Cybernetics of Tao. The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at

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1 The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at Cybernetics of Tao Zude Ye and Maurice Yolles Centre for the Creation of Coherent Change and Knowledge, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, UK Abstract Purpose Taoist thought is not easily penetrable for Westerners, though it has growing importance with the globalisation of Chinese commerce. The purpose of this paper is to explore some aspects of Chinese and Taoist thought, and how they can be expressed in cybernetic terms, using a knowledge cybernetics (KC) schema. Design/methodology/approach KC operates through metaphor the role of which is considered with respect to its application to the specific area of urban landscaping. Findings A new methodological approach is indicated that is capable of linking Western landscape theory with Taoist feng shui. The traditional approach to critical planning has been in principle enhanced through the idea of landscape canonical harmony that comes from Taoist feng shui. It is also shown that the activity phases in urban landscape design are ontologically different, and use distinct types of energy measures. Research limitations/implications The research uses KC as a vehicle for the development of a landscaping methodology that draws on both traditional Western and Chinese Taoist approaches. It requires application to real situations to draw out its practical capacities. Practical implications This is apparently the first time that a synergy between Western and Chinese approaches to landscape design and development has been attempted that results in the proposal of a complete methodology. Originality/value The successful use of this methodology could demonstrate that Western and Chinese approaches to landscape design are relatable. Keywords Cybernetics, Taoism, Urban areas, Landscaping, China, Metaphors Paper type Research paper Cybernetics of Tao Introduction Western urban planning is distinct from traditional Taoist Chinese approaches that arise through the Taoist paradigm of feng shui. While the former encompasses concepts like aesthetic harmony and critical planning, in contrast traditional Chinese approaches are concerned with design related canonical[1] harmony, and the two are ontologically different from each other. A convergence that couples their use could benefit both Western and Taoist approaches, but because of their ontological differences, to create this there is a need for formalised structuring. Structured approaches to inquiry are referred to as methodologies (Yolles, 1999, 2000a, b, 2005), and they have the capacity to guide and validate processes of convergence. Historically, there has been a lack of the use of structured methodological approaches in urban landscape development, and in the 1960s this sadly and notoriously result in high social and human costs[2] as projects that were well intended ended up as longterm disasters because planning did not address human and social attributes. While today there are clear interests in methodological considerations (Lo et al., 2003; Kurbatova and Bashkin, 2006) that involve collections of conjointly assembled methods and techniques, there is still a clear need for formalised methodologies, like the systemic approaches of Churchman (1971) or Checkland (1981). Kybernetes Vol. 39 No. 4, 2010 pp q Emerald Group Publishing Limited X DOI /

2 K 39,4 528 In this paper, we use a cybernetic framework called knowledge cybernetics (KC) (Yolles, 2006) to formulate the basis of a new methodology that is able to make inquiry for the creation of durable urban landscape developments. To satisfy the need for convergence between Taoist and Western paradigms, the methodology will be made sensitive to both. However, creating such a synergy in a new paradigm is not simply a matter of linear theory addition, and the problem of paradigm incommensurability must be addressed. Since paradigms often develop from core metaphors, a relatively rich appreciation of traditional Chinese thought is necessary, as well as the metaphors that they use to develop their theoretical constructions. This can lead to the development of theoretical convergence, which is usually a knowledge creation process. Finally, Western and Chinese metaphors are related, and it is explained how both Western and traditional Chinese theory can both profit from the synergy. 2. Paradigms and paradigm incommensurability The traditional paradigms[3] that have arisen in China have been unfathomable to the average Western scientist. However, there is recognition that Chinese and Western frames of reference each have their own valuable place in the process of inquiry for improvement of human and social situations. Since the onset of the Western industrial revolution there have been about three hundred years of illustration that practical science can offer some utility here, but it has only been recently that some researchers in science have been able to recognise that traditional Chinese approaches are also of value. Thus, for instance, acupuncture has developed as a paradigm within Taoism that has provided evidenced treatments for both anaesthesia (Streitberger, 2002) and pain release (Lundeberg, 2002). We have referred to a paradigm, which is also a schema, but not all schemas are paradigms. The schema provides an underlying organizational pattern, structure, or conceptual framework of knowledge, and the patterns are an ordered experiential stock of knowledge that provides cognitive relevance for narrative. There are three interactive classes of relevance (Schutz and Luckmann, 1974, p. 228): thematic relevance occurs when a narrative (with its own subject characteristics) can be expressed, and determines the constituents of an experience; interpretative relevance occurs when the narrative can create direction by the selection of relevant aspects of a stock of knowledge; and motivational relevance occurs when consideration of the narrative causes a local conclusion through action. Schemas may begin through thematic relevance as simple conceptual classifications that can arise from qualitative or quantitative observation, but by engaging with interpretive and motivational relevance can develop to into theories with predictive capability and even (with the formation of adequate normative modes of practice) paradigms. Paradigms are schemas that are created through cognitive models that involve beliefs, values, attitudes, norms, ideology, meanings and define mission. They use concepts that weave into a theoretical base able to be formulated as practical approaches to inquiry and intervention, and which are usually in terms of methodology. The relating of two distinct paradigms can only occur if they are commensurable (Kuhn, 1970; Burrell and Morgan, 1979; Yolles, 1999). Incommensurability between two frames of reference occurs when they have theory that is either non-coextensive and/or qualitatively dissimilar (Yolles, 1999). Coextensivity occurs when two theories occupy the same spaces of conceptual extension and have empirical referents that can be

3 measured on a common platform. Qualitative similarity refers to the capacity to create measurements of empirical referents for concepts that are qualitatively similar, when they can be measured on the same scale of values. When two paradigms are commensurable, they are coextensive in that: (1) the conceptual base that underpins the theory of each enables them to be connected while expressing distinct areas of interest; and (2) they are qualitatively similar. Cybernetics of Tao 529 However, even if two paradigms are coextensive, they may still be incommensurable if their concepts cannot be measured on the same scale of values, and where they are therefore qualitatively dissimilar. Paradigms are knowledge-based contextually defined frames of reference that derive from the propositions that make them up. The knowledge is often expressed locally in terms of embedded metaphors, and so cannot be understood by those who support paradigms using different metaphors. This knowledge is used to create narratives, and where there are two paradigms with distinct patterns of ambient knowledge, the narratives will be distinct. Kuhn (1970, p. 149) notes that new paradigms are born from old ones, which occurs through a process of transition from competing incommensurable propositions, standards, norms, tools and techniques. This means that these elements can either:. be in conflict; or. differences in language force misunderstanding. Given that there are two frames of reference and a wish to relate them as a source and target, then complex theory from one may be migrated to the other. In this situation, it is possible to create a schema in the target that is reflective of the source as long the creative process is able to adequately represent the conceptual extensions of the source a notion that we call migration. Migrating complex theory from the source to the target frame of reference normally involves the development of a new narrative, usually using new or adapted metaphors that can be developed into proprietary theory. Equivalently, we can say that migration involves mapping complex narratives from a source to a target frame of reference, and this involves new conceptual extensions being formulated locally (in the target) during this process. Migration therefore has the symbolic capacity to manifest a source schema in a target. When we say that the migratory process should create adequate representation, we are referring to the constructivist notion that it is not possible for complex conceptual extensions to be seen in exactly the same way in both frames of reference, because the ambient patterns of knowledge that make each distinct are different and so resulting meanings cannot be exactly the same. However, when the migrated theory is applied within the target frame of reference, the migratory process is seen to have been adequate when we perceive that the outcome is satisfactory, at least as far it conforms to a set of expectations that enable the consequence of an explanation to be satisfying. As part of the process of creating a satisfactory outcome, the migration process is also likely to result in the need to examine qualitative similarity (Wong et al., 2008). In the migration process, a target virtual paradigm[4] is constructed in the target frame of reference, and it has already been said that the intention of this paper is to create such a paradigm using the general framework of KC. As part of this, specific

4 K 39,4 530 theory of urban landscape design will be formulated using KC, which treats the urban landscape as a viable autonomous system. Western urban landscape design involves the concept of architectural harmony that is normally part of aesthetics[5], distinct from the Toist feng shui concept of canonical harmony that is part of the landscape design process and related to critical planning. It is this latter meaning that will be migrated to the virtual paradigm. Metaphors that will assist this process must be, and are explored. The result can be referred to as the cybernetics of Taoism. 3. The metaphysics of Chinese thought and Taoism Over the last three millennia, China has developed ways of engaging in inquiry that enables them to understand and intervene in observable situations. These approaches have a proprietary philosophical orientation that originates from three distinct philosophies: Taoism, Buddhism and Confucianism. All share the same source (Needham, 1962) as understood through the term San Jiao Tong Yuan. While they exist as autonomous platforms, they are also synergistic and defined within a common context that relates to the social and human condition. Historically[6], it was the introduction into China of Buddhism that eventually resulted in a harmonisation with the earlier Chinese traditions of Taoism and Confucianism. It resulted in a blend of the three teachings, in which Confucianism was applied to education and ethics, Taoism to personal enlightenment or for illness or bad fortune, and Buddhism to death and the afterlife. This complementarily can also be illustrated through the synergistic relationship between the Taoism and Confucianism, where the former emphasises the free and easy original nature of the individual unconstrained by social convention, while the latter points to social forms and ethical norms. The two traditions coexist in a balance and complement each other. Hence, a Confucian statesman could retire to the country and find joy in the natural aesthetics fostered by Taoism. Tao is regarded as the natural order of the universe. It is unexplainable since it exceeds senses, thoughts, and imagination. From this the myriad of creatures originate, and referred to as wan wu or Ten Thousand Things, it is a metaphor for all living things or the whole of creation. Tao is process orientated, and its creative idea is that Qi energy is a starting point for any process, after wuji (nothing) and taiji (something). More correctly, wuji (nothingness) is the starting point of a process. As a generator of process, Tao gives birth to one, one generates two, two goes to three, and ultimately by association three goes to 10,000 (wan wu) through transformation. Recursion occurs over time, and forms an infinite hierarchy with multi-levels that go from the macroscopic to microscopic: thus processes that occur at a microscopic level of detail can be responsible for macroscopic systems. We shall refer to this as Chinese metaphysics. 3.1 Chinese metaphysics Chinese metaphysics is based on a systemic or embedded hierarchical framework that is used to explain all aspects of Taoism. It operates as an ontology that defines what is often called the cosmology of Taoism. The purpose of this framework is to distinguish epistemological contexts in which different situations are susceptible to different forms of description and analysis. This framework is of the form shown in Figure 1, in which the embedded ontology expresses sequentially increasing degrees of archetypal complexity from the singular to the extended plurality. It begins with the

5 The origin: Wu Ji The primary: Tai Qi Deeper levels of complexity like the embedded octad and beyond Cybernetics of Tao 531 The monad or source: Qi The dyad (e.g., Yin- Yang, Tain Di) The triad (e.g. WSR, TDR, JQS) The tetrad (e.g., the four seasons) The octad (e.g., Bagua) The pentad(e.g., five elements) Figure 1. The archetypical embedded hierarchy of Chinese metaphysics Wu Ji, the undivided Tai Qi (or Tai Chi ), then the Qi (or Chi ), and then separates into greater levels of complexity. The origin (Wu Ji ) concerns the one beginning that precedes the identifiable being that has been called the edge of emptiness or the no limit. The Tai Qi is the song of the Wu Ji that provides reference for space and time, while the Wu Qi is the infinite by Lao Tzu in 500BC), or the primordial state. The monad Qi is the essence that enables the start of creation in space-time. The dyad is a yin-yang[7] dichotomy that defines the first substance of the universe consistent with the dualism of Kant and Hegel s dialectic, and which is also represented through the tian-di that defines the relationship between spirit of heaven and earth (Kuide, 2008). The triad enables ontological distinctions between types of reality, so that realities can be formulated in the human consciousness. Three triads are referred to: the TDR refers to the tian-di-ren that connects heaven, earth and man (Golding, 2008); the jing-qi-shen ( JQS) identifies three types ( JQS) of energies that enables one to distinguish between human and material systems; there is also the modern wuli-shili-renli (WSR) that defines types of human knowledge. The tetrad given in Figure 1 is exemplified by the four seasons, but this has effectively been abandoned and often subsumed into the five elements. This latter is part of the pentad, a metaphor that originates from the five obvious organs of the human being, and creates a frame of reference that enables practical situations to be explained and analysed. These distinct archetype levels of the ontology operate within different contexts to create greater modelling complexity. They are also embedded one within the other, in a form of archetypical recursion. Thus, a dyad can be formulated with a higher order model within it. Thus, for instance, in acupuncture yin-yang has within it the five elements (earth, fire, metal, water and wood) that through their interaction explain the degree of health or pathology of the organs of the human body and from which diagnosis can arise (Alpern, 2008). For the methodological purposes of this paper the intention is to initially discuss the triad.

6 K 39, The triadic oriental systems approach The triad archetype level in Figure 1 is the higher dyadic level which, incidentally, subsumes all the deeper ontological levels of increasing conceptual complexity that are deemed to exist. Hence, discussion of the triad will imply that its very nature is conditioned by the dyad: for instance the dichotomous yin-yang. Two triads will be considered here, the first is what we shall call the san li or three knowledges (WSR), and the second is traditionally known as the san bao or three treasures (JQS). WSR began its development in the 1970s (Zhu, 2003), and first came to light in Gu (1988) when the WSR concepts where brought together, though it conceptually developed from a combination of traditional Confucian teaching and contemporary management practice in China (Gu and Zhu, 1995, 1996). None of the WSR terms have immediate and inflexible definitions in English, so their meaning must be gleamed from normal contextual use. Each of the elements of the WSR triad contain the word li, which Zhu (2003) recognises is central to all three main Chinese traditions of Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism (San Jiao Tong Yuan), but it has diverse meanings. Used as a noun it refers to such notions as markings, textures, essences, orders, mechanisms, tendencies, patterns, principles, logics and reasons. These can have either virtual of actual meanings. Used as a verb it takes on such meanings as: to investigate, to reason, to manage, to engage, to put in order, to organise, to respond. The word also denotes knowledge, perspectives, mental constructs relating for instance to activities and patterns, including those about human cognitions, value orientations and purposive actions. Modern interpretations[8] of the word li also refer to reason, logic, science, inner principle or structure, with clear relation to knowledge. Zhu further notes that wu refers to objects, contents, and the world as distinct from the subject. Thus, wu refers to the objective in the sense of it being actual, existing, possessing certain properties, helping or hurting individuals and organisations, and this is irrespective of human intention to study them, and relates to facts. Allowing for the nature of li, wuli refers to the knowledge underpinning to the actual, material-regulative contexts. Shi means: affairs or events; troubles, problems; work, business; involvement, engagement or service (Zhu, 2003). Its modern interpretation refers to patterns of interactions between mind and the material world. Shili concerns sense-making, meaning-giving, situation framing, reality-projecting, schema-taking, knowledge creating, language evolving and modelling of models. It concerns the working of structured mentalities of individuals, groups, organisations and the society. It usually concerns the virtual, psychocognitive contexts. Ren normally refers to man, person or people, and Zhu (2003) explains that it denotes human relations. The concept of renli can be taken as the basis for human thought or resource, and may be associated with the knowledge that underpins human relationships which can occur through the paradigms that people develop, adhere to and maintain. It is concerned with the central normative question of how humans should live together, including their ideals, norms and value orientations in relation social life. Zhu notes that the core focus of Confucian teaching is on how to behave properly in a more or less un-codified but prevailing web of obligations, expectations and personal and social connections. Renli thus governs existential elements of life like love and hate, cooperation and confrontation, trust and distrust, loyalty and equality.

7 So the WSR triad can be thought of as representing three types of knowledge that are analytically distinct, but intimately linked, and are simultaneously differentiable yet inseparable. Their inseparableness comes from the notion that the meaning of one li cannot be apprehended without that of the other. WSR as a modern knowledge schema is often represented as having Confucian antecedents, but it should rather be thought of as neo-confucian. This is implicitly supported by Begoña Lloria (2008) who in referring to the rise of knowledge management in the West, says that [...] the Chinese were extremely shocked and decided to welcome knowledge management home. They quickly embraced whatever appears useful into wuli-shili-renli WSR framework, which they claimed was inherited from Confucius. Historically, the WSR knowledge schema was envisaged after the Chinese cultural revolution in the late 1970s, after dissatisfaction with the mechanistic manner of social problem-solving (Zhu, 2003). This was because it was realized that there too much preoccupation occurred with wuli (material aspects), and so shili ( rationality concerns) needed to be considered. In due course renli (the social-political sphere) was added in. It then developed as a systems approach, likely influenced by the work of Churchman (1971) and Checkland (1981). This occurred with Gu and Zhu (1995), with further development in a variety of papers including Tang and Gu (2001) and Gu and Tang (2004). However, our interest in WSR is as a knowledge schema (the san li ) not a systems methodology, and in future in this paper it will be regarded in this way. As a san li WSR is not unique. For instance, Jane Roland (Martin) argued in 1961 (cited in Pratte (1979, 1981)) that there are three distinctions in knowledge: propositional (knowing-that), performative (knowing-how-to) and dispositional (knowing-to). These are analytically and ontologically distinct and consist of the following classifications:. propositional knowledge relating to concepts;. performative knowledge relating to relational use of concepts in connection with their pragmatic consequences; and. dispositional relating to practical implementation. Cybernetics of Tao 533 There are other related knowledge schemas (Young and Garnett, 2007). Notably, Schutz and Luckmann s (1974) were also interested in knowledge schemas, and identified what they referred to as schema relevancies that are connected to narrative. More recently Marshall (1995), in her exploration of the way in which military personnel made decisions in the field, identified four empirical evidenced classifications of knowledge which Yolles (2006) has shown, applying Schutz and Luckmann s (1974) generic classifications of narrative, reduce to the three types: executor (with conceptual planning), elaborator (with critical planning) and executor knowledge. The Schutz and Luckmann, Marshall, and WSR knowledge schema are related in Table I illustrating their similarity, and allowing us within the context of this paper to use the san li WSR in the stead of Marshall s modified schema. While the WSR triad constitutes ontologically distinct types of knowledge, their very existence is dependent on the energy that facilities their existence, and there is a conceptual basis in Chinese philosophy for this. In the eleventh century Zhang Dai talks of the three treasures of Taoism the JQS triad. Energy facilitation is an integral part of Taoism, and three ontologically distinct forms of energy can be identified

8 K 39,4 Type of schema relevance Occurrence of relevance Relevancies in Marshall s schema Relevancies to the san li WSR schema 534 Table I. Types of relevancies required in a schema, applied to Marshall s and the WSR knowledge schema Thematic Interpretative Motivational When a narrative (with its own characteristics that distinguishes one theme from another) can be expressed, and that determines the constituents of an experience When the narrative can create direction by the selection of relevant aspects of a stock of knowledge When consideration of the narrative causes a local conclusion through action Identification (and conceptual planning) knowledge has thematic relevance in that a narrative must be recognisable through the concepts that it entails Elaboration knowledge has interpretive relevance with the creation of direction, when the selection of relevancies that relate to an event is essential in that elaboration requires interpretation Execution knowledge has motivational relevance in that execution is a natural consequence of the active conclusion of a narrative Renli has thematic relevance in that a narrative in the social arena is connected with human norms and relations that derive from experience Shili has interpretive relevance in that a narrative is connected with seeing, ways of doing through cognitive structuring (modelling), and the anticipation of canonical harmony Wuli has motivational relevance in that it is connected with real world objects and implied interactions through the ancient idea of the three treasures. These treasures are the JQS energies[9] that theorise and explain the human physiological system and the fundamentals for all facets of life and its many variations (Liang and Wu, 2001). Jing is the essence of material-life and is a coarse physical energy; qi is an energy that we may see as psycho-cognitive in nature; and shen is the spiritual life force energy. The JQS triad, like WSR, are inseparably linked with each another. The nature of this relationship is that jing may be manifested as qi that is in turn may be manifested as shen. Shen may also ultimately be manifested as Tao a process of achieving ever-higher levels of integration. These energies can facilitate the creation and use of WSR knowledge connections. In Table II, we show the connection between san li (WSR) and San Bao (JQS). The latter is an essential energy ingredient in, for instance, the internal arts of healing and in feng shui, is conceptual in its traditional Taoist/Confucian form, and can likely be made measurable in its neo-taoist/neo-confucian form (Sunshine and Wang, 2003). In addition each of the san boa have distinct units that remind us of the distinct and un-mixable natures of the san li. 4. Knowledge cybernetics The Marshall schema has been used within the viable systems schema of Schwarz (1994, 1997) by Yolles (2006) as part of his KC. Eric Schwarz (1994, 1997) developed his own representation of the viable system, one that engages with morphological dynamics. Within this he proposes a new ontology that embraces existence and emergence, and the drive towards durability.

9 San li neo-confucian WSR San bao neo-taoist and neo-confucian energy Relating san bao to san li Renli Shili Wuli Existential human Knowledge about Knowledge about relationships through seeing, modelling and phenomena paradigmatic knowledge engaging with phenomena Shen Qi Jing A directed ordered Psycho-cognitive, linked existential energy which to Jing and Shen and can be manifested as a that drive the virtual spiritual or dynamic imagination through driver of life force information through meaning Renli/Shen Shili/Qi Wuli/Jing Shen energy is driven by Qi energy drives psychophysical renli as it manifests processes in paradigmatic two aspects: exhibitions relationships that arise of the ability to engage through existential with phenomena, and attributes like intellectual ability worldview Known as the treasure of physical energy, and often seen in terms of male or female sexual energy Jing energy drives phenomenal behaviour as human creative resources, and can also be considered as a condensed seed of (or manifestation of structured) information Cybernetics of Tao 535 Table II. Posited relationship between WSR and San Bao, through the commensurability of neo-confucianism and Taoism The ontology describes the basic nature of self-organising systems that are far from equilibrium. Schwarz explains that all systems become viable when they develop:. patterns of self-organisation that lead to self-organisation through morphogenesis, and to complexity;. patterns for long-term evolution towards autonomy; and. patterns that lead to the functioning of viable systems. Developing on these ideas (Yolles, 1999, 2003; Yolles and Dubois, 2001; Yolles and Guo, 2003) developed the model to have a recursive nature that is context sensitive, and offers an epistemological approach that was designed to specifically address social collectives. Called KC (Yolles, 2006), this paradigm is principally concerned with the development of social collectives as autonomous agents that survive through knowledge and knowledge processes in relation to behaviour and thought. The theory is constructed as metaphor, but this does not diminish its significance (Ho and Fox, 1988; Brown, 2003). KC maintains an ontological model shown in Figure 2. The three domains constitute distinct modes of being: measurable energetic phenomenal behaviour, information rich images or systems of thought, and knowledge related existence that is expressed through patterns of meaning. The term existential is taken directly from Schwarz s usage; the term noumenal is taken from the positivist work of Kant (Weed, 2002), and though the approach taken here is constructivist; and the term phenomenal has been adopted because of intended consistency with the principles of phenomenology as founded by Husserl (1950) and after him Heidegger (1927). Each domain can be associated with a particular part of an autonomous organisation. The existential domain holds the metasystem, the noumenal domain the virtual system, and the

10 K 39,4 Existential domain: Being Jing energy Self-reference 536 Object Referencial drift Pattern creating knowledge figurative intelligence Image In Noumenal domain: Relations Qi energy Self-regulation, homeostasis/morphostasis Out Self-creation (autogenesis) through a network principles Information drift Aoutopietic dialogue creating operative intelligence Phenomenal domain: Structured objects Shen energy Self-organisation morphogenesis Self-production (autopoiesis) through a network of processes Figure 2. Dynamic nature of the KC model for autonomous agents Phenomenal social/environmental exchanges with self Source: Adapted from Schwarz (1997) phenomenal domain the system and other phenomenal objects with which it may interact that are structured and have behaviour. The three domains of the KC are analytically distinct classifications of being, and they each have properties that are manifestations of knowledge. The phenomenal domain has social interests adapted from Habermas (1971). The other domain properties arise as an extension of this and draw on both systemic and cybernetic notions in a way explained in Yolles and Guo (2003). There is a connection here to Schutz and Luckmann (1974) in that the epistemological content of each of the three domains can be defined in terms of narrative relevancies. The existential domain has thematic relevance that determines the constituents of an experience; the noumenal domain has interpretative relevance that creates direction through the selection of relevant aspects of a stock of knowledge to formulate visions, images or system of thought; and the phenomenal domain is associated with motivational relevance that

11 causes a local conclusion through action. The notions of conscious, subconscious and unconscious derive from Freudian psychology, are connected to the ideas of Wollheim s (1999), and also related to the ideas of organisational psychology as promoted, for instance, by Kets de Vries (1991). The domains are knowledge related too, a notion that comes by linking to work of Marshall (1995) to that of Schutz and Luckmann (1974). The nature of autopoiesis and autogenesis is of particular interest in the KC model. The two together constitute a necessary and sufficient indicator of autonomy, the former being introduced into the literature by Maturana and Varela (1987), and the latter by Schwarz (1997). Here, autopoiesis is a term that can now be simply seen as a network of processes that enables noumenal activity to become manifested phenomenally, and in autonomous systems this is conditioned by autogenesis a network of principles that create a second order form of autopoiesis that guides autopoietic processes. Autopoiesis may be thought as a process in which virtual images are manifested phenomenally. Autogenesis provides a network of principles that ultimately drives autopoiesis. A partial illustration of the dynamic nature of viable systems in KC is depicted in Figure 2 and explored in Table III, and is based on the work of Schwarz (1997). It has also been expressed in terms of Piaget s notion of operative and figurative intelligence (Piaget, 1977; Yolles, 2009). The three domains indicted have distinct referents that depend on context. For instance, given the context of a behavioural system that interacts empirically with its environment, the phenomenal domain may be data related, the noumenal domain information related and the existential domain knowledge related. However, if the context is a personality that has cognitive processes that are information related, then the phenomenal domain may be connected with information structures that have been created through decision, the noumenal domain may be connected with information based models, and the existential domain with collections of information. Autogenesis may be seen as a second order form of autopoiesis that concerns self-creation, and can be thought of as a network of principles that enables autopoiesis. Thus, for instance in personality studies it connects identity with self-processes, a notion indirectly supported by Markus and Nurius (1986) who proposed a theory of possible selves which explains how the individual develops a connection between present self, motivation, behaviour and possible or future self. Also, in identity process theory (Breakwell, 1986, 1988; Sullivan, 2000; Twigger-Ross et al., 2003) the conceptualisation of identity is seen to involve four distinct principles of identity (self-esteem, self-efficacy, distinctiveness and continuity) that together enable the maintenance of a positive self-view. The nature of tropic drift is explained by its entropic, information and referential dimensions. With entropic drift there is a movement towards uniformity, with the development of a stabilising cycle through which arise vortices and a process of phenomenal recycling. It contributes to the creative cycle of self-organisation and morphogenesis. With information drift towards complexity, the formation of a stabilising cycle of self-regulation leads to homeostasis. It contributes to a creative cycle of self-production through autopoiesis. Referential drift intensifies self-reference and integrates differences. With the creation of identity and the emergence of consciousness, this results in existential drift towards being. It has a stabilising cycle of existential self-reference, and a creative cycle of self-creation through autogenesis and connecting Cybernetics of Tao 537

12 K 39,4 Domain activity/ ontological relation Conceptual occurrence Interpretation 538 Table III. The nature of viable agents Phenomenal activity Driven by Jing energy, and explored through wuli Ontological relation (autopoiesis) creating operative intelligence Noumenal activity Driven by qi energy, and explored through shili Ontological relation (autogenesis) creating figurative intelligence Structure Morphogenesis Phenomenal exchange recycling Feed-forward autopoiesis Feedback autopoiesis Networks Homeostatic loops Feed-forward autogenesis Agent self-organisation produced through relational networks, social interconnections, objects and tokens, fluxes of energy phenomena Emergence, replication, regeneration, transformation, evolution of destruction of cognitive structures. This is indicated by the autopoietic loop and within the energetic constraints. Positive feedback is especially important. Relationship between phenomenal impact and social/environmental responses highlighted. It connects to the flow of time, entropic drift, global trends toward the probable, and to internal and external dissipation This represents the cognitive metabolism, energy fluxes, matter and signals ensuring physical processes, and social perennity and stability Production of cognitive/psychic structures and behaviour, from cognitive networks and networks of structured information and misinformation An autopoietic dialogue can create operative intelligence, and is a reflection of the capacity to reflect decision models images phenomenally. Regeneration of the relational networks through agent behaviour, influenced by: (1) motivational pressures satisfying cognitive need (like rituals, power, honour and money); and (2) social/environmental pressures Logical relations that ultimately define cognitive structures and perceptions of social structures. These are constituted as virtual information-based images that create self-perceptions of phenomenal activity Complex organisation of logical relations defining the cognitive being as a functional unit. Globally homeostatic cycles and hypercycles creating viable coevolution between agent behaviour and the corresponding relational network like the pattern of myths Patterns of social elaborator knowledge (Yolles, 2006) exist that create what Piaget called figurative intelligence, and can be used to project identity. In the cognitive personality, the knowledge is constituted as patterned coherence in information gathering. The nature of figurative intelligence may be extended to include the metacoupling that occurs between cognitive being and the autopoietic dialogue. It is responsible for the influence that is created by the network of cognitive principles that define I and result in the agent s own rules of production (continued)

13 Domain activity/ ontological relation Existential activity Driven by shen energy, and explored through renli Conceptual occurrence Feedback autogenesis Being Self-referential loop Interpretation Figurative intelligence involves the metacoupling between the autopoietic dialogue (operative intelligence) and the cognitive outcome of the dialogue. Personality creation, regeneration, evolution or cognitive transformation can continuously develop affecting figurative and operative intelligence Cognitive being as an existing whole. Its degrees of autonomy, coherence and identity (teleonomy) increase with its complexity The cognitive entity emerging from the dialogue between its phenomenal self and its own image through it operative intelligence. The closer the phenomenal structures (objects) are to the images, the greater its harmony and autonomy. This is like saying that an agentic personality is more balanced if its own perception of self is consistent with that of others Cybernetics of Tao 539 Table III. with figurative intelligence. The notions of figurative and operative intelligence[10] arose through the work of Piaget (1969, 1977) in his exploration learning in children. The dynamic relationships in Figure 2 and Table III are applicable to the modelling of complex situations, and can also take on a methodological orientation. It describes autonomous viable agents how change in their form and even in their very nature while maintain their durability. Table IV is provides the properties of the autonomous agentic domains. Its columns are set up as semantic streams[11]: kinematic, directional and latency, and each stream is an indicator of an agent attribute. This table can be used, in a manner related to Yolles and Guo (2003), to explore the viability of the agent. There is a knowledge basis for Table IV that originates from Habermas (1987) and his notion of cognitive interests. This has been developed further for cognitive purposes and influences by Yolles (2006) to account for the additional two domains. This table can also be used to explore the knowledge basis of the autonomous agent to evaluate its viability (Yolles et al., 2006). We recall that we are able to use, as far as this paper is concerned, the san li WSR in the stead of Marshall s modified schema. This triad resides in the existential domain (Table III), but a social agent usually projects them into the other domains (Table II), applying say elaboration knowledge for noumenal tasks, or executor knowledge for phenomenal tasks. Also included have been the Tao three treasures, the JQS energies that enable the respective states to arise. These energies can be assigned to variables that can be assigned to these domains, and explain how dominant states arise and are maintained. An illustration of this comes from Jung (1923) who explained the sociocognitive nature of personality. He identified mental functions and conceived of them as comprising the dimensions of a psychological space. Each function constituted a dyadic state that occurred in pairs. He originally uses the term enantiomodria[12] to explain their relationship, but later replaced this with the simpler Tao notions of yin-yang (Yolles, 2009). In the same way, Sorokin ( ) adopted a similar representation for qualitative dyadic states of the variable cultural mentality, which could take on the appearance of an ideational or sensate quality that were constantly in

14 K 39,4 540 Table IV. Autonomous agentic properties associated with each domain Domain Socioeconomical (kinematics) Cultural (direction) Political (latency) Technical interest Practical interest Deconstraint Behavioural penchant towards work. In Interactive penchant. In this semantic For agentic viability, the realising of this semantic stream, agents are able to stream, anticipatory structures are potential is most effective when agents pursue goals. More generally this created that will predetermine how liberate themselves from the involves the technical ability to predict agents will interact with our social and constraints of power that they and thus decide on action in the agentic physical world. It guides the agent in experience and learn through environment, and the ability to engage the way in which it responds to, and is precipitation to control their own with predictions and controls. It proactive in situations that it perceives orientations. The structural component presupposes the existence of structure of this semantic stream enables agents that both anticipates and facilitates to maintain viability as personalities, behaviour and it is here where personality switches may appear Autocybernetic purpose Rational purpose Mindedness Intention. Within the context of selfgovernance this occurs through the creation of goals and aims that may change over time, and enables agents through self-referent processes to redirect their futures Phenomenal/conscious behavioural interest Manner of thinking. Within governance of social collectives an intellectual framework occurs through which policy makers observe and interpret reality. This has an aesthetical or ideological and ethical positioning. It provides an image of the future that enables action with the external environment Formative organising. Within governance enables missions, goals, and aims to be defined and approached through planning. It may involve logical, and/or relational abilities to organise thought and action and thus to define sets of possible systematic, systemic and behavioural possibilities. It can also involve the (appreciative) use of tacit standards by which experience can be ordered and valued, and may involve self-reflection Noumenal/subconscious minded purpose Freedom. Agents operate with personal political disposition and state. While it has a freedom imperative, the nature of what constitutes freedom varies from individual to individual. In part this imperative is affected by cultural norms Socioeconomical disposition Base disposition Political disposition Formation. Enables an agent to be influenced by knowledge that relates to its social environment. It affects structures and processes that define the agentic forms that are related to intentions and behaviours A base of belief. Influences occur from knowledge that derives from the agentic cognitive system of beliefs, attitudes and values. It also determines how an agent will respond to the cultural and social norms that it interacts with. The belief system underpins what is constituted as knowledge Existential/unconscious dispositional influences

15 interaction (Yolles and Frieden, 2005) in the development of a model to explore sociocultural dynamics. They can also be seen in terms of opposing forces that operate with a yin-yang interaction through Sorokin s principle of immanent change. It is also reminiscent of the way that Lewin (1947) has explored group dynamics. It is also possible to assign more than a dyadic state of energy to a variable, as illustrated in Yolles (1998). 5. A methodology for urban landscapes design In the West, there is a field of study called urban landscape theory, which is connected with urban landscape design and its: social and behavioural processes, aesthetic theory and critical planning practice. We have formulated Figure 2 into a core inquiry process for landscape design (Figure 3), that can be represented as a methodology. Here, through figurative intelligence and using appropriate context relevant aspects of the aesthetic theory landscape paradigm, conceptual knowledge (renli ) established on a context sensitive aesthetics and conceptual planning platform is selected to establish criteria that are carried through the autogenic network of principles and criteria in a feed-forward process. Autogenetic feedback provides the opportunity to modify aesthetic or conceptual modelling criteria and principles, thus modifying the figurative intelligence, which should not be mythical. The network of principles and criteria are essential in enabling the operative intelligence process to develop. In this, the landscape design process, involving critical planning, is informed by elaborator knowledge (shili ), and enables a context sensitive design to be established that satisfies the autogenetic criteria. Operative intelligence involves the autopoietic feed-forward of a network of processes creating operational transference from the critical planning process to the development process. Autopoietic feedback regenerates the build criteria, and through on-the job (phenomenal) experience modifies, as required, the design imperatives especially where unexpected aspects of the build arise. Where Cybernetics of Tao 541 Autogenesis and thematic criteria for landscape processes Autopoiesis and network of landscape decision build criteria Existential domain Design paradigm: aesthetic theory and conceptual planning figurative intelligence Jing energy (existential knowledge or renli) Noumenal domain Landscape design: critical planning Qi energy (elaboration knowledge or shili) Operative intelligence Phenom enal domain execution landscape development: implementation practice Shen energy (executor knowledge or wuli) Autogenesis and regeneration of evaluative criteria for conceptual planning experience Autopoiesis and regeneration ofnetwork of decision build criteria through build experience Figure 3. Inquiry process for the landscape development process, showing the projection (in brackets) of types of knowledge from the existential domain

16 K 39,4 542 operative intelligence indicates, the autogenetic feedback process regenerates conceptual planning and aesthetics, influencing figurative intelligence. Problems occur in this simple process when autogenesis or autopoiesis are disconnected, and the planning to development activity is subject to systemic pathology. This can inhibit, for instance, the proper application of renli and shili in the development process. There are other ways in which the KC schema can be used to explore landscapes. For instance, considering the dynamics shown in Figure 2, referential and information drift can be explored to ensure that the landscaping process is viable. Also, Table III can also be applied to the landscaping process, perhaps in a way not too dissimilar to that indicated in Yolles et al. (2006) thereby mapping the overall beliefs that participants have about the development process. In addition, it is feasible to explore the viable systems model schema proposed by Beer (1979) to examine a variety of possible pathologies. The distinct forms of activity identified in each of the domains in Figure 3 are clearly distinguished as being ontologically distinct since they have different energy units of measure. In the existential domain, there is only jing energy, in the noumenal domain there is only qi energy, and in the phenomenal domain there is only shen energy. In principle, any exploration of activities having shen units of energy are indirectly influenced by qi and jing related activities. The urban landscape inquiry schema in Figure 3 has more depth if the recursive nature of KC is adopted. Here, the KC schema is seen as a conceptual fractal that can be set into any of the domains providing context is adequately defined. Within the context of landscaping, recursion may therefore occur at any of the three level of the inquiry process, enabling the exploration of the conceptual design, the critical design, or the development itself. However, in this illustration we shall look only at one aspect a part of the critical design process that seeks aesthetic harmony in landscape design. The only schema available for this is feng shui. 5.1 Feng shui The critical planning design process that feng shui is concerned with explores urban landscapes by examining dynamic object relationships, to which relative position and processes of change in space and time are important, a feature that Western urban landscape theory does not have. As a consequence, feng shui is able to seek balance and canonical harmony in the design development process in a way inaccessible to the Western approach. Feng shui is a Taoist approach to critical planning in landscape design. It adopts the proposition that urban landscapes need to be harmonically balanced with the natural landscape, and without that balance social problems can be more likely. While this paper will be used to explore some aspects of the urban landscape, it will more generally create a generic model that is able to connect Chinese Taoism with science. In setting up a feng shui schema, we could adopt a variable called landscape. It has dichotomous energy states that can also be modelled as opposing and dichotomous (yin-yang) interactive forces, which in practice determine the resulting qualitative energy level of the variable. These forces are normally expressed in terms of a dragon metaphor, when the mountain and water dragons are used. The traditional Tao requirement is for the two dragons to interact over a given landscape, and as a result a balanced landscape state arises, referred to as the landscape dragon. These dragons