able to / can t Can ten os seguintes usos: Expresarmos habelencia ou capacidade (saber / poder) Facermos pedimentos, dar e pedir permiso Indicar posibilidade. + Tamén se emprega para facermos suxestións. You can eat ravioli if you like pasta. (Podes comer raviolis se che gusta a pasta.) Be able to expresa habilidade como can e úsase en todos os tempos verbais que can non ten. Can t, ademais de significar imposibilidade no presente, emprégase para expresar: falta de habelencia (non saber) ou de capacidade (non poder) prohibición dedución negativa ou certeza de que algo é imposíbel. could É o pasado de can e emprégase para expresar: habelencia ou capacidade no pasado. pedimentos máis educados ca con can. suxestións menos directas ca con can. posibilidade máis afastada ca con can. may / might Os dous expresan posibilidade, aínda que máis remota que con might. En interrogativa, may é unha forma educada de pedir algunha cousa; os pedimentos que comezan por May I have poden se traducir por Dásme? ou Dáme vostede? would En interrogativa é unha maneira formal de pedirlle a alguén que faga algo; co verbo like emprégase para facer ofrecementos ou invitacións. must / have to Os dous expresan obriga, pero must só se emprega en presente e have to nos demais tempos. As persoas de autoridade empregan must, mentres que have to o emprega todo o mundo para dicir o que ten que facer. Must tamén se emprega para expresarmos unha dedución lóxica sobre un feito presente (deber de, ter que). need to / needn t Need to non é un modal, mais emprégase en afirmativa o mesmo que have to para expresar obriga e necesidade. Needn t en troques, si é un modal e indica ausencia de obriga e necesidade, o mesmo don t have to. mustn t / don t have to Mustn t indica prohibición. En troques, don t have to significa non ter que ou non ter por que, isto é, ausencia de obriga e de necesidade, como needn t. should / ought to Os dous expresan consello ou opinión, mais should emprégase moito máis (ought to é moi estraño en negativa e interrogativa). shall Emprégase en interrogativa para se ofrecer a facer algo e para facer unha suxestión. + Indica usos adicionais aos presentados no cadro. [10]

11 os modais perfectos must have Modal Perfect Examples Uses may / might have could have couldn t have would have should / ought to have shouldn t have needn t have Rob has arrived late. He must have been in a traffic jam. (Rob chegou tarde. Debe de ter estado nun embotellamento de tráfico.) She may / might have taken the wrong bus. (Ela pode ter collido un autobús errado.) You could have asked the doctor before taking that medicine. (Podías ter preguntado ao médico antes de tomar esa medicina.) He couldn t have gone to the concert because he was doing a test. (Non puido ter ido ao concerto pois estaba a facer unha proba.) I would have gone to the party, but I was too busy. (Eu tería ido á festa, pero estaba atarefado de maís.) You should / ought to have warned me earlier. (Deberías terme avisado máis cedo.) He shouldn t have forgotten about her birthday. (El non debería ter esquecido o seu cumpreanos.) You needn t have brought anything to my party. (Non tiñas que ter traído nada á miña festa.) Certainty that something was true A guess about a past action Ability to do something in the past which in the end was not done Certainty that something did not happen Desire to do something in the past which in fact could not be done Criticism or regret after an event Criticism or regret after an event An unnecessary past action must have + participio Expresa unha conclusión lóxica sobre un feito pasado. may / might have + participio Emprégase para facer unha suposición sobre algo pasado. could have + participio Sinala que se puido ter feito algo no pasado mais que finalmente non se levou a cabo. couldn t have + participio Expresa a certeza de que algo non ocorreu. would have + participio Sinala que se quixo ter feito algo no pasado mais que non se puido debido a factores ou causas externas. should / ought to have + participio Con ambos os dous podemos laiarnos do ocorrido e de que non pasara o que quixeramos. shouldn t have + participio Expresa unha opinión crítica sobre un feito pasado, sinalando que non debería ter ocorrido. needn t have + participio Sinala que non existía necesidade de facer o que se fixo. SHOULD / HAD BETTER Xa viches que should se emprega para decir o que cremos que se debería facer, dar un consello ou unha opinión. Pois had better (ou a contracción 'd better) é outra forma moi coloquial de expresar o mesmo. Afirmativa: Logo do suxeito poñemos had better + un verbo na forma base. Significa É mellor que + un verbo en presente de subjuntivo. You had better (You'd better) go to the doctor. (É mellor que vaias ao médico.) Negativa: só precisa not, é dicir, had better + not + verbo na forma base. We'd better not buy that car. It's very expensive. (É mellor que non merquemos ese coche. É moi caro.) Nota: Non se adoita empregar had better en interrogativa Por outra parte, ten un uso distinto de should pois tamén se emprega para expresarmos unha advertencia, como avisando ao ouvinte de que algo malo ou desagradábel lle pode ocorrer se non fai o que lle dicimos. Daquela vén significar algo como Será mellor que, Máis vale que. You'd better tidy your room now! (Será mellor que arranxes o teu cuarto xa!) You'd better not take my car! (Máis vale que non collas o meu coche!) OS PREFIXOS Son letras que engadimos ao comezo dalgunhas palabras para formaren outras palabras novas. Os prefixos un, im / il / in e dis engádense a algúns adxectivos, substantivos e verbos para formaren os seus opostos. likely (probábel) polite (educado/a) legal (legal) sanity (siso) connect (conectar) unlikely (improbábel) impolite (maleducado/a) illegal (ilegal) insanity (loucura) disconnect (desconectar) [11]

12 O prefixo mis engádese a algúns substantivos e verbos para indicar que algo se fai mal ou incorrectamente. use (uso) understand (entender) misuse (mal uso) misunderstand (malinterpretar) Con en fórmanse verbos que describen o paso ao estado ou situación sinalados pola palabra á que se engade este prefixo. close (pechar) slave (escravo) joy (ledicia) unit o ESTILO INDIRECTO enclose (encerrar) enslave (escravizar) enjoy (gozar) Os prefixos under, over e non- son doados de entender, e no que se refire a co-, re, inter, anti-, bi, pre e multi, significan o mesmo que na nosa lingua. underline (subliñar) overloaded (sobrecargado/a) non-aligned (non negociábel) co-worker (compañeiro/a de traballo) rewrite (reescribir) international (internacional) anti-hero (antiheroe) bilingual (bilingüe) prehistoric (prehistórico/a) multiracial (multirracial) Tense Direct speech Reported speech Present Simple We eat healthy food. ( Comemos comida sa. ) She said that they ate healthy food. (Dixo que eles comían / comeron comida sa.) Past Simple We ate healthy food. ( Comemos... ) She said that they had eaten healthy food. (... comeran comida sa.) Future Simple We will eat healthy food. ( Comeremos... ) She said that they would eat healthy food. (... comerían comida sa.) Present Continuous Past Continuous Present Perfect Simple Present Perfect Continuous Past Perfect Simple Past Perfect Continuous 4 food for thought We are eating healthy food. ( Estamos a comer... ) We were eating healthy food. ( Estabamos / estivemos a comer... ) We have eaten healthy food. ( Temos comido... ) We have been eating healthy food. ( Estivemos a comer... ) We had eaten healthy food. ( Tiñamos comido... ) We had been eating healthy food. ( Estiveramos a comer... ) She said that they were eating healthy food. (... estaban/estiveron a comer comida sa.) She said that they had been eating healthy food. (... estiveran a comer comida sa.) She said that they had eaten healthy food. (... tiñan comido comida sa.) She said that they had been eating healthy food. (... estiveran a comer comida sa.) She said that they had eaten healthy food. (... tiñan comido comida sa.) She said that they had been eating healthy food. (... estiveran a comer comida sa.) CAMBIOS NOS MODAIS Direct speech Reported speech can could may might must / have to must / had to will would CAMBIOS NOUTRAS PALABRAS E EXPRESIÓNS Direct speech Reported speech now then today that day tonight that night yesterday the previous day / the day before last week the previous week / the week before a month ago the previous month / the month before tomorrow the following day / the day after / the next day next week the following week / the week after here there this / these that / those [12]

13 O estilo indirecto emprégase para contar o que alguén dixo mais sen citar exactamente as súas palabras. Reported statements Podemos contar en presente o que alguén vén de dicir, para o que abonda con suprimir as comiñas e trocar o pronome suxeito e a persoa do verbo. I am hungry. ( Teño fame.) He says that he is hungry. (Di que ten fame.) Porén, o normal é contalo en pasado (He said... ). Daquela o verbo seguinte dá un salto atrás: o Present Simple pasa a Past Simple, will a would, etc. só o Past Perfect permanece igual-, e ademais dos pronomes persoais, trocan os demostrativos, os posesivos e as expresións de tempo e de lugar. I bought my house a year ago, he said. ( Merquei a miña casa hai un ano, dixo el.) He said that he had bought his house the year before. (Dixo que mercara a casa había un ano.) Se a frase enuncia un feito que segue a ter vixencia no presente, non hai mudanzas nos tempos verbais. John, Jason and Nathan are British, she said. ( John, Jason e Nathan son británicos, dixo ela.) She said that John, Jason and Nathan are British. (Dixo que John, Jason e Nathan son británicos.) Os verbos máis empregados na conversa para introduciren o reported speech son say sen obxecto indirecto e tell + obxecto indirecto, e cos dous adoita omitirse a conxunción that. We know which foods are causing problem behaviour, the doctor said. ( Sabemos qué alimentos están a causar problemas de conduta, dixo o médico.) The doctor said / told us (that) they knew which foods were causing problem behaviour. (O médico dixo / díxonos que sabían qué alimentos estaban a causar problemas de conduta.) Reported questions As Yes / No questions (as que se contestan cun si ou un non ) pásanse a estilo indirecto empregando o verbo ask + if ou whether. Daquela, como a pregunta deixa de selo e se converte nunha oración enunciativa, non hai inversión do suxeito e o verbo, signo de interrogación nin comiñas. Did Dr Gesch lead the research? I asked. ( Dirixiu o Dr. Gesch a investigación?, preguntei.) I asked if / whether Dr Gesch had led the research. (Preguntei se o Dr. Gesch dirixira a investigación.) As Wh-questions (as que comezan con who, what, etc. e non se poden contestar cun si nin cun non ) empregan a partícula interrogativa no canto de if ou whether, mais tampouco hai inversión suxeito-verbo, signo de interrogación nin comiñas. Who led the research? I asked. ( Quen dirixiu a investigación? preguntei.) I asked who had led the research. (Preguntei quen dirixira a investigación.) What are the names of the offenders? a reporter asked. ( Como se chaman os delicuentes?, preguntou un xornalista.) A reporter asked what the names of the offenders were. (Un xornalista preguntou como se chamaban os delincuentes.) Reported orders Para pasarmos unha orde a estilo indirecto cambiamos o imperativo polo infinitivo. Mais antes empregamos un verbo que exprese mandato, como order ou tell, seguido do obxecto indirecto. Stop talking in class! ( Deixa de falar na clase! ) The teacher ordered me to stop talking in class. (O profesor ordenoume que deixara de falar na clase.) Se a orde era negativa, poñemos not diante do infinitivo. Don t give your son any chocolate. ( Non lle dean chocolate ao seu fillo.) Dr Gesch told the boy's parents not to give him any chocolate. (O Dr. Gesch dixo aos pais do rapaz que non lle desen chocolate.) Do mesmo xeito exprésanse as advertencias, os rogos e as invitacións, mais empregando os verbos warn, beg ou ask e invite, respectivamente. Why don't you come with me? ( Por que non vés comigo? ) She invited me to go with her. (Convidoume a ir con ela.) Reported suggestions Para expresarmos unha suxestión en estilo indirecto empregamos os verbos suggest ou recommend en pasado. Logo contamos o que dixo esa persoa de dúas formas: Cun verbo en xerundio, sinalando que quen fixo a suxestion se incluía nela. Let s go to the theatre! Beth said. ( Vamos ao teatro!, dixo Beth.) Beth suggested going to the theatre. (Beth suxeriu ir / que foramos ao teatro.) Ou empregando unha oración con that + suxeito + verbo na forma base, sinalando que a suxestión se refería a outra ou outras pesoas. Paul had better stay in bed, the doctor said. ( Paul debe quedar mellor na cama!, dixo o médico.) The doctor recommended that Paul (should) stay in bed. (O médico recomendou que Paul quedase na cama.) Antes adoitaba empregarse o modal should diante do verbo na forma base, mais foise perdendo e hoxe o seu emprego resulta anticuado. reporting verbs Say, tell e ask só introducen a mensaxe sen engadir máis información, mentres que os seguintes verbos transmiten tamén a intención do falante ou o xeito en que falou: en afirmacións: claim, answer, admit, agree, boast, apologise, complain, declare, deny, explain, inform, insist, offer, mention, promise, refuse, remind, reply [13]

14 I will be home late, she said. ( Chegarei tarde á casa, dixo ela.) She reminded me that she would be home late. (Lembroume que chegaría tarde á casa.) en preguntas: enquire, request, want to know, wonder Did you arrive on time? Dave asked. ( Chegaches a tempo?, preguntou Dave.) Dave wanted to know if I had arrived on time. (Dave quería saber se eu chegara a tempo.) en ordes: order, shout, demand, warn Be careful! he said. ( Ten coidado!, dixo el.) He shouted at me to be careful. (Berroume que tivese coidado.) en súplicas e rogos: beg Don t tell anybody, please, she said. ( Non llo contes a ninguén, por favor, dixo.) She begged me not to tell anybody. (Rogoume que non llo contase a ninguén.) en suxestións: advise, suggest, recommend, invite. You should keep the windows closed, Mum said. ( Deberiades manter as ventás pechadas, dixo mamá.) Mum advised us to keep the windows closed. (Mamá aconsellounos que mantivésemos as ventás pechadas.) unit 5 music mania A VOZ PASIVA Tense Active Passive Present Simple This singer writes many songs. Many songs are written by this singer. Past Simple This singer wrote many songs. Many songs were written by this singer. Future Simple This singer will write many songs. Many songs will be written by this singer. Present Continuous This singer is writing many songs. Many songs are being written by this singer. Past Continuous This singer was writing many songs. Many songs were being written by this singer. Present Perfect Simple This singer has written many songs. Many songs have been written by this singer. Past Perfect Simple This singer had written many songs. Many songs had been written by this singer. Modals This singer should write many songs. Many songs should be written by this singer. Modal Perfects This singer must have written many songs. Many songs must have been written by this singer. have to This singer has to write many songs. Many songs have to be written by this singer. be going to This singer is going to write many songs. Many songs are going to be written by this singer. Forma Afirmativa: Fórmase con to be + o participio do verbo principal, que rematará en ed se é regular. Como en galego non se usa moito, é frecuente traducir a frase na forma impersoal ou na voz activa. Negativa: Só cómpre engadir not ao auxiliar to be. That film wasn t directed by Spielberg. (Esa película non foi dirixida por Spielberg.) Interrogativa: As preguntas comezan con to be, xa que o suxeito se coloca entre o auxiliar e o participio. Were you examined by the doctor? (Examinoute o médico?) Se na pregunta hai un modal, un verbo en futuro ou un tempo composto, a frase pasiva comeza co modal ou o verbo auxiliar, o mesmo que na voz activa. Should everything in the news be believed? (Débese crer todo das noticias?) Will the job be finished by Monday? (O traballo estará rematado para o luns?) Have any new bands been discovered lately? (Descubriuse algún grupo novo ultimamente?) As preguntas que levan partícula interrogativa tamén invirten a orde do verbo auxiliar e do suxeito, agás cando a partícula fai de suxeito. Where will the video clip be filmed? (Onde se rodará o video clip?) Who was appointed for the job? (A quen nomearon para o posto?) Como pasarmos unha oración a pasiva Pór o verbo to be no mesmo tempo que tiña o verbo principal en activa e engadir o participio dese mesmo verbo principal. They sold their house last week. Their house was sold last week. (A súa casa foi vendida / vendeuse en Francia.) Pór como suxeito o primeiro complemento que haxa detrás do verbo en activa, sexa o directo ou o indirecto. We will give a present to James at the party. A present will be given to James at the party. (Darémoslle un agasallo a James na festa.) [14]

15 We will give James a present at the party. James will be given a present at the party. (A James darémoslle / daráselle un agasallo na festa.) De feito, isto último é o máis habitual. Se o complemento indirecto é un pronome, cómpre cambialo á forma de suxeito. They showed me their last album. I was shown their last album. (Ensináronme o seu último álbum.) Esta pasiva adoita empregarse cos verbos give, show, tell, ask, offer, pay, promise, lend, sell e send, que levan obxecto duplo: directo e indirecto. Pasar o suxeito da oración activa ao final da pasiva precedido de by. E se é un pronome persoal, cambialo pola súa forma obxecto correspondente. Many rock stars have held concerts here. Concerts have been held here by many rock stars. (Aquí deron concertos moitas estrelas de rock.) He is likely to win a Grammy award next year. A Grammy award is likely to be won by him next year. (Seica gañará un premio Grammy o vindeiro ano.) Como se ve no cadro da páxina anterior, os modais e be going to non cambian, é o verbo que os segue o que se pon en pasiva (be + participio). The technician must operate the camera. The camera must be operated by the technician. (A cámara debe ser manexada polo técnico.) Usos da voz pasiva Como viches nos exemplos, a voz pasiva emprégase máis en inglés, mentres que en galego é moi pouco común na lingua literaria e practicamente inexistente no rexistro coloquial, pois adoitamos empregar a voz activa ou a forma impersoal co pronome se. Os principais usos da voz pasiva son: Salientar a acción máis que ao suxeito que a realiza. Cando o suxeito que realiza a acción é obvio, ou descoñecido, ou non se quere nomealo. In this hotel, the rooms are cleaned every day. (Neste hotel límpanse as habitacións todos os días.) E relacionado co anterior, para evitarmos unha frase activa cuxo suxeito sexa they, somebody, nobody... Nobody has cleaned this room yet. This room has not been cleaned yet. (Esta habitación non a limparon aínda.) It is SAID that / (he) is SAID to Con verbos como say, think, believe, know ou report é posíbel empregar dúas formas de pasiva: A primeira é unha construción impersoal con it e logo unha oración con that, suxeito e verbo. It is said that Eric Clapton is a great musician. (Seica / Dise que Eric Clapton é un gran músico.) A tradución tamén é unha oración impersoal, pero activa: Seica / Pénsase / Acredítase... ; só o verbo know pode traducirse en pasiva. It is known that many pop singers come from England. (É sabido que moitos cantantes pop son de Inglaterra.) A segunda forma prefire pór en primeiro lugar á persoa da que se fala e non a it; daquela vemos o suxeito + un destes verbos en pasiva + un infinitivo. Eric Clapton is said to be a great musician. Ao traducirmos este tipo de pasiva tamén recorremos ao pronome se ou poñemos un suxeito xeral como todo o mundo, a xente, etc. That band is known to have an awful singer. (Sábese / Todo o mundo sabe que ese grupo ten un cantante malísimo.) Young people are believed to like only noisy music. (A xente cre que aos mozos só lles gusta a música ruidosa.) O verbo consider só é posíbel no segundo tipo de pasiva e ten unha tradución literal. Eric Clapton is considered to be a great musician. (Eric Clapton é considerado /considérase un gran músico.) have / get + something + done Os verbos have e get + un substantivo + un participio expresan accións que encargamos a alguén. I m going to have / get my hair cut. (Vou cortar o pelo [farao outra persoa, non eu].) Esta estrutura ten un sentido pasivo, pois o substantivo que vai no medio recibe a acción do verbo que vai en participio. Mais adoita traducirse na voz activa. I got my car repaired yesterday. (Amañei / Amañáronme o coche onte.) Aínda que have e get se empregan indistintamente, get é máis informal e, polo tanto, máis común no inglés falado. We got our house painted last week. (Pintamos / Pintáronnos a casa a semana pasada.) collocations Na unidade 1 vimos o que son, e algunhas formadas cos verbos run e break. Agora veremos as que se forman con go como verbo e go como substantivo. go bald (caer o pelo, quedar calvo/a) go broke (arruinarse, quedar sen un can) go mad (tolear) have a go at (intentar, probar a) (be) on the go ([estar] activo, bulir, non parar) Mira no glosario as collocations formadas con thing. [15]

16 unit 6 making choices AS ORACIÓNS CONDICIONAIS FIRST CONDITIONAL Conditional clause Result clause Examples if + Present Simple unless if unless + Past Simple Future Simple + base form may / might imperative would + base form could / might If you study something practical, you will have a profession. (Se estudas algo práctico, conseguirás unha profesión.) You will meet a lot of people if you go to university. (Satisfarás a un montón de xente se ti vas á universidade.) If she is free tomorrow, she may / might want to come with us. (Se está libre mañá, quizais queiras / quererías vir connosco.) Look for a summer job unless you want to travel abroad. (Busca un traballo para o verán a non ser que queiras viaxar ao estranxeiro.) SECOND CONDITIONAL If I had the opportunity, I would become an engineer. (Se tivese a oportunidade, chegaría a ser enxeñeiro). I could / might visit London if my friends were there. (Podería visitar Londres se os meus amigos estivesen alí.) if unless + Past Perfect would have + past participle could / might have THIRD CONDITIONAL If you had listened to me, this wouldn t have happened. (Se me tivese escoitado, isto non tería ocorrido.) He could / might have studied at university if he had wanted to. (El podería / puido ter estudado na universidade se tivese querido.) Son oracións compostas por unha proposición subordinada que expresa a condición (conditional clause) e unha principal que expresa o resultado (result clause). Hainas de tres tipos. O primeiro condicional Fórmase con if + Present Simple na condición e futuro con will no resultado. Expresa o que ocorrerá se se cumpre a condición sinalada. If I finish the project soon, I will go to the cinema with you. (Se remato o traballo axiña, irei ao cinema contigo.) Como se ve no cadro, cando a condición vai primeiro adóitase pór unha vírgula entre ambas as dúas partes, pero ao contrario non. Ademais do futuro, no resultado poden empregarse os modais may e might ou o verbo en imperativo. If the library is open, I may / might borrow a book. (Se a biblioteca está aberta, podo / podería tirar prestado un libro.) If you see Jane, say hello to her. (Se ves a Jane, saúdaa.) En negativa, ou negamos o verbo da condición ou usámolo en afirmativa coa conxunción unless, que equivale a if not (se non, a non ser que). He won t believe anything unless we prove it is true. (Non crerá nada se non demostramos que é verdade.) O segundo condicional Fórmase con if + Past Simple na condición e would + o verbo na forma base no resultado. A condición refírese ao presente mais é hipotética, isto é, é pouco probábel que ocorra, por iso traducimos o verbo en pretérito imperfecto de subxuntivo, non en pasado. If you told him, he would understand the situation. (Se llo dixeras, el entendería a situación.) Se o verbo da condición é to be, adóitase empregar were en todas as persoas. If that camera weren t so expensive, I would buy it. (Se esa cámara non fose tan cara, eu mercaríaa.) E emprégase sempre were co pronome I cando damos un consello. If I were you, I would ask my parents for permission. (Eu de ti, pediría permiso a meus pais.) As variantes do segundo condicional son could e might, mais ambos os dous sinalan menos probabilidade de que se cumpra a hipótese. Equivalen a podería, talvez / quizais. If I could study all night, I would pass the test tomorrow. (Se puidera estudar toda a noite, mañá aprobaría o exame.) [16]