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1 UNIVERSIDADE DE LISBOA FACULDADE DE BELAS-ARTES Communication through design: Why do we love some products more than the others? Elçin Aleixo Calado MESTRADO EM DESIGN DE EQUIPAMENTO ESPECIALIZAÇÃO EM DESIGN DE PRODUTO 2013

2 UNIVERSIDADE DE LISBOA FACULDADE DE BELAS-ARTES Communication through design: Why do we love some products more than the others? Elçin Aleixo Calado MESTRADO EM DESIGN DE EQUIPAMENTO ESPECIALIZAÇÃO EM DESIGN DE PRODUTO Dissertação orientada pelo Professor Doutor Paulo Parra e co-orientada pelo Professor André Gouveia 2013

3 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to express my greatest gratitude to the people who have helped and supported me throughout my master study. First of all I would like to thank my supervisors, Professor Dr. Paulo Parra and Professor André Gouveia for their patience and encouragement during the last three years of my study where I had the chance to realize my childhood dream. Their useful comments, remarks and engagement were very important for me through the learning and transformation process from an engineer to an engineer-designer. I would like to share my acknowledgement with my colleagues from Design de Equipamento especially with Ana Costa who has been there over the years to offer guidance whenever I needed. A special thanks to my family for their constant support and last but not the least to my husband Valter: he believed in me more than I believed in myself. Without him it would not have been possible to complete this fascinating journey. iii

4 RESUMO Os Designers não têm contacto directo com toda a população para a qual desenham produtos de produção em massa. Quando um produto é desenhado este existe independentemente do controlo do seu desenhador. Desta forma, design pode ser considerado como um processo de comunicação, onde as intenções do designer são relacionadas com a forma de um produto é transmitido ao consumidor. Depois disso o consumidor interpreta o produto sem acesso directo ao designer ou às suas intenções, e por isso não pode haver qualquer negociação entre o designer e o consumidor de forma a clarificar o objectivo/intenção do produto. Este estudo e pesquisa providenciam um detalhado sumário/revisão da literatura relacionada com os métodos e conceitos mais usuais que explicam o processo de comunicação entre o designer e o consumidor de forma a compreender como o significado que o designer imagina é entendido pelo consumidor e que factores podem alterar esta mensagem. Os resultados deste estudo demonstram que resposta psicologicas categorizadas como cognativas, afectivas e comportamentais; desempenham papeis importantes dentro deste processo de comunicação. Respostas cognitivas são os julgamentos que o consumidor faz acerca do produto, baseando-se para isso em informação captada pelos sentidos que são agrupados em três tópicos principais: estética, semântica e respostas semióticas. A resposta estética é definida como sendo a sensação que é o resultado da atracção (ou não atracção) captada nos produtos. O valor estético de um produto pertence ao prazer derivado da aparência do produto, sem qualquer uso do mesmo. Quando existem produtos alternativos que são similares em termos de função ou preço, os consumidores preferem o que esteticamente é mais atractivo. Os nossos julgamentos estéticos são afectados por algumas preferências individuais. De qualquer forma, existem alguns princípios gerais de estética que são aceites por muitos estudiosos como sendo os principais factores que aumentam a atracção de um produto quando aplicados correctamente. Por outro lado, a resposta semântica é a função de compreensão do produto. Os objectos desenhados são aparelhos funcionais que operam para executar a tarefa para a qual os iv

5 Resumo consumidores os usam. É por isso que uma parte significativa do valor assignado a um produto pertence à sua utilidade. Isto pode também incluir qualidades prácticas como função, performance, eficiência e ergonomia. Todos estes aspectos funcionais podem ser transmitidos ao consumidor pela aparência visual de um produto. Neste caso a avaliação do produto pelo consumidor, em termos de utilidade e qualidades captadas, pode ser descrita como resposta semântica. A resposta semiótica é definida como a percepção daquilo que um produto diz/transmite acerca do seu dono ou utilizador. Em adicção às qualidades visuais (estética) e funcionais (semântica), quase todos os produtos possuem um significado social (semiótico). O objecto permite a uma pessoa comunicar a sua identidade através do design. Isto é denominado por simbolismo auto-expressivo. Este significado autoexpressivo serve para diferenciar o consumidor do ambiente social. Também permite expressar um status social e características pessoais denominadas por simbolismo categorizado. Os significados categóricos servem para integrar o consumidor num ambiente social. Em adição às três respostas cognitivas, as respostas emocionais são também parte da resposta psicológica. Os consumidores podem ser estimulados com respostas emocionais de forma a escolherem um determinado artefacto de entre uma fila de produtos similares; é por isso que estas respostas têm uma influência considerável nas decisões de compra de um consumidor. Uma vez que o conceito de emoções é amplo e indifinido, muitos tipos de emoções podem ser evocados pelos produtos. Neste estudo o modelo básico de emoções é explicado com quatro parâmetros, apreciação, preocupação, produto e emoção. Os primeiros três parâmetros e as suas interacções, determinam se um produto revela uma emoção, e se tal for o caso, que emoção é evocada. As emoções são categorizadas como instrumental, estética, social, surpresa e interesse. A terceira resposta psicológica é o resultado das respostas cognativas e emocionais. Uma vez que resposta psicológica de um consumidor influencia a forma como ele/ela agem em relação a um produto, as respostas comportamentais são por isso consideradas um loop (aproximação-recuo). Quando uma forma particular revela respostas v

6 Resumo psicológicas positivas, o consumidor tende a ficar atraído com comportamentos de atracção tais como, ver, ouvir ou tocar o produto durante muito tempo. Pelo contrário, quando um produto revela respostas negativas, o consumidor tende evitar ver, tocar ou comprar um produto. Depois de rever a literatura existente, conclui-se que não existem muitos sistemas capazes de providenciar uma vista pormenorizada, das interacções entre todas aquelas respostas psicológicas, dentro de um processo de comunicação. Um dos sistemas mais significativos na literatura actual é aquele publicado pelos investigadores de design Crilly, Moultrie e Clarkson em O modelo básico de comunicação para design de produto pelo professor de marketing Peter Bloch foi também disponibilizado como uma visão alternativa. Eles foram analisados fazendo uma comparação entre prós e contras. Ambos os sistemas demonstram a importância das respostas psicológicas e explicam a interacção entre as respostas cognitivas (estética, semântica e semiótica). De qualquer forma a relação entre as respostas emocionais e cognitivas não é definida claramente. Ambos os sistemas discutem que existem alguns factores de moderação que afectam a transmissão do significado de um produto. Estes são descritos como preferências de design inatas, caracteristicas do consumidor e factores relacionados com a situação. As influências culturais são também consideradas como moderadores que podem alterar o significado de um produto. De qualquer forma a cultura tem um poder de influência mais forte que pode mesmo ultrapassar sentimentos mais internos e preferências individuais. Por essa mesma razão uma análise mais detalhada é feita de modo a compreender o design cultural e o seu efeito no design de produto. Um produto tem um significado que vai para além do caracter prático e valor comercial. Este significado depende da habilidade de transportar e comunicar o significado cultural. Dentro do mundo social, o significado cultural flui continuamente entre vários locais. De acordo com este caminho, o significado cultural é transferido de um mundo cultural para um bem de consumo. De forma a providenciar uma vista detalhada acerca do mundo cultural, o efeito do design cultural tem sido explorado ao longo da história (desde 1900). Por isso mesmo a análise demonstrou como os designers dos séculos XX e XXI foram/são afectados pelo mundo que os rodeia. vi

7 Resumo A disertação envolveu um caso de estudo e análise acerca de produtos que foram sucesso e outros que falharam, de forma a compreender o que é que esses designers e empresas/fabricantes fizeram ou não fizeram correctamente. O Sony Walkman e o Apple ipod foram analizados em termos de respostas cognativas (estética, semântica e semiótica) e emocionais. Os princípios gerais de resposta psicológica foram aplicados aos casos do legendário Walkman e do ipod de forma a confirmar se estes princípios tiveram alguma influência aquando da criação destes produtos, que foram admirados de forma global por milhões de pessoas por todo o mundo. O caso do MpMan foi também investigado como sendo um exemplo de produto falhado. É questionável o que é que a empresa SaeHan (o inventor do leitor MP3 MpMan) fez de errado para que não tivesse o mesmo sucesso que o seu competidor ipod (da Apple) que entrou no mercado Americano 3 anos após o lançamento do MPMan. Como resultado final deste estudo, um novo sistema de comunicação foi proposto que inclui quer aspectos psicológicos, bem como culturais, na resposta do consumidor. Em adição a isto a ligação inexistente entre respostas cognitivas e emocionais, que não são clarificadas nos sistemas actuais foi redesenhado. Outro ponto em aberto nos sistemas actuais é o do papel da cultura dentro deste processo de comunicação. Baseado nesta análise de design cultural, foi concluído que a cultura não só afecta as pessoas como indivíduos, mas também está presente em tudo aquilo que sentimos. Por essa mesma razão foi enfatizado que os designers precisam de entender a dinâmica do design cultural que afecta o mundo como um todo, e depois as sub-culturas que envolvem o designer e o consumidor. O principal objectivo desta disertação foi o de entender o porquê de gostarmos de certos produtos mais do que outros. Como resultado final um guia de design foi proposto de forma a dar ao designer factores chave na criação de produtos que podem ser aceites e adorados globalmente. Palavras-chave: respostas cognativais, resposta estética, resposta semântica, resposta semiótica, respostas emocionais, design cultural vii

8 ABSTRACT Designers cannot have direct contact with all the population for whom they design the mass-produced products. Once the product is designed, it exists independently apart from its designer s control. In this manner, design can be considered as a process of communication, where the designer s intentions related to product is transmitted to the consumer via product form. After that, the consumer interprets the product without direct access to the designer or his/her intentions, and therefore there cannot be any negotiation between the designer and the consumer in order to clarify the intended meaning of the product. This research study provides enhanced literature review related to the current methods and concepts that explain the communication process between the designer and the consumer in order to understand how the meaning that the designer conveys is perceived by the consumer and what factors may alter this message. The study findings demonstrate that psychological responses categorized as cognitive, affective and behavioral; play key roles within this communication process. Cognitive responses are the judgments that the consumer makes about the product based on the perceived information by the senses which are grouped in three main titles: aesthetic, semantic and semiotic responses. Aesthetic response is defined as the sensation that is an outcome of the perceived attractiveness (or unattractiveness) in products. The aesthetic value of a product belongs to the pleasure derived from appearance of the product, without any usage of it. When there are alternative products that are similar in terms of function and price; consumers prefer aesthetically most appealing one. Our aesthetic judgments are affected with some innate preferences. However, there are some general aesthetic principles that are accepted by many scholars as primary factors that increase the appealing of the product when applied correctly. Semantic response, on the other hand, is the perceived function of the product. Designed objects are functional devices that operate in some way to perform the task for which the consumers use them. Therefore, a significant part of the value assigned to the product belongs to its utility. This may also include practical qualities such as function, viii

9 Abstract performance, efficiency and ergonomics. All these functional aspects can be transmitted to the consumer by the visual form of the product. In this case the evaluation of the product by the consumer in terms of utility and perceived qualities is described as semantic response. Semiotic response is defined as the perception of what the product says about its owner or user. In addition to the visual (aesthetic) and functional (semantic) qualities, almost all products hold some socially determined symbolic (semiotic) meaning. The object allows a person to communicate his identity through design. This is called selfexpressive symbolism. These self-expressive meanings serve to differentiate the consumer from the social environment. It also allows expressing social status and personal characteristics called categorical symbolism. The categorical meanings serve to integrate the consumer with the social environment. In addition to the three cognitive responses, emotional responses are also part of psychological response. Consumers can be stimulated with emotional responses to select a particular artifact from a row of similar products; therefore these responses have a considerable influence on their purchase decisions. Since the concept of emotions is broad and indefinite, many different kinds of emotions can be evoked by the products. Within this research study, the basic model of emotions is explained with four parameters such as appraisal, concern, product and emotion. The first three parameters, and their interactions, determine if a product reveals an emotion, and if so, which emotion is evoked. Emotions are categorized as instrumental, aesthetic, social, surprise and interest. The third psychological response is actually a result of cognitive and emotional responses, because consumer s psychological response influences the way he/she behaves towards the product. Behavioral responses can be considered as an approachavoidance loop. When a particular form reveals positive psychological responses, the consumer tends to be attracted with approach activities, such as viewing for a long time, listening, or touching of the product. On the contrary, when a product reveals negative response, then the consumer avoids seeing, touching or purchasing the product. ix

10 Abstract After reviewing the existing literature, it has been concluded that there are not so many frameworks that provide an insight view of the interactions between all those psychological responses within a communication process. One of the most significant framework in the literature was published by the design researchers Crilly, Moultrie and Clarkson in The marketing professor Peter Bloch s basic model of communication for product design was also available as an alternative view. They were analyzed by comparing and defining the pros-cons. Both frameworks demonstrate the importance of psychological responses and explain the interaction between cognitive (aesthetic, semantic, semiotic) responses. However the link between emotional and cognitive responses is not clearly defined. Both frameworks argue that there are some moderating factors that affect the transmission of the product meaning. These are described as innate design preferences, consumer characteristics and situational factors. Cultural influences are also considered as moderators that may alter the intended meaning of the product. However culture has more powerful influence which overwhelms inner feelings and individual preferences, for that reason a more detailed analysis is pursued to understand the design culture and its effect on product design. A product has meaning that goes beyond its practical character and commercial value. And this meaning depends on its ability to carry and communicate cultural meaning. Within the social world, cultural meaning flows continually between several locations. According to this pathway, cultural meaning is transferred from a culturally constituted world to a consumer good. In order to provide insight view about culturally constituted world, the effect of design culture along the history since 1900 is explored. Therefore the analysis demonstrated how the designers of twentieth and twenty-first centuries were affected with the world that surrounded them. The dissertation involved a case study analysis related to succeeded and failed products in order to understand what those designers and companies did or did not do correctly. Sony Walkman and Apple ipod devices were analyzed in terms of cognitive (aesthetic, semantic, semiotic) and emotional responses. General principles of psychological responses were applied to the cases of legendary Walkman and ipod in order to confirm if these principles had any influence in creating products that were loved globally by x

11 Abstract millions of people all over the world. MpMan case was also investigated as a failed product case. It was questioned what SaeHan company the inventor of mp3 player MpMan, did wrong to have failed against its competitor Apple which entered to the US market with ipod only three years later. As the final outcome of the research study, a new design communication framework was proposed that included both psychological and cultural aspects of the consumer response. In addition to this, the missing link between cognitive and emotional responses that was not clarified in existing frameworks was re-designed. Another missing point in the previous frameworks was the role of culture within this communication process. Based on the analysis of design culture, it was concluded that the culture not only affects people as individuals, but also it surrounds everything we sense. For that reason it was emphasized that the designers need to understand the dynamics of the design culture that affects the world as a whole and then the subcultures in which the designer and the consumer are involved. The main objective of this dissertation was to understand why we love some products more than others. As the final outcome of the dissertation, a design guideline was proposed to provide key factors for the designers to create products that can be accepted and loved globally. Key-words: cognitive responses, aesthetic response, semantic response, semiotic response, emotional responses, design culture xi

12 CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDMENTS... iii RESUMO... iv ABSTRACT... viii CONTENTS... xii LIST OF FIGURES... xv CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION... 1 CHAPTER 2: PSYCHOLOGICAL RESPONSES TO PRODUCT DESIGN Designer s Intention Cognitive Responses Aesthetic Response Semantic Response Semiotic Response Emotional (Affective) Responses Behavioral Responses CHAPTER 3: DESIGN AS A PROCESS OF COMMUNICATION Existing Frameworks Moderating Factors Innate Design Preferences xii

13 Consumer Characteristics Situational Factors Cultural Influences CHAPTER 4: THE EFFECT OF DESIGN CULTURE ON PRODUCT DESIGN What is Design Culture? Movement of Cultural Meaning Designers as Cultural Intermediaries CHAPTER 5: THE EVOLUTION OF DESIGN CULTURE SINCE Twentieth Century Design Conservative Modernism Progressive Modernism The New Modernism Pop Revolution Post-Modernism Eco Design / Environmental Design The Influence of New Materials Twenty-First Century Design Design Thinking CHAPTER 6: CASE STUDY: WHY DO WE LOVE SONY WALKMAN & APPLE IPOD? Sony Walkman xiii

14 Aesthetic Response of WM Semantic Response of WM Semiotic Response of WM Apple ipod vs. MpMan Aesthetic Response of ipod (1 st gen) Semantic Response of ipod (1 st gen) Semiotic Response of ipod (1 st gen) CHAPTER 7: HOW TO DESIGN GLOBALLY LOVED PRODUCTS? A New Framework Proposal for Communication Through Design Key Factors of Designing Globally Loved Products CHAPTER 8: CONCLUSION BIBLIOGRAPHY APPENDICES APPENDIX A: Bloch s Framework APPENDIX B: Crilly, Moultrie and Clarkson s Framework APPENDIX C: New Framework Proposal xiv

15 LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1 Small Ghost Buster night table by Philippe Starck... 2 Figure 2 Bruno Mattson, Eva, 1934; Jonas Bohlin, Concrete, Figure 3 Juicy Salif designed by Philippe Starck for Alessi Figure 4 Golden Section Rectangle Figure 5 Symmetry in complex, natural and deformed objects Figure 6 Rule of Proximity Figure 7 Rule of Similarity Figure 8 Rule of good continuance Figure 9 Figure/ground rule on face/vase illustrations Figure 10 Harmony in visual appearance Figure 11 Berlyne's theory Figure 12 Apple imac designed in Figure 13 Philips Essence Coffeemaker (left) Philips Alessi Coffeemaker (right) Figure 14 Apple ipod Shuffle (1st gen) Figure 15 Institut du Monde Arabe Figure 16 Philips, the Senseo Crema Figure 17 Honeywell Round Termostat by Henry Dreyfuss Figure 18 The Pie Watch, Time by Design Figure 19 BMW Radiator Grill Design xv

16 Figure 20 Meanings of material possessions for identity (adapted from Dittmar) Figure 21 Swatch designs Figure 22 Desmet s basic model of emotions and their classifications Figure 23 Philips Avance Collection Juicer (left), Philips HR2737 citrus press (right) Figure 24 Muuto Wood Lamp Figure 25 The Sinch designed by Frog and Dune Road Design Figure 26 Paola Navone Como Collection for Crate & Barrel Figure 27 AT&T Answering Machine Figure 28 Dual Electronics Hi-Fi System Figure 29 Basic model of communication Figure 30 Basic model Figure 31 Crilly, Moultrie and Clarkson s basic framework Figure 32 Bloch s basic framework Figure 33 Crilly, Moultrie and Clarkson s framework with expanded cognitive response Figure 34 Bloch s framework with moderating influences Figure 35 Crilly, Moultrie and Clarkson s framework with moderating influences Figure 36 Crilly, Moultrie and Clarkson s framework with context of consumption. 59 Figure 37 Domains of Design Culture Figure 38 Movement of Cultural Meaning (Adapted from McCracken) Figure 39 - Keith Murray Ceramic Vase for Wedgwood xvi

17 Figure 40 - Donald Deskey Table Lamp, Figure 41 Landi Chair by Hans Coray, Figure 42 Armchair 406 by Alvar Aalto, Figure 43 Child chair model no designed by Marco Zanuso, Figure 44 Blow chair by De Pas, D'Urbino and Lornazzi, Figure 45 The Sony Walkman TPS-L2 vs. TCM Figure 46 The Sony Walkman WM Figure 47 The Sony Walkman WM-2 without clip holder (left), with belt clip holder (right) Figure 48 World s First MP3 Player MpMan -F Figure 49 - ipod Golden Section Figure 50 - Ipod versus MpMan Figure 51 - ipod chrome plated backside Figure 52 - Braun T3 Pocket radio vs. Ipod (1st gen) Figure 53 A New Framework Proposal for Communication Through Design xvii

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19 1 INTRODUCTION We all have products that we love more than the others and many times we find ourselves buying things despite having no actual need. Why do we believe that certain product is better than all the others, even though we have never tested the alternatives? It is evident that the products have emotional meanings for us that are not written in the instruction manuals. In order to understand these meanings, first we need to understand what design means. Etymologically the meaning of design goes back to the Latin de + signare and means making something, distinguishing it by a sign, giving it significance, designating its relation to other things, owners, users, or goods. In other words, "design is a sense creating activity" that can claim perception, experience, and aesthetics as its basic concern. According to Krippendorff 1 there might be two other interpretation of this statement. The products are designed to be understandable or meaningful to someone" or "design is concerned with the subjective meanings of objectively existing objects." This means that if we are talking about things, the identification of something as a thing is already a sense. However, making sense can vary between the aim of making something new that is different from what was done before, and the desire to make sense, to be noticeable and understandable. 1 Krippendorff, Klaus - On the essential contexts of artifacts or on the proposition that" design is making sense (of things)"

20 Chapter 1 Which interpretation reflects better the twenty-first century design paradigm? Do all the designers know the rules of the game making sense? What makes it possible that some products enter the market and they are loved globally, however others fail? What is the reason that Sony Walkman became a design icon in the early 80 s and loved by the millions of people from different continents and different cultures? Is there a recipe out there for the designers to understand all the boundaries of consumer response and discover again the forgotten piece: making sense? Several studies indicate that good product design has a significant influence on commercial success 2. There are a number of ways in which product design has influence on consumer preference 3. The design of a product triggers consumers first impression of the product and quickly can establish product advantage. In addition, the design of a product generates meanings related to several product attributes. Furthermore, product form can generate value in itself; many people like to buy a product that pleases them aesthetically. Since the influence of product design on consumer response is often complex, it is not very easy to decide about it during the product design process. For example, bright colored product may be valued aesthetically, but these same colors may give consumers the idea that the product is of low quality 4 (See Figure 1). Figure 1 Small Ghost Buster night table by Philippe Starck 5 2 Creusen, Marielle E. H. and Schoormans, Jan P. - The Different Roles of Product Appearance in Consumer Choice* Bloch, Peter H. - Seeking the ideal form: product design and consumer response Creusen, Marielle E. H. and Schoormans, Jan P. - The Different Roles of Product Appearance in Consumer Choice* Small Ghost Buster night table [Em linha] [Consult. em 20 Jan 2014]. Disponível em WWW: < 2

21 Introduction There is a broad variety of literature related to consumer response to a product form; in other words, what the product means to the consumer. However creating boundaries between these different views is not very easy. Because different fields of interest such as aesthetics, consumer research, psychology, sociology, semantics and marketing are involved as well as the design research. Many of the ideas represented in the literature are not connected to each other even when they are related. In addition to this, there are a few frameworks that have been integrated to form a general and logical perspective. Almost all the detailed theories related to the specific aspects of product form are not established within the context of a more general framework. This obstructs the development of a proper understanding of the subject and may lead to failure in evaluating the relation of each contribution 6. Veryzer argues that the progress related to the literature of consumer response to a product form has been greatly blocked by the lack of a conceptual framework 7. On the other hand, many researchers, despite being from different disciplines, using different methods, and having different objectives, achieve a similar result by proposing prominent categories into which consumer response might be divided 8. The main objective of this dissertation is to create a guideline for the designers to design better products that can be accepted and loved globally while answering the question of what exactly constitutes the value of a product design for consumers. To be able to achieve this goal, the research study begins with an overview of the different meanings of the product in the purchase decision of consumers. More precisely, the influence of what consumers see on the product while making a purchase decision will be described 9. The investigation provides enhanced literature review related to the current methods and concepts that explain the communication process between the designer and the 6 Crilly, Nathan, Moultrie, James and Clarkson, P. John - Seeing things: consumer response to the visual domain in product design Veryzer, Robert W. and De Mozota, Brigitte Borja - The Impact of User-Oriented Design on New Product Development: An Examination of Fundamental Relationships* Crilly, Nathan, Moultrie, James and Clarkson, P. John - Shaping things: intended consumer response and the other determinants of product form Creusen, Marielle E. H. and Schoormans, Jan P. - The Different Roles of Product Appearance in Consumer Choice*

22 Chapter 1 consumer in order to understand how the meaning that the designer intends to give is perceived by the consumer and what factors may alter this message. The meaning of the product is analyzed in two directions: Psychological and cultural. The link between psychological meaning and cultural meaning is re-established since the current frameworks in the literature only explain either the psychological or the cultural meaning of a product form. Proposed framework emphasizes the cultural context of the communication process between the designer and the consumer. Second chapter provides insights related to the psychological meaning of the product. The designer s intention while giving meaning to the product and the consumer s cognitive, affective (emotional) and behavioral responses to this intended meaning is explored. Cognitive responses are analyzed in three main titles: aesthetic, semantic and semiotic responses. Third chapter investigates these responses within a process of communication. Existing frameworks in the literature are reviewed by comparing and defining the pros-cons for each framework. Moreover, the moderating factors that affect the linear communication process are explored. Fourth chapter is related to the cultural meaning of product design. Cultural norms concerning design are especially essential because they have the tendency to overwhelm inner feelings and individual preferences 10. For that reason it is very crucial to understand the effect of design culture on product design and the movement of cultural meaning from a culturally constituted world to a consumer good. This chapter also explores the role of designers as cultural intermediaries. The historical evolution of design culture since 1900 is investigated in the Fifth Chapter as an insight view to understand how the meaning of the product was transmitted by using various types of materials and pursuing different design movements along the history. This chapter gives clues about why design culture is so important for the communication process between the designer and the consumer. 10 McCracken, Grant - Culture and consumption: a theoretical account of the structure and movement of the cultural meaning of consumer goods

23 Introduction Sixth chapter involves a case study analysis related to succeed and failed products in order to understand what those designers and companies did or did not do correctly. Sony Walkman and Apple ipod devices are analyzed in terms of cognitive (aesthetic, semantic, semiotic) and emotional responses. General principles of psychological responses that are explained in the Second Chapter are applied to the cases of legendary Walkman and ipod in order to confirm if these principles had any influence in creating products that were loved globally by millions of people all over the world. MpMan case is also investigated as a failed product case. It is questioned what SaeHan company the inventor of mp3 player MpMan, did wrong to have failed against its competitor Apple which entered to the US market with ipod only three years later. The results of both case studies are analyzed in the Seventh Chapter. As a consequence of the research study, a new design communication framework will be proposed that includes both psychological and cultural aspects of the consumer response. In addition to this, the missing link between cognitive and emotional responses that was not clarified in existing frameworks will be re-designed. This chapter will also be able to answer the main questions of the research study listed below: What are the key factors to design a product that will be accepted and loved globally? (Design guideline for the designers to give intended meaning to the product) What is the relationship between the consumer and the product? (New framework for communication through design) Why do we love some products more than the others? Do designers need to take into account cultural differences while designing their products? The Final Chapter will be a conclusion chapter where the dissertation s main inputs and outputs will be summarized. 5

24 2 PSYCHOLOGICAL RESPONSES TO PRODUCT DESIGN In order to understand the consumer s psychological responses to product design, we need to understand what design is. The International Council Societies of Industrial Design (ICSID), an organization that gathers professional designers associations worldwide, provides the definition of design as below: Aim: Design is a creative activity whose aim is to establish the multi-faceted qualities of objects, processes, services and their systems in whole life cycles. Therefore, design is the central factor of innovative humanization of technologies and the crucial factor of cultural and economic exchange. Tasks: Design seeks to discover and assess structural, organizational, functional, expressive and economic relationships, with the task of: Enhancing global sustainability and environmental protection (global ethics) Giving benefits and freedom to the entire human community, individual and collective Final users, producers and market protagonists (social ethics) Supporting cultural diversity despite the globalization of the world (cultural ethics) 6

25 Chapter 2 Giving products, services and systems, those forms that are expressive of (semiology) and coherent with (aesthetics) their proper complexity. 11 This definition avoids seeing design only in terms of aesthetics and appearance. Instead, notions of consistency and creativity are emphasized, as well as industrial quality and shape 12. Tomás Maldonado also proposed a definition of Industrial Design cited from ICSID 13 : Industrial design is a creative activity whose aim is to determine the formal qualities of objects produced by industry. These formal qualities are not only the external features but are principally those structural and functional relationships which convert a system to a coherent unity both from the point of view of the producer and the user. Industrial design extends to embrace all the aspects of human environment, which are conditioned by industrial production. Another definition is provided by Industrial Designers Society of America (IDSA) which explains the relation of design with the industry and the market 14. Industrial design is the professional service of creating and developing concepts and specifications that optimize the function, value and appearance of products and systems for the mutual benefit of both user and manufacturer. This definition emphasizes on the ability of design as a mediator between the industrial, technological worlds and the consumer 15. Designers create their products with certain intentions of how they will be interpreted in particular ways. Consumers being engaged with designed products, make interpretations that influence how they feel, think and behave. These interpretations can be called as 11 ICSID - Definition of Design [Em linha] [Consult. em 20 Jan 2014]. Disponível em WWW: < 12 De Mozota, Brigitte Borja - Design Management: Using Design to Build Brand Value and Corporate Innovation. Skyhorse Publishing Company, Incorporated, p ICSID - History [Em linha] [Consult. em 20 Jan 2014]. Disponível em WWW: < 14 IDSA - What is Industrial Design? [Em linha] [Consult. em 20 Jan 2014]. Disponível em WWW: < 15 De Mozota, Brigitte Borja - Design Management: Using Design to Build Brand Value and Corporate Innovation. Skyhorse Publishing Company, Incorporated, p.3. 7

26 Psychological Responses to Product Design psychological meanings of the product design. Even though, consumer interpretation may correspond to the designer s intention in varying degrees, it may also be very different from the intention in unexpected ways 16. Visual information is considered as the base for consumer s judgment about products. The product appearance or form is very important in terms of communicating information. An initial impression is generated by the product form as well as meanings related to other product attributes. For that reason the appearance of a product is a crucial element of consumer response and market success. Products can be differentiated from competitors and attract consumers with their appealing designs. Since consumers and designers have no direct point of contact with each other, the invisible attributes of the product such as functionality and social significance are communicated by the designers through the product itself. Therefore, a product design could be perceived as a language that the designer employs to communicate the product with the consumers as a whole 17. We need to take into consideration that response to a product design is a multi-faceted phenomenon which involves subjective feelings, behavioral reactions, expressive reactions, and psychological reactions 18. It is necessary for the designers to make prominent connotative and denotative meanings of their products to meet the consumers' needs. Denotation can be described as the relationship between the function and the object. In product design, products are always materialized by physical functional descriptions (e.g. a pencil for writing, a chair for sitting etc.). Connotation is related to the relationship of the symbol and the properties or adjectives of the object. In terms of communicating symbolic functions, connotation transmits dynamic properties that changes from person to person. Connotative design goals are often the hardest ones to address due to uncertainty factor 19. This implies that the consumers' feeling related to the product is a very 16 Crilly, Nathan, Good, David, Matravers, Derek and Clarkson, P.John - Design as communication: exploring the validity and utility of relating intention to interpretation Bloch, Peter H. - Seeking the ideal form: product design and consumer response Desmet, Pieter M.A. and Hekkert, Paul - Framework of product experience Lin, Rungtai, Lin, C. Y. and Wong, Joan - An application of multidimensional scaling in product semantics

27 Chapter 2 complex cognitive process and many intricate elements contribute how a product form is perceived 20. In order to understand the difference between denotation and connotation; we give an example of the two chairs in Figure 2 which are both designed by Swedish designers and have been design icons of their times. Figure 2 Bruno Mattson, Eva, ; Jonas Bohlin, Concrete, The one on the left is designed by Bruno Mattson in 1934 and the one on the right by Jonas Bohlin in The denotation is same for both of them. They are both chairs and made to sit on. However the connotation is completely different. First chair is made from natural materials such as wood and woven textile. It has organic forms that follow the body of the user and provides a connotation of comfortable rest. On the other hand, the second one is made from concrete and steel. It has two flat blocks of concrete and a very simple geometric shape of steel that forms the arms. It shows the basic signs of a chair, a sitting area, a back and arms, but it provides a connotation of distance and discomfort. It seems like a provocative object rather than a domestic chair. 20 Hsu, Shang H., Chuang, Ming C. and Chang, Chien C. - A semantic differential study of designers and users product form perception Ibid. 21 Chair Eva [Em linha] [Consult. em 9 Dez 2013]. Disponível em WWW: < 22 Chair Concrete [Em linha] [Consult. em 9 Dec 2013]. Disponível em WWW: < 1981>. 9

28 Psychological Responses to Product Design While taking into account the factors that influence the product design, it is generally thought that the functions of the product should determine the product s form 23. For instance, Louis Sullivan s doctrine 24 form follows function supports these modernist and functionalist views on design. According to this doctrine, the general problem that the design must solve or the specific benefits that it must offer determines the final appearance of the product. However, as explained above, one can never define the product functions objectively, because products are used for different purposes, in different contexts and they provide different connotations to different users Designer s Intention Designers cannot have direct contact with all the population for whom they design the mass-produced products. The product exists independently apart from its designer s control, once manufactured and released to the marketplace. In this sense, design can be seen as a process of mediated communication, where the designer s intentions related to how a product should be interpreted is transmitted to the consumer. After that, the consumer interprets the product without direct access to the designer or his/her intentions, and therefore there cannot be any negotiation between the designer and the consumer in order to clarify the intended meaning of the product 26. In this regard, designer s role is to design a product form that satisfies the target consumers and meet the relevant design constraints such as performance goals, ergonomics, manufacturing, material and marketing constraints as well as regulatory and legal requirements 27 In addition to those design constraints, designers intentions can be also considered as one of the main constraints that influence the consumer response 28. This subjective 23 Crilly, Nathan, Moultrie, James and Clarkson, P. John - Shaping things: intended consumer response and the other determinants of product form Sullivan, Louis H. - The tall office building artistically considered Crilly, Nathan, Moultrie, James and Clarkson, P. John - Shaping things: intended consumer response and the other determinants of product form Crilly, Nathan, Good, David, Matravers, Derek and Clarkson, P.John - Design as communication: exploring the validity and utility of relating intention to interpretation Ibid. 27 Bloch, Peter H. - Seeking the ideal form: product design and consumer response Crilly, Nathan, Moultrie, James and Clarkson, P. John - Shaping things: intended consumer response and the other determinants of product form

29 Chapter 2 constraint is named as self-expression. For instance, Philippe Starck defends his lemon squeezer Juicy Salif (Figure 3) with the sentence below, as a response to the people who think that his design doesn t work because it doesn t fulfill the requirements of a lemon squeezer. Figure 3 Juicy Salif designed by Philippe Starck for Alessi 29 Sometimes you must choose why you design in this case not to squeeze lemons, even though as a lemon squeezer it works. Sometimes you need some more humble service: on a certain night, the young couple, just married, invites the parents of the groom to dinner, and the groom and his father go to watch football on the TV. And for the first time the mother of the groom and the young bride are in the kitchen and there is a sort of malaise this squeezer is made to start the conversation 30. As given in the example of Philip Starck s Juicy Salif, the intention to design an object to squeeze lemons must certainly follow the design of any lemon squeezer, but the intention to design a conversation starter object doesn t necessarily have to. (Otherwise we would name it conversation starter instead of lemon squeezer). Conversation starting is more of a description for the product s actual function than its intended function. Designers design their products based on their experiences, play with form and express 29 Juicy Salif [Em linha] [Consult. em 20 Jan 2013]. Disponível em WWW: < 30 Lloyd, P. and Snelders, D. - What was Philippe Starck thinking of?

30 Psychological Responses to Product Design their feelings and then they transmit this intended function to the consumers via product form 31. Designers use a variety of methods to attract, inform and influence consumers during activities of form creation 32. However, benefits of these activities are limited, either because designers are unwilling to make their knowledge explicit or because they perceive form creation to be an activity that is intuitive by nature and difficult to verbalize 33. In this sense, Kazmierczak 34 claims that the degree of correspondence between the intentions of designers and the interpretations of consumers defines the effectiveness of design: The more strategically successful the design is, the more accurately and consistently does it trigger similar thoughts in different receivers. These thoughts, in turn, cause the receiver to respond to a design in a certain way, and thus define its effectiveness. It is the designer who takes the responsibility for the effectiveness of the design by driving strategic thinking and planning to construct signals for transmitting the intended meaning to the receiver 35. Once the product is designed with a certain intention defined by the designer, the consumers naturally have some variety of psychological responses to the product design which might be different than the ones that the designer intends. Consumer s interpretation to the designed product form can be analyzed in three sections; cognitive, emotional (affective) responses and behavioral responses Ibid. 32 Crilly, Nathan, Moultrie, James and Clarkson, P. John - Shaping things: intended consumer response and the other determinants of product form Ibid. 33 Tovey, Michael - Styling and design: intuition and analysis in industrial design Ibid. 34 Kazmierczak, Elzbieta T. - Design as meaning making: from making things to the design of thinking p Ibid. 36 Bloch, Peter H. - Seeking the ideal form: product design and consumer response

31 Chapter 2 Therefore, Section 2.2, Section 2.3 and Section 2.4 seek for the answers of what kind of cognitive-sensory mechanisms enable transitions of the meaning from physical to mental and what kind of cognitive, emotional and behavioral responses occur in the end Cognitive Responses Cognitive response can be explained as the judgments that the consumer makes about the product based on the perceived information by the senses. These judgments involve assessment of the products perceived qualities. There are a number of different approaches that exist in the literature to describe cognitive responses to design. However, when the work of Crilly, Moultrie and Clarkson 37, Crozier 38, Baxter 39 and Norman 40 were reviewed; the following three-level categories to describe cognitive response to product design aroused as common points: aesthetic, semantic and semiotic responses. Aesthetic response can be described as sensation that is an outcome of the perceived attractiveness (or unattractiveness) in products. We may relate this definition with Crilly, Moultrie and Clarkson s aesthetic impression, Crozier s response to form, Baxter s intrinsic attractiveness and Norman s visceral level in design. Semantic response can be described as what people see about the product in terms of its function, mode-of-use and qualities. We may relate this definition with Crilly, Moultrie and Clarkson s semantic interpretation, Crozier s response to function, Baxter s semantic(functional) attractiveness and Norman s behavioral level in design. Symbolic response on the other hand; is described as what people perceive related to the product s owner or user: the personal and social meaning attached to the design. We may relate this definition with Crilly, Moultrie and Clarkson s symbolic association, 37 Crilly, Nathan, Moultrie, James and Clarkson, P. John - Seeing things: consumer response to the visual domain in product design Crozier, W. Ray - Manufactured pleasures: psychological responses to design. Manchester University Press Manchester, p Baxter, Mike - Product design: a practical guide to systematic methods of new product development. CRC Press, p Norman, Donald A. - Emotional design: Why we love (or hate) everyday things

32 Psychological Responses to Product Design Crozier s response to meaning, Baxter s symbolic attractiveness and Norman s reflective level in design. These elements of response are classifications for different aspects of cognitive response to product form rather than objective qualities of the product. It means that aesthetic, semantic or symbolic qualities do not belong to the product itself. Instead, these are the aspects of cognition process which are driven by both the perception of tangible stimuli and pre-existing knowledge 41. Cognitive process can be described as a circular making sense activity. Some inexplicable sensation initiates the process and imagining of hypothetical contexts follows it. Finally it goes around an interpretation circle until the process approaches a sufficiently coherent understanding such as context and meaning of the product Aesthetic Response The word "aesthetics," originates from the Greek word aisthetikos which means pertaining to sense perception. German philosopher Alexander Baumgarten was the first person to introduce the term in the late 1700's. He has chosen it because he wished to emphasize the experience of art as a field of concrete knowledge in which content is communicated in sensory form instead of strict reasoning or logic 43. As Berlyne claims "... esthetics is certainly concerned with the arts, but it is not confined to the arts 44. This view is also innate in the practice of product design 45. Crilly, Moutrie and Clarkson are the design researchers at Engineering Design Center of Cambridge University. As stated before, they define aesthetic impression as the 41 Monö, R. - Design for Product Understanding: The Aesthetics of Design from a Semiotic Approach. Liber AB, Krippendorff, Klaus - On the essential contexts of artifacts or on the proposition that" design is making sense (of things)" Veryzer, Robert W. - Aesthetic response and the influence of design principles on product preferences Berlyne, Daniel E - The new experimental aesthetics p Veryzer, Robert W. - Aesthetic response and the influence of design principles on product preferences

33 Chapter 2 sensation that is an outcome of the perceived attractiveness (or unattractiveness) in products 46. Baxter on the other hand describes intrinsic attractiveness as the inherent beauty of the product s form. He claims that in terms of visual appearance, the most uncertain and intangible quality of the product is its elegance, beauty and intrinsic aesthetic appeal which can be defined as the embodiment of the perceptual, social and cultural attributes of the product 47. According to Norman s visceral level, physical features such as look, feel and sound are the dominant factors and it involves sensory perception and initial reactions. He claims that in order to study visceral level of design, we simply need to show the product to the people and wait for the reactions. Visceral design s main concern is emotional impact. The product design has to feel good and look good 48. For that reason, aesthetic response has a symbolic function that affects how a product is perceived and assessed. The choices of designers in developing the appearances of new products might be influenced by different images like elegance, ease of use, youthfulness, durability, and innovativeness 49. Product appearance is the first connection between a product and a potential buyer, where sensory experience is followed by the judgments 50. Designers use their trainings, experiences and skills to create products that stimulate positive aesthetic effect 51. The aesthetic value of a product belongs to the pleasure derived from the appearance of a product, without any usage of it. When there are alternative products that are similar in terms of function and price, consumers will prefer aesthetically the most appealing 46 Crilly, Nathan, Moultrie, James and Clarkson, P. John - Seeing things: consumer response to the visual domain in product design Baxter, Mike - Product design: a practical guide to systematic methods of new product development. CRC Press, p Norman, Donald A. - Emotional design: Why we love (or hate) everyday things p Forty, Adrian - Objects of Desire. Design and Society Since London: Thames and Hudson, Bloch, Peter H., Brunel, Frederic F. and Arnold, Todd J. - Individual differences in the centrality of visual product aesthetics: concept and measurement Ibid. 15

34 Psychological Responses to Product Design one. Aesthetic responses are personal responses. Several researchers have tried to figure out the product properties that are related with aesthetic impressions 52. In order to understand why certain stimuli please senses more than others, it is necessary to look into the functions of these adaptive systems so that we can derive the aesthetic principle that explains why certain features of the world in being functionally favorable, are aesthetically more pleasing as well 53. Our aesthetic judgments are affected with some innate preferences. There are some general rules of visual perception that allow us to extract visual information from any scene. The Golden Section (Proportion rule): When it is asked people to divide a line into two parts with most pleasing proportions, the tendency is to do it with the golden ratio. This ratio is calculated based on the Fibonacci series which goes to infinite. As the numbers reach into thousands, each number becomes a consistent fraction of its neighboring numbers which is calculated as The reason for this is not known, it just seems to look right. For instance, when we take a square of any size and draw a rectangle just next to it which is times wider, the proportions of this large rectangle are known as Golden Section 54. Figure 4 Golden Section Rectangle Creusen, Marielle E. H. and Schoormans, Jan P. - The Different Roles of Product Appearance in Consumer Choice* Hekkert, Paul - Design aesthetics: principles of pleasure in design Baxter, Mike - Product design: a practical guide to systematic methods of new product development. CRC Press, p Golden Section Rectangle [Em linha] [Consult. em 9 Dec 2013]. Disponível em WWW: < 16

35 Chapter 2 We can keep doing this with smaller and smaller rectangles as shown in Figure 4. The rectangles eventually spiral down to a point which is named equiangular spiral. The shells grown by snails follow this rule as well as the horns of antelopes, sheep, goats and the leaves around the stem 56. The Gestalt Rules: A group of German psychologists working in the 1920 s, 30 s and 40 s founded the rules of visual perception which are named as gestalt rules. Gestalt is the German word for pattern and it suggests that human vision organizes to see the world with certain pattern types 57. When an image is first seen, our brain tends to extract certain types of visual patterns and constructs them into a meaningful image. The gestalt rules of visual perception are considered as the operational rules for this programming of our brain 58. The first gestalt rule is symmetry. We have a significant ability to detect symmetry, in complex forms, natural forms with incomplete symmetry and even in objects which have deformed symmetry 59 (See Figure 5). Figure 5 Symmetry in complex, natural and deformed objects 60 The second rule, rule of proximity suggests that we tend to see the objects or features which are in close proximity as a pattern. Shown in Figure 6, the dots on the left are considered as a horizontal pattern because they are closer horizontally than they are 56 Baxter, Mike - Product design: a practical guide to systematic methods of new product development. CRC Press, p Ibid. 58 Ibid. 59 Ibid. 60 Ibid. 17

36 Psychological Responses to Product Design vertically and it is vice versa for the dots on the right. Due to their vertical proximity they make up a vertical pattern 61. Figure 6 Rule of Proximity 62 The rule of similarity suggests that we tend to see the objects or features which are of similar shape or form as a pattern. As shown below, the elements of Figure 7 are seen to make up a series of columns because of their similar shapes. Figure 7 Rule of Similarity 63 The rule of good continuance suggests that we perceive patterns according to their continuity, path or vector of their component parts. Figure 8 can be seen as two V s intersecting at one point. However, the two lines are seen as crossing each other due to continuity path of each line Ibid. 62 Ibid. 63 Ibid. 64 Ibid. 18

37 Chapter 2 Figure 8 Rule of good continuance 65 Another general perceptual ability which involves several gestalt rules is the interpretation of figure and ground image. Figure/ground judgments are made on the rules of symmetry, relative size, surrounded-ness and orientation. As shown in Figure 9a, both the vase and the faces are symmetrical and have approximately equal sizes. This illustration does not give any clue about which one is the figure which one is the ground. In Figure 9b, the vase is more preferred as a figure by changing the face orientation 45 degrees to vertical. However in Figure 9c, the vase is far more significant than Figure 9b because it is smaller and surrounded by the faces 66. (a) (b) (c) Figure 9 Figure/ground rule on face/vase illustrations 67 The most important implication of Gestalt rules is the visual simplicity of the products. In order to follow gestalt, products should be designed symmetrical with clean lines which go together to make up simple geometric forms. Breaking these rules can increase the sense of visual incoherence in products. As shown in Figure 10, cup on the left side repeats a single geometric from which gives sense of harmony. However the 65 Ibid. 66 Ibid. 67 Ibid. 19

38 Psychological Responses to Product Design one on the right side mixes many different geometric forms and therefore it has lack of visual harmony 68. Figure 10 Harmony in visual appearance 69 Complexity and familiarity (Berlyne s Theory): If the world just looked orderly and balanced as gestalt rules suggested, everything around us would be rather simple and boring and we might end up living in a world of circular and spherical shapes. As an opposite argument to the Gestalt psychologists, the Canadian psychologist Berlyne, claims that patterns are preferred for their ability to generate arousal 70. According to his theory, the relationship between pleasantness and arousal is not a simple correlation 71. Visual patterns with low arousal potential do not provide stimuli and leave the observer indifferent; patterns with high arousal potential are difficult to grasp and are considered unpleasant 72. Preferred patterns on the other hand, are the ones with medium (or optimum) arousal and stimulate the highest pleasantness 73. This relationship can be described as an inverted U curve (Figure 11) which is a function of pleasantness and potential arousal. For instance, reduction in novelty of an object with increasing familiarity decreases the arousal as a matter of fact decreases the pleasantness of the product. Moreover, products 68 Ibid. 69 Ibid. 70 Hekkert, Paul and Leder, Helmut - Product aesthetics p Crozier, W. Ray - Manufactured pleasures: psychological responses to design. Manchester University Press Manchester, p Baxter, Mike - Product design: a practical guide to systematic methods of new product development. CRC Press, p Hekkert, Paul and Leder, Helmut - Product aesthetics p

39 Chapter 2 which are either too simple or too complex give less pleasantness than those which are optimum in visual complexity 74. Berlyne s theory shows how product patterns with moderate complexity and familiarity have a predominant effect over the gestalt rules 75. Figure 11 Berlyne's theory 76 Apple imac which was released in 1998 can be given as an example of optimum arousal versus positive pleasantness in an object. It had clean lines and a simple shape which was quite similar to the previous computer models. However the usage of vivid colors and translucent materials to display the internal components generates optimum arousal by increasing the visual complexity. Figure 12 Apple imac designed in Crozier, W. Ray - Manufactured pleasures: psychological responses to design. Manchester University Press Manchester, p Baxter, Mike - Product design: a practical guide to systematic methods of new product development. CRC Press, p Ibid. 21

40 Psychological Responses to Product Design Prototypicality: It is also considered to have an influence on the aesthetic response for certain properties of stimuli. Prototypicality can be described as the degree to which something is a reference to a category 78. When a product is difficult to categorize in terms of its visual appearance, consumers may not consider the product as a purchase alternative. Therefore products that are slightly different from the prototype are considered more positive than the ones that are either very typical or very atypical. For instance, when we look at Figure 13; we may notice that while Philips Essence has a typical appearance which is very similar to the coffeemakers that exists in the market. On the other hand, Alessi Coffeemaker has a very atypical appearance which may cause some consumers not to notice it as a coffee maker as a purchase alternative during shopping. Figure 13 Philips Essence Coffeemaker 79 (left) Philips Alessi Coffeemaker 80 (right) Maximum effect with minimum means: By nature, people like to spend minimal amount of effort, resources, brain capacity, to obtain the highest possible effect in order to survive, learn or explain things. Therefore, we may consider a theory or formula beautiful when it only has a few assumptions or parameters for describing or predicting a broad range of phenomena. In the same way, a visual pattern pleases the eye when 77 Apple imac [Em linha] [Consult. em 10 Dec 2013]. Disponível em WWW: < 78 Creusen, Marielle E. H. and Schoormans, Jan P. - The Different Roles of Product Appearance in Consumer Choice* Philips Essence Coffeemaker [Em linha] [Consult. em 10 Dez 2013]. Disponível em WWW: < 80 Philips Alessi Coffeemaker [Em linha] [Consult. em 10 Dez 2013]. Disponível em WWW: < 22

41 Chapter 2 relatively simple design features elicit rich information 81. Designers often refer to this principle while choosing minimal solutions as shown in Figure 14. The Apple ipod shuffle is an mp3 player in a very small white box which has only a hole for the earplug a USB connection for battery charging and uploading songs and a simple click-wheel for navigation without a display. Figure 14 Apple ipod Shuffle (1st gen) 82 This principle involves two special cases that are called conjunctive ambiguity and metaphor. When an ambiguous pattern is created, it is possible to have more than one interpretation. Institut du Monde Arabe in Paris that is designed by the French architect Jean Nouvel involves this ambiguous pattern as an example 83 (Figure 15). Figure 15 Institut du Monde Arabe Hekkert, Paul - Design aesthetics: principles of pleasure in design Ibid. 83 Ibid. 84 Arab World Institute [Em linha] [Consult. em 12 Nov 2013]. Disponível em WWW: < 23

42 Psychological Responses to Product Design When approached from a distance to the building, one might see a façade that looks like the typical weave patterns from Islamic culture, such as in Persian tapestry. When looked closer to the building, it can be discovered that many of the holes that composes the weave pattern are actually shutters that open or close, depending on the amount of sunlight that is needed to enter the building 85. Metaphor can be described as a stylistic tool to say something that is difficult to express in words. By using a simple reference, it can be possible to map a rich meaning and a fresh perspective onto the target object. An ingenious example is the Philips coffeemaker, the Senseo Crema (Figure 16), that consists of a curved shaped reservoir holding a little plate (tray) to place the cups. In this sense, the bended shape describes a servant, serving your coffee in a gentle way 86. Figure 16 Philips, the Senseo Crema 87 Most advanced, yet acceptable (MAYA): According to this principle, people prefer the products that are easy to categorize, the ones that are very familiar to them. On the other hand they also tend to be attracted by new, unfamiliar and original things mainly to handle with boredom and saturation feelings. Since these two tendencies seem contradictory with each other, there are series of studies performed to understand the correlation between typicality and novelty on 85 Hekkert, Paul - Design aesthetics: principles of pleasure in design Ibid. 87 Philips Senseo Crema [Em linha] [Consult. em 12 Nov 2013]. Disponível em WWW: < 24

43 Chapter 2 aesthetic preference 88. As a result, empirical evidence was provided for the principle MAYA, Most Advanced, Yet Acceptable which was described by the American designer Raymond Loewy 89. It was proved that up to some level, it is possible to preserve typicality of the design while increasing its novelty. People tend to prefer designs with an optimal combination of novelty and typicality 90. When we look at the Honeywell Thermostat designed by Henry Dreyfuss in 1953 (Figure 17), we may easily say that this thermostat is a pure novelty with its shape, with the material used and with the graphic display. First of all, it is the first round form thermostat ever. Henry Dreyfuss solved the problem of current rectangular thermostats always appearing crooked when mounted on the walls. The round form and eased edges please the eye and it gives a satisfying touch experience without any switches disturbing the simplicity. Actually it is the first thermostat to consider the interior design of the home. Figure 17 Honeywell Round Termostat by Henry Dreyfuss 91 Optimal match to the senses: Products tend to address various senses at the same time. When driving a car, we see the dashboard, hear the engine and the clicking sound of the indicators, feel the steering wheel and road-holding, and smell the leather of the upholstery. The last principle is related with the correlation between these various 88 Hekkert, Paul, Snelders, Dirk and Van Wieringen, Piet C.W. - Most advanced, yet acceptable : Typicality and novelty as joint predictors of aesthetic preference in industrial design. Blackwell Publishing Ltd, Loewy, Raymond - Never leave well enough alone. JHU Press, p Hekkert, Paul - Design aesthetics: principles of pleasure in design Honeywell Thermostat [Em linha] [Consult. em 12 Nov 2013]. Disponível em WWW: < 25

44 Psychological Responses to Product Design sensory impressions. Consumers have the tendency to prefer products that transmit similar messages to all our senses 92. Although associating a particular theme to a sensory aspect is a non-aesthetic attribution process, it is pleasing to the mind to see that the themes match, it is displeasing when the themes are incongruent. Most likely, the harmony not only keeps together the internal consistency of the various sensory impressions, but also each of them has to be convenient for a given product. The famous rule form follows function can also be transformed to the other senses such as sound/touch/smell follows function. It is important to emphasize that the function of the product does not have to be only beneficial, but also experiential, such as to enjoy, to enrich, to inspire, to strengthen one s identity. Nowadays, such experiences are more significant in people s buying decisions rather than the primary or beneficial function. Making all the sensory messages coherent with the intended message is therefore an important task for the designers. However, in some cases the designer may wish to accomplish an experience of surprise, for example to increase interest or prolong the attention value of a product. In those cases, establishing harmony between sensory messages, for example between the visual and tactual domain, could be considered as an effective strategy Semantic Response Product semantics being developed and introduced by Krippendorff and Butter 94 is described as the study of the symbolic qualities of man-made forms in the cognitive and social contexts of their use 95 Using the product design as a message transmitter, product semantics is the vehicle that carries signs in a symbolic environment 96. In semantic terms, the symbolic meanings of objects comprise connotation and denotation, which are both important for successful products. As mentioned before, denotation shows the relationship between 92 Hekkert, Paul - Design aesthetics: principles of pleasure in design Ludden, Geke DS, Schifferstein, Hendrik NJ and Hekkert, Paul - Visual-tactual incongruities in products as sources of surprise Demirbilek, Oya and Sener, Bahar - Product design, semantics and emotional response Krippendorff, Klaus - On the essential contexts of artifacts or on the proposition that" design is making sense (of things)" Eco, Umberto - Function and sign: The semiotics of architecture

45 Chapter 2 the symbol and the object s physical function. Connotation shows the relation between the symbol and the adjectives of the object 97. However within this dissertation, the definition of semantic response is limited to denotation of the product. In other words, what a product appears to communicate about itself in terms of physical function. The extent to what a product connotes about the identity of its owner is discussed separately in the semiotic response section. Therefore, a narrower definition of product semantics is adopted other than the one proposed by Krippendorff and Butter. Product semantics is explored in accordance with Crilly, Moultrie and Clarkson s semantic interpretation, Crozier s response to function, Baxter s semantic attractiveness and Norman s behavioral level in design. Within this context, semantic response is described as what people see about the product in terms of its function, mode-of-use and practical qualities. According to Crilly, Moultrie and Clarkson, designed objects are functional devices that operate in some way to perform the task for which the consumers use them. Therefore, a significant part of the value assigned to the product belongs to its utility. This may also include practical qualities such as function, performance, efficiency and ergonomics. All these functional aspects can be transmitted to the consumer by the visual form of the product. In this case the evaluation of the product by the consumer in terms of design s clear utility and perceived qualities is described as semantic interpretation 98. Furthermore, Baxter 99 argues that visual appearance must somehow inspire the confidence for the consumers who do not have prior knowledge of the product. For the products in which functional value is important, this can only be achieved by making the product look like it will perform the intended function. However we need to understand that this is different from making the product actually working well, because most of the time, consumers do not have the chance to test the product before 97 Lin, Rungtai, Lin, C. Y. and Wong, Joan - An application of multidimensional scaling in product semantics Crilly, Nathan, Moultrie, James and Clarkson, P. John - Seeing things: consumer response to the visual domain in product design Baxter, Mike - Product design: a practical guide to systematic methods of new product development. CRC Press, p

46 Psychological Responses to Product Design purchasing it. For that reason a great deal of consumer judgments on the product performance are based on if the product looks like it will perform its function. In this manner, Baxter describes the product semantics as the principle of making products look like they perform intended function. Donald Norman, the writer of famous Designing Everyday Products book states that behavioral design is one of the three levels of cognitive response. According to him, behavioral design is about utility of the product and there are four components of good behavioral design which are function, understandability, usability and physical feel 100. For behavioral design, function is the most important aspect that addresses the questions of what does a product do?, what function does it perform? Some welldesigned objects might miss the target when it comes to fulfill this aspect and they fail. For instance, if a potato peeler cannot actually peel potatoes properly, then other aspects do not matter at all. After function, the second important component is understanding. If the users cannot understand the product, they cannot use it at least the way it is intended. Once the operation steps related to the product is explained, it should be clear for the user how to use it for the next time. There shouldn t be any need for further explanation or reminding. The third component usability is a complex point on the other hand. A product can do what is required and can be very understandable, however it may still be a complex object to operate such as a piano. Physical feel is the last component for which good designers worry a lot. Physical touch can make a significant difference in the appreciation of the object. As a summary, good behavioral design has to be considered as a human-centered activity and mainly has to focus upon how to satisfy the needs of the people that actually use the designed product 101. But the question here is how the designer will transmit all these components of the product to the consumers without any personal contact with them. The semantic functions are supposed to make the product understandable. The whole product should communicate the intended message as well as the individual parts, so that the user knows how the product should be operated simply by looking at it. For instance, a knurled knob says turn me ; a teapot or kettle that says hold me here and 100 Norman, Donald A. - Emotional design: Why we love (or hate) everyday things Ibid. 28

47 Chapter 2 I ll pour for you ; a chair that softly welcomes your relaxed posture; a shape or form that indicates I move in this direction or I fit into that part of your body 102. The consumer s reaction to what something is and how this something should be operated is an effective and instant semantic indication that shows if the product design is self-instructing or not. Usually, complicated products require a manual, however simpler products are considered as self- instructing. In cases where a simple product needs pictures, labels, or instructions and arrows or labels to differentiate push from pull; designers have to be considered as failed regarding the communication through the form of the object 103. A product tells us something, about itself as well as the person who owns it. Through its form and function, the product expresses values which are then interpreted by individuals in relation to a certain social context in terms of acceptance or rejection, liking or disliking. As a result, the product either strengthens or weakens its role through its semantic content so that it can evoke positive or negative perceptions, emotions, values and associations within the consumer. Similar to Norman, Monö 104 also investigates the semantic response of the product. However, different than Norman, Monö only analyzes the visual perception of the product s functions, rather than questioning whether those functions work well or not. Monö compiles below semantic rules that allow the designer to communicate the product s practical qualities: Description: The product form describes its purpose and the way to use it. Consumers may conclude the practical benefits that the product will offer and how they must interact with it. Expression: The product form expresses the product s values and attributes. Changes in product s visual form may affect the consumer s interpretation of the product s qualities such as density, stability and fragility. 102 Demirbilek, Oya and Sener, Bahar - Product design, semantics and emotional response Norman, Donald A. - The design of everyday things. Basic books, Monö, R. - Design for Product Understanding: The Aesthetics of Design from a Semiotic Approach. Liber AB,

48 Psychological Responses to Product Design Caution: The product form drives the user to react in a correct and safe way. For instance it triggers the user to be careful and to be precise in his/her operation of the product. Identification: The product form identifies its origin and nature so that it creates the bound with system, family and product range via text, graphics and design cues. (e.g. A bowl can be identified as part of a specific china set; Coca Cola brand can be identified with its unique bottle, a company can be identified by a specific design philosophy that exists in its products.) The semantic rules allow the designer to communicate the product s practical qualities through the product. In this manner, it is the designer s responsibility to be explicit about what to or not to communicate through the product form Semiotic Response The roots of semiotics goes back at least as far as the pre-socratic era, where Hippocrates identified manifested symptoms (signs) as transmitter of messages about physical and mental states. Though Plato, Aristotle, Poinsot, Locke, Leibniz and Vico all discussed signs, symbols and communication, however it was only the turn of the 20 th century that semiotics achieved its identity through the independently developed works of the Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure and the American philosopher Charles Sanders Pierce 105. As a general view, semiotics analyzes the structure of events that produce meaning both verbal and nonverbal. Sebeok argues that the scope of semiotics and its subject matter includes the exchange of any messages whatever and of the system of signs which underline them with the sign always fundamental concept. Semiotics has two forms: (1) a general semiotics that seeks to answer, What is the nature of meaning? and (2) a specific semiotics that asks, How do our reality-words, gestures, myths, 105 Mick, David Glen - Consumer research and semiotics: Exploring the morphology of signs, symbols, and significance

49 Chapter 2 products/services, theories-acquire meaning? Semioticians investigate the sign systems or codes essential to all types of communication in order to address these questions 106. In particular; semiotic response is defined as the perception of what product says about its owner or user. In addition to the visual (aesthetic) and functional (semantic) qualities, almost all products hold some socially determined symbolic (semiotic) meaning. The object allows a person to communicate his identity through design. It also allows expressing the social status and personal characteristics 107. Whilst semantic response relates to what the product indicates about itself, semiotic response is determined by what the product symbolizes about its user or the socio-cultural context of use 108. For instance, although a chair denotes sitting, a throne connotes status and power. As stated before, the content of semiotic response corresponds to Crilly, Moultrie and Clarkson s symbolic association, Crozier s response to meaning, Baxter s symbolic attractiveness and Norman s reflective level design. Baxter argues symbolic attractiveness occurs when the product reflects the user s selfimage and the statement that they wish to make in the eyes of others with this product. Designers can materialize this wish in the appearance of the product by encoding some sort of symbolic meaning 109. Norman s reflective level design is also about the message, culture and the meaning of product in use. On one side, it is about the meaning of things that the personal memories evoke. On the other side, it is about self-image and the message that a product conveys to others. For instance reflective level explains why an expensive painting is superior to a high quality reproduction. If the painting was all about aesthetics, then we should have chosen the reproduction. However the reflective value of owning the original makes us to give purchase decision of the original one. Another example for reflective design could be Pie watch designed by Time by Design (See Figure 18). The goal of the 106 Ibid. 107 Dittmar, H. - The social psychology of material possessions : to have is to be. Hemel Hempstead [etc.]: Harvester Wheatsheaf [etc.], Crilly, Nathan, Moultrie, James and Clarkson, P. John - Seeing things: consumer response to the visual domain in product design Baxter, Mike - Product design: a practical guide to systematic methods of new product development. CRC Press, p

50 Psychological Responses to Product Design company is inventing new ways of telling time by combining art and time telling into amusing and thought provoking clocks and watches 110. Figure 18 The Pie Watch, Time by Design 111 According to Krippendorff, the designer plays the role of a communicator whose messages to the consumer include the symbolic qualities of the product by being aware of the psychological and social uses of objects, such as a journalist creating informative messages from a vocabulary of terms. In this matter, the designer can be considered as of having a source of product forms for his use and he arranges them in a way that the receiver can understand as a whole what the message is. However unlike the journalist who reports on events that he observes, the designer creates products that report about themselves 112. The symbolic meanings attached to products are culturally defined. For that reason, the extent to which a product is seen to reflect or support identity has to be determined by the cultural context within which the product is consumed 113. People place the object they see into a context which is cognitively constructed, whether recognized, anticipated, or wholly imaginary. For instance, when they see a chair in a store, they imagine its use at home or an office, a context that may or may not be 110 Norman, Donald A. - Emotional design: Why we love (or hate) everyday things p The Pie Watch [Em linha] [Consult. em 16 Nov 2013]. Disponível em WWW: < 112 Krippendorff, Klaus and Butter, Reinhart - Product semantics: Exploring the symbolic qualities of form Dittmar, H. - The social psychology of material possessions : to have is to be. Hemel Hempstead [etc.]: Harvester Wheatsheaf [etc.],

51 Chapter 2 realized in practice. Meaning is a cognitively constructed relationship to make a coherent unity of the features of an object and features of its (real environment or imagined) by connecting them within a context 114. What something means to someone corresponds to the sum of its imaginable contexts. A knife has all kinds of uses. In addition to the cutting, we may use it for opening a box, tightening a screw or scraping paint from a surface. In terms of manufacturing, a knife is a cost. In terms of sales, a knife has a monetary value. In the context of a robbery, a knife may constitute a significant threat. All these possible contexts define what a knife is to people depending on their imagination 115. Product form and meaning are highly related. Products must have form for the people to see them but also, they must make sense in order to be understood and used by them. Form brings a description of something without any reference to an observer or user (e.g. physical properties). In contrast, meaning always requires reference to someone's (self or other) cognitive process. Accordingly, the designer's form is the designer's way of objectifying the meaning of the product in order to make sense for the others 116. According to McCracken, consumer goods carry and communicate symbolic meaning 117. As given in the example of original and reproduction paintings; symbolic value is one of the key factors for purchase decisions and is the reason for the selection of products that are lower in terms of physical characteristics. Another example of this statement can be Philippe Starck s Juicy Salif lemon squeezer. Although it doesn t perform the function of lemon squeezing properly, it is seen as a self-expressive object. The choice for a specific product or brand may transmit the message to the others regarding what kind of person someone is or wants to be. Products are used by the consumers to express their (ideal) self-image to themselves and to others. Symbolic meaning can be attached to a product or brand on the basis of advertising, country of 114 Krippendorff, Klaus - On the essential contexts of artifacts or on the proposition that" design is making sense (of things)" Ibid. 116 Ibid. 117 McCracken, Grant - Culture and consumption: a theoretical account of the structure and movement of the cultural meaning of consumer goods

52 Psychological Responses to Product Design origin, or the kind of people using it. But also the product itself can communicate symbolic value in a more direct way which means by its appearance 118. A product s appearance communicates the messages such as looking cheerful, boring, friendly, expensive, rude, or childish. Moreover, a certain time or place (e.g. the Eighties) might be evoked by associating the design with a certain style of appearance. In addition, the product or package appearance can support the image of a brand, as the appearance of product expresses the brand identity visually. Consumers may attach the meaning of a brand to elements of the physical appearance of products which means a brand image may be transferred to different kinds of products 119. Many companies make use of certain design elements, such as a color combination, a distinctive form element, or style consistently. For instance, car manufacturers often try to keep different car models recognizable as belonging to the same brand. The distinctive radiator grill of BMW automobiles is an example of a recognizable design element (Figure 19). Figure 19 BMW Radiator Grill Design 120 To create a link between the brand meaning and the elements of the product design is easier when the associations that connect these elements are caused by themselves especially when they are innate or are determined by culture. For instance, usage of 118 Creusen, Marielle E. H. and Schoormans, Jan P. - The Different Roles of Product Appearance in Consumer Choice* Ibid. 120 BMW [Em linha] [Consult. em 12 Nov 2013]. Disponível em WWW: < 34

53 Chapter 2 bright colors and a large size in car design can be associated with aggression which makes it easier to position a car brand as aggressive 121. On the other hand, there is an argument about whether symbolic interpretation is part of the aesthetic experience. In most literature, aesthetic value is considered as both a hedonic impression and a result of interpretation and representation 122. For that reason, the same style can be seen as good taste in the past, while being considered bad taste 10 years later, due to change of the connotations associated with the style or the interpretations given to it. For example, orange was considered a modern color for clothes, furniture, and plastic products in the Seventies, however was perceived as oldfashioned and not appealing in the Eighties, and became popular in products and clothing again in the Nineties 123. Within this research study aesthetic and symbolic value are distinguished, as they may have opposite influences on preference. For example, someone who favors colorful design may not buy a chair like this because it looks too childish. Dittmar 124 suggests that it is essential to investigate this communicative aspect of objects in order to understand why it is important for people to transmit the right messages about themselves through their possessions and that such investigation may explain how we decode other people based on their objects. As shown in Figure 20a, material possessions not only symbolize the personal qualities of individuals, but also their social groups. Material possessions serve as symbolic expressions of our identity as a self. The clothes we wear, the household items we buy and use express our personality, social standing and wealth. 121 Creusen, Marielle E. H. and Schoormans, Jan P. - The Different Roles of Product Appearance in Consumer Choice* Simonson, Alex and Schmitt, Bernd H - Marketing Aesthetics: The Strategic Management of Brands, Identity, and Image. SimonandSchuster. com, Creusen, Marielle E. H. and Schoormans, Jan P. - The Different Roles of Product Appearance in Consumer Choice* Dittmar, H. - The social psychology of material possessions : to have is to be. Hemel Hempstead [etc.]: Harvester Wheatsheaf [etc.],

54 Psychological Responses to Product Design Figure 20 Meanings of material possessions for identity (adapted from Dittmar 125 ) Figure 20b shows what type of meanings material possessions might have. The instrumental meaning communicates the physical function of the product. As mentioned before, this is also called the denotation of a product form. For instance, considering a cutlery set, the instrumental meaning communicates the function of the spoon (to drink soup), the knife (to cut) and the fork (to eat). However every product including practical ones, such as kitchen appliances, has some symbolic meaning. While purchasing products, consumers are likely to be influenced by the messages they believe these objects transmit (connote) and as a result their overall impression of the product matches the image of themselves 126. According to Dittmar these meanings are called symbolic meanings and they express who somebody is 127. Dittmar divides the symbolic qualities associated with products into self-expressive and categorical meanings (See Figure 20b). The self-expressive symbolism associated with products allows the expression of unique aspects of one s personality. This includes individual qualities, values and 125 Ibid. 126 McDonagh, Deana, Bruseberg, Anne and Haslam, Cheryl - Visual product evaluation: exploring users emotional relationships with products Dittmar, H. - The social psychology of material possessions : to have is to be. Hemel Hempstead [etc.]: Harvester Wheatsheaf [etc.],

55 Chapter 2 attributes 128. These self-expressive meanings serve to differentiate the consumer from those that surround them. The categorical symbolism associated with products allows the expression of group membership, including social position and status 129. These categorical meanings serve to integrate the consumer with those that surround them. In terms of symbolic meaning, we may give Swiss watch-making company Swatch as a successful example. Swatch is famous for transforming the watch into a fashion statement. Swatch s philosophy is very simple: People should own as many watches as shoes or t-shirts so that they can change their watches to match the mood, activity or even the time of the day. Figure 21 Swatch designs 130 Although the watch mechanism is inexpensive with a reliable quality, the real opportunity to encode the value to the product lays in designing the face and body of the watch (See Figure 21). 128 Ibid. 129 Ibid. 130 Swatch [Em linha] [Consult. em 3 Dez 2013]. Disponível em WWW: < 37

56 Psychological Responses to Product Design 2.3. Emotional (Affective) Responses In order to describe emotions, moods and feelings, we may use the word affect as an umbrella term. Consumers can be stimulated with emotional responses to select a particular artifact from a row of similar products; therefore these responses will have a considerable influence on their purchase decisions. Since the concept of emotions is broad and indefinite, many different kinds of emotions can be evoked by the products 131. Affective responses consist of aesthetic/positive responses and negative responses. Product form perceptions can lead to a rather positive response such as simple liking in some cases, or they can recall stronger aesthetic responses similar to those for works of art 132. According to Veryzer, aesthetics is certainly related with arts but it is not confined to the arts. Generally, an aesthetic response refers to the reaction of a person to an object based on his or her perception. The reaction is based on the physical features of the object 133 Arnold 134, a pioneering psychologist in the cognitive perspective of emotion, defined the emotion as the felt tendency toward anything intuitively appraised as good (beneficial) or away from anything intuitively appraised as bad (harmful). This definition adheres to the view that emotions are instrumental and serve as an adaptive function in order to establish our position in relation to our environment, pulling us toward certain people, objects, and ideas, and pushing us away from others 135. Emotional responses can stimulate consumers to select a particular artefact from a row of similar products, and have a considerable influence on our purchase decisions. It seems that designers do not have much control over these apparently intangible emotional responses. However, designers can influence the emotions elicited by their designs because these emotions are not as intangible as they seem. By revealing the 131 Desmet, Pieter M.A. - A multilayered model of product emotions Bloch, Peter H. - Seeking the ideal form: product design and consumer response Veryzer, Robert W. - Aesthetic response and the influence of design principles on product preferences Arnold, Magda B. - Emotion and personality p Desmet, Pieter M.A. - A multilayered model of product emotions

57 Chapter 2 cognitive basis of product emotions, the model can be used to explain the broad, personal, and compound character of product emotions 136. Pieter Desmet who is the board member of the Design and Emotion Society 137 created a basic model of product emotions that represents the fundamental process. This model includes four main parameters: appraisal, concern, product, and emotion. The first three parameters, and their interactions, determine if a product reveals an emotion, and if so, which emotion is evoked. Appraisal: It is argued by the cognitive theorists that an emotion always involves an appraisal, depending on how an event gives harm or benefit to a person. An assessment of the product is needed in order to have the results of emotion from each category 138. The main implication of appraisal is: it is not the event that is responsible for the emotion, but the meaning the individual attaches to this event. We may conclude that the symbolic meaning of the product and the emotions are highly interrelated. An appraisal might have three possible outcomes: the product can be seen as beneficial, harmful or neutral. These three general outcomes result in a pleasant, unpleasant emotion or an absence of emotion, respectively. Appraisals are mediators between products and emotions because different people have different emotional reaction to the same given product 139. Concern: There is a concern hidden in every emotion. Concerns can be considered as reference points in the appraisal process. Therefore, the importance of a product for our favor is determined by an appraised concern match or mismatch: products that match our concerns are appraised as beneficial, and those that mismatch our concerns as harmful. Why do I feel attracted to a car? Because it matches my concern for transport. And why am I frustrated when my phone s battery is empty very quickly? Because it mismatches my concern to be accessible all the time. In order to understand emotional 136 Ibid. 137 Desmet, Pieter MA - Designing emotion Desmet, Pieter M.A. - A multilayered model of product emotions Ibid. 39

58 Psychological Responses to Product Design responses to consumer products, it is necessary to understand the users concerns given the context in which the product is or will be used 140. Product: Emotions are always related with the person experiencing them and a particular object. However, the stimulus that evokes the emotion does not necessarily have to be the object of that emotion. The stimulus can be an actual event, such as someone calling our name or catching sight of an object, as well as a remembered or imagined event. This means that concerning emotional responses to products, a basic distinction can be made between the emotions of which the object itself causes (e.g. I am excited by the color of this chair ), and the emotions of which the event associated with the object causes (e.g. I am excited by the idea of surprising my girlfriend with this chair ) 141. Emotions: Design literature tends to refer to emotions and moods as interchangeable in terms of meaning. However, emotions are peak states that exist only for a relatively short period of time. Usually, the duration of an emotion is limited to seconds, or minutes at most. On the other hand, moods tend to have a relatively long-term duration: one can be upset or happy for several hours or even for several days. Another important difference is that emotions are intentional whereas moods are non-intentional. Different than emotions, moods are not directed at a particular object but rather at the surroundings in general 142. Concerns are the requests that are brought into the emotion process, and products are constructed emotionally relevant in the context of one s concerns. In order to understand emotional responses to human-product interaction, one must understand the users concerns given the context in which he or she interacts with the product 143. Desmet summarizes the emotional responses that the products may evoke in five categories: instrumental, aesthetic, social, surprise and interest. The interaction between concerns, appraisals and emotions are shown in Figure Frijda, Nico H - The emotions. Cambridge University Press, p Desmet, Pieter M.A. - A multilayered model of product emotions Ibid. 143 Desmet, Pieter M.A. and Hekkert, Paul - Framework of product experience

59 Chapter 2 Figure 22 Desmet s basic model of emotions and their classifications 144 Instrumental emotions such as disappointment or satisfaction are concerned with the perceptions of whether a product will assist the consumer in order to achieve their objectives. The concern type goal is the reference point in the appraisal of motive compliance. A product that makes us achieve our goal will be appraised as motive compliant, and will elicit emotions of satisfaction. On the contrary, it will elicit emotions of disappointment 145. In order to understand the description better, below example of Philips orange squeezers might be given (Figure 23). Figure 23 Philips Avance Collection Juicer 146 (left), Philips HR2737 citrus press 147 (right) 144 Desmet, Pieter M.A. - A multilayered model of product emotions Ibid

60 Psychological Responses to Product Design Based on these two product types, if the goal of the consumer is to buy a complex orange juicer that is drip free and can squeeze other fruits and vegetables as well as oranges, then the motive of the consumer will be complied by buying the Avance Juicer from Philips (Figure 23 - left). Eventually consumer will feel satisfaction. However if the consumer s goal is to have an orange juicer that is easy to clean and easy to store then the motive compliance will be realized with the Philips HR2737 citruss press (Figure 23 - right) which has only two simple parts to clean and very small size compared to Avance Juicer. In this case the consumer will feel satisfied with this alternative orange juicer. Aesthetic emotions such as disgust or attraction are related with the potential of the products pleasant or unpleasant to our senses. The concern type attitude refers to our tendency of likings (or dislikings) for certain objects or attributes of objects. The attitudes are the reference points in the appraisal of intrinsic pleasantness. We have attitudes related to the aspects or features of products, such as product colour or material. We also have attitudes with respect to product style. For instance, some people may have an attitude for the style of Nordic interior design, whereas others have a taste for French design. A product that corresponds with our attitudes will be appraised as pleasant and will elicit emotions like attraction. On the contrary, it will elicit emotions like disgust 148. To describe aesthetic emotions, we may give the example of Muuto Wood Lamp (Figure 24) Figure 24 Muuto Wood Lamp Desmet, Pieter M.A. - A multilayered model of product emotions Muuto Wood Lamp [Em linha] [Consult. em 20 Jan 2014]. Disponível em WWW: < 42

61 Chapter 2 Wood lamp is an understated, well-made and functional product which was inspired by Scandinavian s landscapes and traditional craft created with certain modernity, simplicity and practicality using natural wood. For a consumer who has attitude for Scandinavian design, natural materials and traditional craft, Wood lamp will definitely elicit positive aesthetic emotions such as attractiveness. Social emotions such as indignation or admiration are related with products that follow the socially determined standards or not. Most standards are socially learned and represent the beliefs in terms of which moral and other kinds of judgmental evaluations are made. Products are embedded in our social environment; they are designed by people, used by people, and owned by people. The concern type standard refers to how we believe things should be and how people should act. Standards represent the beliefs we evaluate and make moral judgments. We apply our social standards and norms, and appraise products in terms of legitimacy. A product that is appraised as legitimate will elicit emotions like admiration. On the contrary it will elicit emotions like indignation 150. For instance, we can blame the owner of a Range Rover for not caring environmental issues or we can admire the owner of a moleskine agenda by assuming him/her to be a time efficient and organized person. Surprise emotions such as amazement are a result of perceived design novelty. Any product or feature that is appraised as novel, will elicit an emotion of surprise. Surprise emotions differ from the previous three emotion types because we cannot relate them to a particular concern type. For instance, a positive (amazement) surprise is elicited by a sudden and unexpected match with any concern such as goal, attitude, or standard and a negative surprise is elicited by a sudden and unexpected mismatch of the any concern 151. As shown in Figure 25, a product named Sinch is designed by Frog and Dune Road Design in order to secure headphones quickly and easily. It is based on a common user behavior of wrapping or coiling attached cords around smart devices. It uses two magnets to secure the cords in a snap. Since it is a novel product, it is considered as an 150 Desmet, Pieter M.A. - A multilayered model of product emotions Ibid. 43

62 Psychological Responses to Product Design unexpected match with the goal of solving consumer s problem with the chaotic, unmanageable cords inside a pocket/bag. In this case, the appraisal will be the motive compliance of securing headphones quickly and easily. Figure 25 The Sinch designed by Frog and Dune Road Design 152 Interest emotions are evoked by the perceived challenge combined with promise and they involve emotions like fascination, boredom, and inspiration. Products that evoke interest emotions make us laugh, stimulate us, or motivate us to do some creative action. As described in Berlyne s theory, people tend to seek and maintain an optimal level of arousal. A difference from this optimal level is unpleasant. Products that are appraised as not holding a challenge and a promise will elicit emotions like boredom. On the contrary, they will require further exploration; therefore will elicit emotions like fascination and inspiration 153. As shown in Figure 26, the dinnerware collection of Paola Navone for Crate & Barrel stimulates consumer s senses and elicits interest emotions by transforming the table into a playful puzzle with organic freeform shapes, spontaneous splashed spots, and bold strokes in rich tones of blue on white porcelain. 152 The Sinch [Em linha] [Consult. em 20 Jan 2014]. Disponível em WWW: < 153 Desmet, Pieter M.A. - A multilayered model of product emotions

63 Chapter 2 Figure 26 Paola Navone Como Collection for Crate & Barrel 154 Considering emotional design, Frog can be given as an example of a design company that gives highest importance to the emotional responses while designing new products. Frog was founded in 1969 by Hartmut Esslinger who started his business esslinger design in the Black Forest of Germany. As being one of the pioneers of emotional design, esslinger design was born out of a desire for improving the everyday lives of people, a passion for innovative technology, and a willingness to work directly with a client s top management and strategic focus on economic success 155. The model performed by Frog is based on a formula originated by the company s founder Hartmut Esslinger: Form Follows Emotion. He believes product design should always include something extra to present to the consumers. The magic is when both the manufacturer and consumer get something extra when they don t expect. Esslinger claims that the product can have the most elegant and functional design, however it will not take a place in our lives unless it can appeal at a deeper level, to our emotions. We believe consumers don t just buy a product, they buy value in the form of entertainment, experience and self-identity. The emotional element can be present in different of ways: It could be recreating the well-known massive-selling AT&T 154 Paola Navone Como Collection [Em linha] [Consult. em 20 Jan 2014]. Disponível em WWW: < 155 Frog Design History [Em linha] [Consult. em 20 Jan 2014]. Disponível em WWW: < 45

64 Psychological Responses to Product Design answering machine (Figure 27) by flipping it on its side, and gaining dual emotional compensation: showing consumer individuality and helping to keep a desk tidy. It might be a tangible ergonomic experience, such as applied in a computer games joystick that is designed to fit snugly in the hand. Or it might affect our desire for enhanced nostalgia, as in the designs for Dual electronics (Figure 28) 156. Figure 27 AT&T Answering Machine 157 Frog s upright answering machine for AT&T as being simple yet smart was America s best seller for the five years 158. Figure 28 Dual Electronics Hi-Fi System 159 Frog reinvented the entire Dual line of consumer electronics by replacing the button clutter of traditional electronics with a streamlined panel which is removable to be used as a remote control Sweet, Fay - Frog: form follows emotion. Thames & Hudson, p AT&T Answering Machine [Em linha] [Consult. em 15 Dez 2013]. Disponível em WWW: < 158 Sweet, Fay - Frog: form follows emotion. Thames & Hudson, p Dual Electronics Hi-Fi System [Em linha] [Consult. em 15 Dez 2013]. Disponível em WWW: < 46

65 Chapter 2 According to Esslinger If you build-in emotional value, people will keep the product longer and take more care of it; this of course also saves energy and materials. It s the difference between selling an ordinary hi-fi and selling amazing sound. Esslinger has never hesitated in his belief that design is more than gathering appealing shapes and colors together. The emotional content of the product is very important for its success and therefore to its business performance. And he makes no trick at playing the artist who is not interested in real-life concerns in fact he believes that a product does not succeed unless it sells 161. Another company known worldwide for their emotional designs is Swatch. Carlo Giordanetti, director of Swatch Creative Services, says that Swatch transmits something personal, not being just about nice color or fitting to the outfit, but by saying something about the personality of the consumer who wears it 162. According to Swatch philosophy watch is an emotional product. Because we wear a watch on our wrist, against the skin, and have it there for 12 to 24 hours a day, it becomes an important part of one s selfimage. Therefore, Swatch does not just offer people a style. They offer them a message. Fashion and emotional product design can be described commonly in two ways. First, it is about image; the second it is about a strong, distinct, and genuine message that tells people about one s personality. In other words, when people want to give messages to others and this can be done easily with the products that they own, use or wear Behavioral Responses A consumer s psychological response influences the way how he/she behaves towards the product. Behavioral responses can be considered as an approach or avoidance. When a particular form reveals positive psychological responses, the consumer tends to be attracted with approach activities, such as viewing for a long time, listening, or touching of the product. Approach responses are part of the aesthetic experience and indicate a deeper desire to display the product s pleasing form. On the contrary, avoidance 160 Sweet, Fay - Frog: form follows emotion. Thames & Hudson, p Ibid. 162 Design Time [Em linha] Corporate Design Foundation [Consult. em 20 Fev 2013]. Disponível em WWW: < 163 Ibid. 47

66 Psychological Responses to Product Design behaviors are an outcome of negative feelings about the product design. When a product form elicits negative beliefs and affect, the consumer may stay away from the object 164 Approach responses cause further investigation of the product, product purchase and product use. Avoid responses, on the other hand, have a result of ignoring the product, failure to purchase, product abuse and even hiding the product 165. The stronger the positive (negative) psychological responses to a product form, the greater the tendency to approach (avoid) the product 166. Within this chapter, psychological responses to the product design were analyzed as individual theories. Similarities between the arguments of Crilly, Moultrie Clarkson 167, Baxter 168 and Norman 169 enabled us to categorize the cognitive responses as aesthetic, semantic and semiotic. In addition to this, Desmet s 170 product emotions model was explored to figure out what kind of emotions arouse in response to the visual perception of product form and what kind of cognitive assessment processes are applied for the given emotions. Behavioral responses were analyzed as the last theory of psychological responses. This theory suggested that since the products are designed to be purchased, the behavior of the consumer towards products has to be categorized as an approach or avoidance based on the positive or negative emotions that the products elicit. Evidently, these individual theories do not function separately in the practical world. The interactions between cognitive-emotional responses and other moderating factors affect consumers purchase decisions and behavioral responses towards product. In this sense, the next chapter explores the existing frameworks in the literature which combine those individual theories within a horizontal design communication process. 164 Bloch, Peter H. - Seeking the ideal form: product design and consumer response Crilly, Nathan, Moultrie, James and Clarkson, P. John - Seeing things: consumer response to the visual domain in product design Bloch, Peter H. - Seeking the ideal form: product design and consumer response Crilly, Nathan, Moultrie, James and Clarkson, P. John - Seeing things: consumer response to the visual domain in product design Baxter, Mike - Product design: a practical guide to systematic methods of new product development. CRC Press, Norman, Donald A. - Emotional design: Why we love (or hate) everyday things Desmet, Pieter M.A. - A multilayered model of product emotions

67 3 DESIGN AS A PROCESS OF COMMUNICATION Since the consumers have no access to the designers of the products they buy and use, they interpret the design based on their interaction with the product itself. Thus, designers need to communicate the attributes of their design such as style, function and social meaning through the visual form of the product. As mentioned before, this semiotic perspective on product design focuses on viewing products as signs that represent meanings. Since the consumer interprets products as signs, consumer s psychological response to product form can be considered as one of the components of design communication 171. This chapter addresses the question of how the designer s intention is transmitted through the communication process of product design. As highlighted by Veryzer 172, the progress related to the literature of consumer response to a product design has been mainly blocked by the lack of a conceptual framework that explains the consumer-product relationship. As explained in the previous chapter, there are many individual theories exist related to the specific aspect of consumer response: cognitive, emotional or behavioral. On the other hand, there are very limited studies that 171 Crilly, Nathan, Moultrie, James and Clarkson, P. John - Seeing things: consumer response to the visual domain in product design Veryzer, Robert W. - Aesthetic response and the influence of design principles on product preferences

68 Design as Process of Communication explain all these aspects within a framework by defining the interaction between each aspect and the flow of design communication Existing Frameworks When the existing literature was analyzed, it has been figured out that there are not so many frameworks that provide an insight view of the communication process through design. One of the most significant frameworks is provided by Crilly, Moultrie and Clarkson 173 which was inspired by Monö 174 who has applied the basic model of communication from Shannon 175 to the study of product design. According to Shannon, there are five elements that form a basic system of communication: a source which produces an encoded message as a signal, a transmitter which transmits that signal, a channel that the signal passes through, a receiver that decodes the signal and a destination where the message arrives (see Figure 29). Figure 29 Basic model of communication 176 Within the study of Monö who has applied this basic model of communication in order to understand the communication between the designer and the consumer, he described the designer / design team as the source of the message. In this manner, the product itself is considered as the transmitter of the message within the environment (channel) where the consumer interacts with the product. The consumer participates in both the perception of product and following response. As a result, the consumer s perceptual 173 Crilly, Nathan, Moultrie, James and Clarkson, P. John - Seeing things: consumer response to the visual domain in product design Monö, R. - Design for Product Understanding: The Aesthetics of Design from a Semiotic Approach. Liber AB, Shannon, Claude Elwood - A mathematical theory of communication Ibid. 50

69 Chapter 3 senses can be described as the receiver of the message encoded with the product followed by psychological response as the destination 177. Consequently, Crilly, Moultrie and Clarkson 178 further expanded Monö s framework of product design communication shown in Figure 30. Figure 30 Basic model 179 As stated in Chapter 2, different scholars in the literature argued that consumer s responses to a product form were grouped as cognitive, affective and behavioral. Based on this categorization, Crilly, Moultrie and Clarkson also divided the destination into three aspects of response within their framework as shown in Figure 31. Figure 31 Crilly, Moultrie and Clarkson s basic framework 180 When the framework from marketing professor Peter Bloch was analyzed, it was concluded that the same type of division existed in Bloch s framework published in 177 Monö, R. - Design for Product Understanding: The Aesthetics of Design from a Semiotic Approach. Liber AB, Crilly, Nathan, Moultrie, James and Clarkson, P. John - Seeing things: consumer response to the visual domain in product design Ibid. 180 Ibid. 51

70 Design as Process of Communication 1995 (Figure 32). Different from previous framework, Bloch emphasized behavioral response as the output of cognitive and affective responses. According to Bloch, a product form demonstrates solution for a set of design goals and constraints that include performance specifications, ergonomic criteria, production and cost constraints, regulatory and legal requirements as well as the marketing program. Bloch also considers designer s self-expression as a constraint (Figure 32 marked in green). Figure 32 Bloch s basic framework 181 Both Bloch 182 and Crilly, Clarkson and Moultrie 183 argue that the consumer response to a product design is a horizontal communication process. The designer creates a message that is encoded in a product and the product is perceived by the consumer within an environment. This perception first leads to cognitive and affective response. The major difference between Bloch s framework and Crilly, Moultrie and Clarkson s framework turns out to be the cognitive response stage. Bloch claims that cognitive responses include product related beliefs such as durability, technical sophistication, ease of use, prestige etc. The form of the product affects consumers beliefs about the product. Categorization is also another important type of the cognitive response to product form. Consumers try to understand the product by placing it within an existing 181 Bloch, Peter H. - Seeking the ideal form: product design and consumer response Ibid. 183 Crilly, Nathan, Moultrie, James and Clarkson, P. John - Seeing things: consumer response to the visual domain in product design

71 Chapter 3 category. It is a kind of sharing perceived similarities between the given product and the ones that the consumer compares 184. During cognitive response the consumer makes judgments about the product, based on the information perceived by the senses. The evaluation of the products perceived qualities are also included in these judgments 185. On the other hand, Crilly, Moultrie and Clarkson describes cognitive responses in three levels that involve aesthetic impressions, semantic interpretations and symbolic associations which is similar to Norman, Crozier and Baxter s approaches (See Section 2.2). According to Crilly, Moultrie and Clarkson, these aspects of response do not operate independently, but they are highly inter-related; each one influences the others. These interactions are shown in Figure 33 by green double-headed arrows connecting each aspect of the cognitive response. The relative importance that the consumer places on aesthetic, semantic and symbolic responses may vary depending upon the situation. Affective responses on the other hand are composed of emotions and feelings. Figure 33 Crilly, Moultrie and Clarkson s framework with expanded cognitive response Bloch, Peter H. - Seeking the ideal form: product design and consumer response Crilly, Nathan, Moultrie, James and Clarkson, P. John - Seeing things: consumer response to the visual domain in product design Ibid. 53

72 Design as Process of Communication The framework of Crilly, Moultrie and Clarkson explains the interaction between cognitive responses with double-headed arrows; however it does not provide a sufficient argument regarding the link between cognitive affective and affective behavioral responses. The authors describe affective responses by referring to the five main emotions of Desmet s model. However they don t explain how other modules of this model (concern and appraisal) are integrated within this framework. Based on this fact, we may conclude that, despite being the most comprehensive framework that exists in the literature, some aspects of the framework still might be improved Moderating Factors Moderating influences operate before or after the cognitive - affective responses by causing some disturbance within this horizontal process. If the designer neglects these moderators while designing the product, it is more likely to happen that the designer s intention and the consumer s response do not match in the end. These moderating influences affect the consumer s perception and response to the design message. The response to the design message takes place within the consumer s cultural context, innate design preferences and situational factors 187 According to the Bloch s framework (Figure 34, Appendix A), consumer reactions to product form do not occur in an isolated environment. Instead, consumer response to a product form is moderated by several variables including innate design preferences, cultural influences, consumer characteristics and situational factors (marked in green) Bloch, Peter H. - Seeking the ideal form: product design and consumer response Ibid. 54

73 Chapter 3 Figure 34 Bloch s framework with moderating influences 189 In terms of moderating influences, Crilly, Moultrie and Clarkson demonstrate a similar approach (See Figure 35, Appendix B). However in addition to Bloch s moderators, they add organization issues that affect the designer directly such as communication problems, limited resources and the style of the brand that can avoid the designer to design freely. Production issues such as tolerances, finishing and ageing requirements that affect the shape of the design and sensory capabilities of the consumer that are related with how consumer sees the product form within an environment. We may conclude that these moderators are similar to the design goals and constraints which were indicated within Bloch s framework. Crilly, Moultrie and Clarkson also add visual references that the consumer uses as an input when interpreting a product s visual appearance. These visual references help the consumer to understand the product by reflecting generic designs, referring to other concepts or evoking comparison with living things. Consumer response to design is influenced by the visual references that are perceived, whether or not the designers intended these references. These references are described here as metaphors, characters, conventions and cliché s. 189 Ibid. 55

74 Design as Process of Communication Figure 35 Crilly, Moultrie and Clarkson s framework with moderating influences 190 Other than visual references, Crilly, Moultrie and Clarkson s framework demonstrate similarities with Bloch s framework in terms of moderating influences that disturb the communication process of design. These moderators can be described in four categories which are innate design preferences, consumer characteristics, situational factors and cultural influences Innate Design Preferences Individual tastes and preferences are affected by innate design preferences which are acquired early in life 191. Gestalt theorists claim that, objects that are coherent with a person s internal processing algorithms would be expected to produce more positive affect than objects that violate a person's relevant design principle algorithms. Veryzer, empirically confirmed that product designs that follow Gestalt laws of proportion and unity are significantly 190 Crilly, Nathan, Moultrie, James and Clarkson, P. John - Seeing things: consumer response to the visual domain in product design Bloch, Peter H. - Seeking the ideal form: product design and consumer response

75 Chapter 3 preferable by the consumers over designs that violate the laws 192. The innate preferences are relatively universal and constant. However personal, cultural and situational factors may vary considerably between consumers Consumer Characteristics Even within the same cultural context, people vary in their tastes and preferences. Some of the potential causes of these variations are design acumen, experience and personality. Design acumen: It is something with which certain people born. These people make quicker sensory connections and exhibit more advanced preferences related to the design of the things than the ones with little design acumen. They simply place more emphasis on the appearance of the products than others do 194. Experience: Design expertise requires education, exposure to beautiful things and motivation. A person may develop design skills on specific area by reading magazines and browsing. Through such experience, a person learns what to look for in a product design and what the important factors of attractiveness are 195. Personality: The interpersonal differences between consumers result in not only variations in the preferences they show, but also variation in the importance of those preferences. Some people simply place more emphasis on the appearance of products than others do Veryzer, Robert W. - Aesthetic response and the influence of design principles on product preferences Crilly, Nathan, Moultrie, James and Clarkson, P. John - Seeing things: consumer response to the visual domain in product design Bloch, Peter H., Brunel, Frederic F. and Arnold, Todd J. - Individual differences in the centrality of visual product aesthetics: concept and measurement Bloch, Peter H. - Seeking the ideal form: product design and consumer response Bloch, Peter H., Brunel, Frederic F. and Arnold, Todd J. - Individual differences in the centrality of visual product aesthetics: concept and measurement

76 Design as Process of Communication Situational Factors According to Bloch s framework, situational variables moderate both psychological and behavioral responses. Sequencing effects, social setting and marketing are considered as situational moderators. In many instances, a product serves as one component of a consumer's larger range of goods, and reactions to a specific product design can be modified by perceptions of fit with this range 197 Sequence effects: Forty claims that a design can be positively received in isolation (in exhibition for instance), yet be ultimately disliked and avoided because of its poor fit with previously acquired objects such as not matching with rest of the furniture at consumer s house 198 Social Setting: A consumer who might hold an unfavorable reaction to a particular form in private might express more positive responses in the presence of peers who express appreciation of the form, or vice versa. When a target segment is especially sensitive to social influence such as teenagers, it is mandatory to understand the relevant group preferences by the managers and designers so that design efforts are not vanished 199. Marketing: The marketing program that surrounds a product may also moderate consumer response. In particular, product branding may strongly influence perceptions of quality and social value. Products may appear to visually identify themselves as belonging to a particular brand by the addition of brand markings and the adoption of specific design language Cultural Influences According to McCracken, preferences for product form are also shaped by cultural and social elements. The acceptance of a particular style by a culture or subculture may have 197 Bloch, Peter H. - Seeking the ideal form: product design and consumer response Forty, Adrian - Objects of Desire. Design and Society Since London: Thames and Hudson, Bloch, Peter H. - Seeking the ideal form: product design and consumer response Ibid. 58

77 Chapter 3 much to do with that culture's values or preferences 201. Design preferences can be defined by cultural agreements on what looks good, what materials to be valued, what is worth aspiring towards and how aspirations can be reinforced with material goods 202. As marked green in Figure 36, the product and the consumer share the same context of consumption (design culture). However, the cultural context within which designers and consumers operate may differ greatly from each other. Design acumen, product perceptions and taste may all contrast strongly between designers and consumers 203. Therefore, when the consumers interpret products, there may be a completely different relationship (between user and object) from that intended by the designer, depending on the cultural and sociological background of the consumer 204. Even the tendency to particular colors or to attach special significance to orthogonal structures may be culturally determined 205. Figure 36 Crilly, Moultrie and Clarkson s framework with context of consumption McCracken, Grant - Culture and consumption: a theoretical account of the structure and movement of the cultural meaning of consumer goods Dormer, Peter and Couldry, Nick - The meanings of modern design: Towards the twenty-first century. Thames and Hudson, Hsu, Shang H., Chuang, Ming C. and Chang, Chien C. - A semantic differential study of designers and users product form perception Friedlaender, Uri - An Historical Perspective on the New Wave in Design. Innovation Csikszentmihalyi, Mihaly - Design and Order in Everyday Life. The MIT Press, Crilly, Nathan, Moultrie, James and Clarkson, P. John - Seeing things: consumer response to the visual domain in product design

78 Design as Process of Communication As McCracken states, cultural norms concerning design are especially essential because they have the tendency to overwhelm inner feelings and individual preferences 207 For that reason, it is very crucial to understand the dynamics of consumption context or in other words design culture. However, existing frameworks analyzed within this chapter do not provide an explicit definition about how designers interact within the design culture that surrounds them, how they encode the cultural meaning to their designs and how this meaning can be transmitted to the consumer via purchased products. The next chapter explores all these questions and gives an insight view regarding the effect of design culture on product design and the designer s role within the communication process. 207 McCracken, Grant - Culture and consumption: a theoretical account of the structure and movement of the cultural meaning of consumer goods

79 4 THE EFFECT OF DESIGN CULTURE ON PRODUCT DESIGN Du Gay 208 argues that we map things in terms of similar things that we already know. As an infinite chain, each meaning leads us back to another meaning. Since we can always add new meanings or remember old meanings in new ways, the chain of meaning has no clear point. It seems that we step from meaning to meaning along a chain of meanings which is without beginning or end. Therefore, the new meaning is represented by mapping it to what we already know or we build meaning, by replacing an old meaning with a new one. Csikzentmihalyi 209 explains the influence of design culture on our psychological responses with below statement; There is no question that people can be easily trained to recognize which design is more orderly according to some objective criterion. In the laboratory, one learns readily to agree with whatever the experimenter wants you to see. But the fact remains that in real life people do not carry in their minds yardsticks for measuring abstract concepts of order or disorder. What they see and what they prefer are not determined by objective characteristics of visual stimuli. 208 Du Gay, Paul - Doing cultural studies: The story of the Sony Walkman. Sage, Csikszentmihalyi, Mihaly - Design and Order in Everyday Life. The MIT Press,

80 Chapter 4 However this does not mean that how a thing looks has no importance on how it affects the consumer. Visual qualities are also related with how we react to an object or an environment. On the other hand, our reactions are not innate responses to color and form. Instead, we give response to meanings attached to configurations of color and form. In a given culture for instance, people agree that straight (or curved) lines are the best way to represent universal order. If the designer is convincing enough, everybody within this culture will feel a greater sense of harmony when they see straight (or curved) lines. In this matter, we may define good design as a visual statement that maximizes the life expectations of the people in a given culture, in other terms, the goals of a certain subset of people in given culture. These people make use of shared symbolic expression for the arrangement of such goals. If the system of symbols is relatively universal, then the design will also be judged good across time and cultures What is Design Culture? Desmet and Hekkert argue that As well as being social animals, men and women are also cultural beings. As cultural beings, people are all immersed in this sea of meanings, where continuous flow of meaning-giving and meaning-taking occurs which is called as culture. People use language and concept to make sense of what is happening for the events which they had experienced in the past or may never have happened to them before 211. The connection of culture with the role of meanings in society is very complex. As mentioned before, culture enables us to make sense of things. The important question here is how does the meaning-making works? We give meaning to the objects by the way we represent them and the basic medium of this representation in culture is language. However language does not mean in the sense of written or spoken words. Any kind of representation such as photography, painting, speech, writing, imaging through technology, and drawing is used for mean-making to 210 Ibid. 211 Desmet, Pieter M.A. and Hekkert, Paul - Framework of product experience

81 The Effect of Design Culture on Product Design represent whatever exists in the world in terms of concept, image or idea. Language is the use of set of signs indications to represent things and exchange meaning about them. Meaning is not simply found in objects; instead it is constructed and produced through cultural practices 212. According to Williams, Culture is a description of a particular way of life which expresses certain meanings and values not only in art and learning but also in institutions and ordinary behavior. A considerable emphasis is given to the close interaction between culture, meaning and communication. He argues that the description of our experience is composed of network relationships and all our communication systems as well as arts are literally parts of our social organization 213. Although designers think and work through different processes/approaches, they all have one common objective: to communicate. Design culture is part of communication which can be considered as both something designers do but also something around 214. Design culture is part of our global culture. It is an important medium of network society. The term design denotes the activities of planning and devising as well as the outcome of these processes, such as drawing, plan or manufactured object. On the other hand, the term design culture suggests the qualities by which design is practiced such as the ways that the people live, perceive, understand and stimulate in everyday life. 215 According to Guy Julier who is the author of The Culture of Design ; there are many definitions of design culture. The most relevant two definitions are taken in order to explain the design culture in a way it is used within this dissertation. Design Culture as process: It describes the immediate contextual influences and contextually informed actions within the development of a design. A close term that throws light on this is the Italian usage of cultura di progetto. The word progetto implies something broader than simply the form-giving within 212 Du Gay, Paul - Doing cultural studies: The story of the Sony Walkman. Sage, Williams, R. - The Long Revolution. Broadview Press, p Julier, Guy - The culture of design. Sage, p Ibid. 63

82 Chapter 4 design, but extends to the totality of carrying out design; for example, from conceiving and negotiating artifacts with clients, to studio organization, to the output of the design and to its realization. Within all these there is an implied interest in the systems of negotiation often verbal that conspire to define and frame design artifacts 216. Design Culture as context-informed practice: This usage is concerned with a wider notion of design culture as process, to imply collectively-held norms of practice shared within or across contexts. More specifically, this usually refers to the way that geographical context may influence the practice and results of design. This can fall in two ways. One is how the everyday specific features of a location availability of materials and technologies, cultural factors that affect business activities, climate, local modes of exchange, and so on produce particularized actions. The second views design culture as a platform for communication. Design culture thus becomes a forum (supported chiefly by the Web, but also by other channels such as magazines and conferences) by which global actors connect, communicate, and legitimate their activities 217. The first definition design culture as process mainly indicates the designer s creation process where he/she interacts with the social environment that surrounds him/her such as clients, producers, advertising agencies etc. Those interactions return to the object as encoded meanings. The second definition on the other hand is the broader version of the first definition. It also refers to the design culture (context of consumer) definition provided in Chapter 3 via the framework of Crilly, Moultrie and Clarkson (See Figure 36). The interpretation of product design within a concept of design culture requires making a deeper analysis of that object and also trying to understand its relationship to other visual, spatial and material expressions that contribute to its meaning. In order to 216 Ibid. 217 Ibid. 64

83 The Effect of Design Culture on Product Design understand what kind of conditions are needed to form the objects, it is necessary to understand the relationship of the activities of designers, production and consumption with a triangulation. As shown in Figure 37, these aspects are considered as the domains of design culture 218. Figure 37 Domains of Design Culture 219. Designer is clearly bounded in the process; however it is also considered as one of the domains of culture due to his/her role in shaping the form and content of the visual and material artefacts which are produced and consumed. The designer s role is in creating the value of product. It is not only commercial value, but also social, cultural, environmental, political, and symbolic values. A key feature of this value creation is the reproduction of product nodes, whereby cultural information is filtered through a range of platforms and moments 220. Production not only includes manufacturing, but also reception of material, distribution, marketing, advertising of goods and services. Therefore production includes the influence of materials, technologies and manufacturing systems but also the effects of marketing, advertising and distribution channels. The role of production is creation (e.g.manufacture) and circulation (e.g. reception, distribution, and marketing). 218 Ibid. 219 Ibid. 220 Ibid. 65

84 Chapter 4 Productive processes of design culture, includes available technologies, environmental, and human factors. But non-material elements such as existing knowledge networks, legislation, political pressures, economic fluctuations, and fiscal policies are also considered as contextual factors of design culture 221. Consumption completes the trivet. It includes quantitative data regarding the degree of purchase or use of particular designs in relation to demographic trends. It also involves the discussion of qualitative questions related to the reasons and meanings of consumption. Consumption s role is practice. Routinized behavior that is individually performed but also socially observable is a part of practice. Things are bought and put to use, environments are visited, and websites are examined in fulfilling practice None of these three domains: production, designers and consumption can be present in isolation. They constantly interact with each other in an endless exchange cycle. They all have particular influence to create objects, spaces and images. They play an active part in influencing or making sense of the system. The prime interest of design culture is the interaction and the intersection of these domains as well as their interactions with the designed object/space/image Movement of Cultural Meaning Consumer goods have a meaning that goes beyond their practical character and commercial value. According to McCracken, this meaning depends on their ability to carry and communicate cultural meaning 224. Within the social world, cultural meaning flows continually between several locations via collective and individual efforts of designers, producers, advertisers, and consumers. According to this common pathway, cultural meaning is transferred from a culturally constituted world to a consumer good. Then the meaning is transferred from an object (consumer good) to an individual consumer. In other words, cultural meaning is located 221 Ibid. 222 Ibid. 223 Ibid. 224 McCracken, Grant - Culture and consumption: a theoretical account of the structure and movement of the cultural meaning of consumer goods

85 The Effect of Design Culture on Product Design in three places: the culturally constituted world (namely design culture), the consumer good (designed object), and the individual consumer, and moves through a pathway and transfers at two points: world to good and good to individual. This relationship is explained in Figure 38 as shown below. Figure 38 Movement of Cultural Meaning (Adapted from McCracken 225 ) According to this relationship, the cultural meaning is transferred in this process from the culturally constituted world to consumer goods by the help of two instruments: Advertising and Fashion System. It is also necessary to address how this meaning, moves from the consumer good into the life of the consumer by a second set of instruments. These instruments are called special instances of symbolic action or ritual. Ritual is a kind of social tool that manipulates the cultural meaning for purposes of collective and individual communication and categorization in order to affirm, evoke, assign, or revise the conventional symbols and meanings of the culture. 225 Ibid. 67

86 Chapter 4 Possession rituals are practiced by the owner of the good in order to retrieve meaningful properties of it. Possession rituals are designed to convey the properties of the good to its owner 226. As mentioned before with Dittmar s 227 model, material possessions symbolize not only the personal qualities of individuals, but also the groups they belong to and their social standing. Material possessions serve as symbolic expressions of our identity as a self. The clothes we wear, the household items we buy and use make express our personality, social standing and wealth. We prefer to be surrounded with the objects that reflect our identities. Exchange rituals allow the goods charged with certain meaningful properties to be given as a gift to those individuals whom the gift-giver considers that they are in need of these properties. In an exchange ritual, the giver invites the receiver to be part of the properties possessed by the good 228. Exchange rituals mainly occur on special days such as birthdays, Valentine day, Christmas or mother s day etc. For instance, we prefer to buy gifts to the people that we know, based on their tastes and we believe that object that we buy reflects their identities. Grooming rituals allow the consumer to freshen the properties a person receives from goods. The going out rituals with which a person prepares for an evening out are good examples of this process. Grooming rituals give the power to the individuals who are going out with the particularly glamorous, superior, meaningful properties that exist in their best costumes and accessories. These meaningful properties give confidence, aggression, and defence powers to the person. For instance, a certain makeup, hair-styling goods, and clothing described in the advertisements endorse the meaningful properties of the goods that special grooming rituals release 229. Finally, divestment rituals are used to empty goods of meaning so that meaning-loss or meaning-contagion (from previous owner) cannot happen. The cleaning and 226 Ibid. 227 Dittmar, H. - The social psychology of material possessions : to have is to be. Hemel Hempstead [etc.]: Harvester Wheatsheaf [etc.], McCracken, Grant - Culture and consumption: a theoretical account of the structure and movement of the cultural meaning of consumer goods Ibid. 68

87 The Effect of Design Culture on Product Design redecorating of a newly purchased home may be considered as an effort to remove the meaning created by the previous owner 230. Every designed product has an operational objective: it is supposed to affect the knowledge, the attitudes or the behaviour of the people in a given or desired way. Furthermore, any object presented in the public space, either communicational or physical, has a cultural impact. This cultural impact affects, and contributes to the creation of cultural agreement Designers as Cultural Intermediaries Considering designers as some sort of artists is a very common assumption. Although aesthetics is one of the main concerns of design and the language that is used in discussing art is almost the same as art, designers are different from artists. First of all, designers make plans. They plan everything that goes to make up surroundings and atmosphere that people lives. According to Munari, a designer plans things for manufacture or construction. An object created by a designer should be judged by whether it has a form consistent with its use, whether the material fits the construction and the production costs, whether the individual parts are logically fitted together. For designer, this is a question of coherence 232. Therefore, the difference between a designer and an artist (or a craftsman) is that designers usually develop things that have requirements set by others and will ultimately be produced by others. In other words, designers focus on people/needs, artists focus on themselves. However, when we review the domains of culture (Figure 37), we see that the designers have interactions and intersections not only with production but also with consumption. And in order to do this, they need to encode the cultural meaning in the things they create. Designed objects have certainly some functionality but more than this they have meanings which mean that a designed object produces meaning through encoding symbols. For that reason, designers are considered as key cultural intermediaries Ibid. 231 Frascara, Jorge - Design and the social sciences: making connections. CRC Press, p Munari, Bruno - Design as art. Penguin UK, p Du Gay, Paul - Doing cultural studies: The story of the Sony Walkman. Sage, p

88 Chapter 4 The term cultural intermediaries refers to the designers that play active role in the consumer world through encoding particular meanings and lifestyles to the products and services. Considering the symbolic work of making meaningful products, designers are the key link between production, world of engineers, the market and the consumers 234. According to Julier 235, designer s role is in creating the value of product. It is not only commercial value, but also social, cultural, environmental, political, and symbolic values. We describe designers as cultural intermediaries; however we can also involve other three groups within this category as well: trendsetters that belong to the print media (e.g. design magazines) or film media; advertising agencies and social observers who study and document new social developments. Trendsetters perform their part of the job by serving as gate keepers. Their task is to review aesthetic, social, and cultural innovations as soon as they appear and then classify them based their importance so that they can decide what is temporary and what will be permanent within the spinning mass of design culture. After completing the sorting process, trendsetters involve in a spreading process to make their decisions known. Although everyone in the diffusion chain plays a gatekeeping role and provides supports to influence the tastes of individuals, trendsetters are particularly significant because they influence people even before an innovation passes to its early adopters phase 236. After the most significant innovations are identified by trendsetters, product designers begin the task of drawing the meaning into the mainstream and using it in designing consumer goods. Product designers transform the symbolic properties of a consumer good similar to the advertising agencies. However, product designers differ from them because they also transform its physical properties. While doing this they don t have a meaning-giving context such as advertisements where they can display the product. Instead, designer s 234 Ibid. 235 Julier, Guy - The culture of design. Sage, p McCracken, Grant - Culture and consumption: a theoretical account of the structure and movement of the cultural meaning of consumer goods

89 The Effect of Design Culture on Product Design leave the product in consumers hand so that it is up to the consumer to choose the context. Designer has to convince the consumer that a specific designed object possesses a certain cultural meaning. For that reason it is designer s task to clearly display the symbolic properties of an object as well as its physical properties 237. The designers, same as the agencies, depend on the consumer to affect the transfer of the meaning from cultural world to the object. But different than the agency, the product designer does not have the power of advertisement to encourage and direct this meaning transfer. The designers do not have any tools to inform the consumer earlier related to the intended qualities of the object. For that reason these qualities must be self-evident in the object so that the meaning can be transferred to the consumer easily. Thus, it is essential for the consumers to have the same sources of information that the designers have, related to the new meanings in fashion. The trendsetter has the role of making this information available to the consumer thereby it can be possible for the consumer to identify the cultural significance of a new object. In short, the designer needs the trendsetter at the beginning and then again at the very end of the process for the transfer of the meaning. The trendsetter supports designer in two ways, first supplying the new meaning to the designer and then becoming the recipient of the designer's work (e.g news in design/fashion magazines, advertising campaigns). As a conclusion, we may consider both advertising and the fashion systems, sort of instruments to help designers while giving the cultural meaning to the artefacts that they design 238. We have seen that the connection of culture with the role of meanings in society is very complex. As mentioned before, culture enables us to make sense of things. Designers are the most important domain of design culture. Being in a two-ways interaction with Production and Consumption, designers role is to encode the meaning to the products. Designed objects have certainly some functionality but more than this they have meanings which mean that a designed object produces meaning through encoding symbols. Meaning is not simply found in objects; instead it is constructed and produced through cultural practices. How this meaning flows within the social world? It flows continually between several locations via collective and individual efforts of designers, 237 Ibid. 238 Ibid. 71

90 Chapter 4 producers, trendsetters, social observers, advertising agencies and consumers. According to this common pathway, cultural meaning is transferred from a culturally constituted world to a consumer good. Then the meaning is transferred from an object (consumer good) to an individual consumer. For that reason, designers are considered as key cultural intermediaries. Considering the symbolic work of making meaningful products, designers are the key link between production, world of engineers, the market and the consumers. 72

91 5 THE EVOLUTION OF DESIGN CULTURE SINCE 1900 As stated in previous chapter, cultural meaning is transferred from a culturally constituted world to a consumer good. Then the meaning is transferred from an object (consumer good) to an individual consumer. When manufactured, a design as a physical artefact becomes part of the physical reality of its time, applied for specific purposes in a society that determines how its form is perceived and evaluated. The values attributed to designs in their social function are not fixed and absolute but fluctuating and conditional. In this chapter, we will analyze how this fluctuating and conditional meaning of design was evolved along the history since 1900 until today and what kind of responses were given by the designers to the evolution of design culture within time. The time period will be analyzed in two sections: Twentieth and Twentyfirst century. The effect of new materials on product design will be evaluated as another section, as well Twentieth Century Design During the decades shifting from 19 th into the 20 th century, it has been witnessed transformations in the material world and in patterns of people s daily lives of that haven t been seen before. We may call these years as when the modern age was born. This was not only the life change of few chosen people; instead it was an irrevocable change of the lives of the mass people living in western, industrialized world. It was the advent of a mass transportation, mass communication systems and the mass 73

92 Chapter 5 manufacture of that altered everything. Technology was the dominant force behind all those changes which was seen as rational and progressive 239. Architects were amongst the first to respond these technological developments. It was how the modern design was born. They showed the future by transferring their ideas from the building to the interior space and to the object used within the interior of the building. Architecture as being a respectable and powerful profession influenced the material world and took this role one step forward by transforming it beyond recognition. The movement started in Great Britain. The basic ideas were initiated by John Ruskin and carried forward by William Morris, C.R. Ashbee, C.F.A. Voysey 240. They searched for a solution in the pre-industrial world of craft manufacture that offered a means of purification and of re-establishing a link between makers and their artefacts Conservative Modernism First World War was considered as a milestone in the evolution of modern design movement. When the calendars were showing 1914, the brilliant ideas around the turn of the century had either disappeared entirely from the view or became a focal point more sharply. As being an important transition between the eclectic historical revival styles of the 19 th century and Modernism; Art Nouveau became dated as a design movement and the masters of that style had either disappeared with it or went into the circle of repetitiveness and old age. On the other hand another design approach rooted in British Arts and Crafts thinking seeking a new simplicity and a rational attitude by taking materials and their demands as the starting point developed after World War I together with the highly influential architectural and design theory known as Functionalism. After 1918, this approach become the basis of a reason for a radically new architecture and design movement that had a great international impact by World War II. Two faces of Modernism emerged. One of them was clearly progressive and the other one more conservative and historically oriented. The Exhibition of Decorative Arts, held in Paris in 1925 was 239 Sparke, Penny - A century of design: Design pioneers of the 20th century. Mitchell Beazley London, p Ibid. 74

93 The Evolution of Design Culture Since 1900 highly influential and provided a focus for a new style called Art Deco. Inevitably, visitors from abroad such as Keith Murray from Britain(See Figure 39) and Donald Deskey from the United States were strongly influenced by what they witnessed in Paris as well as many others who saw the images of the exhibition in periodicals around the world and were affected. Art-Deco promoted an elitist notion of luxury and an idea of quality that aroused from craft skills and the use of expensive materials. Same as former Art Nouveau, it was turned into a popular aesthetic by the 1930s, diffused into the mass environment in an unexpected way. It became a popular style across the world due to its presence in the luxurious French ocean-liners, skyscrapers, factories and cinemas. It has been used widely in the design of cheap, mass produced plastic goods from dressing table sets to picnic ware 241. Figure 39 - Keith Murray Ceramic Vase for Wedgwood 242 Figure 40 - Donald Deskey Table Lamp, Ibid

94 Chapter 5 The conservative modernism, on the other side was manifested less in visual style than the progressive Art Deco. Especially the Scandinavian countries for example Sweden, Denmark and Finland all had strong local folk traditions but were also at this time eager to find a form for the new decorative art objects. The impact of this soft version of Modernism was also highly influential in Britain, another country for which tradition was very important as a national identity and as its 19 th century Arts and Crafts heritage Progressive Modernism The dominant metaphor for modern design in the first half of twentieth century was the machine. Many architects and designers living in industrialized countries were stimulated with the machine which was perceived as a powerful symbol, the main reason for the progress, democracy and control over the world of nature 245. The difference between invention and design was very clear in the years leading up to The inventor s role was to create new applications for available technologies, on the other hand, the designer were seen as the key interface between those applications, manufacturing industries and consumers. In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, many new concepts developed, such as the sewing machine, the telephone, the refrigerator, the bicycle and the automobile all were invented during this period 246 After being invented, the new goods were supposed to be manufactured and sold in the open market place. It was the designer s task to make sure that they could be made at an affordable price but, more important than that they could be both meaningful and desirable 247. As a consequence of World War I, the leading countries of Europe had taken the action to create a new democratic world in which the material environment played a vital role. 244 Sparke, Penny - A century of design: Design pioneers of the 20th century. Mitchell Beazley London, Ibid. 246 Sparke, Penny - An Introduction to Design and Culture in the Twentieth Century. Allen & Unwin, p Ibid. 76

95 The Evolution of Design Culture Since 1900 It was opportunity for many architects and designers to apply their visual and intellectual skills to the task of designing new way of life for the mass population 248. Industrialization was one of the key defining facts of the modern world. In Britain, the discovery of steam power inspired the invention of numerous new machine tools and production techniques. Those new tools facilitated the manufacture of new consumer machines. New materials, especially the cast iron among them, were responsible for impressive changes in the design of products and the environment, making possible new forms of products 249. As pioneered by American automobile manufacturers such as Henry Ford the innovations became available for mass production during this period. The design theory Functionalism that was rooted by Bauhaus in Germany achieved its most sophisticated and precisely planned level of expression. This experimental school for architecture, design and craft formed in 1919 was inspired by political and cultural idealism and initiated to create a universal language of form for the designed object. By the 1920s that goal had been realized. The theory of Functionalism, which was established based on the principles of mass production and geometric simplification, claimed that an object s outer appearance should be defined by its inner structure. The Bauhaus teachers developed a system of design education that emphasized the belief in truth to materials and the importance of function 250. Although there have been many different modern design styles in the 20 th century, the work of the Bauhaus was the most associated with the idea of Modernism. Its enormous importance was gained from its influential staff and students that were considered the most notable designers of the 20 th century. The inspiration of the school and its members can be seen in the work of designers such as Dieter Rams in Germany and Kenneth Grange in Britain Sparke, Penny - A century of design: Design pioneers of the 20th century. Mitchell Beazley London, p Sparke, Penny - An Introduction to Design and Culture in the Twentieth Century. Allen & Unwin, p Sparke, Penny - A century of design: Design pioneers of the 20th century. Mitchell Beazley London, p Ibid. 77

96 Chapter 5 France also developed its own brand of progressive Modernism in the 1920s. The work of Le Corbusier, Charlotte Perriand was aligned with the machine and geometric abstraction. The high cultural desire of this movement was strengthen by its close links with the world of fine art, especially post-cubic painting and sculpture 252. While European modernism was limited mainly to architecture and the applied arts, the American industrial designers dramatically re-designed the world of refrigerators, cash registers, cameras and last but not least automobiles. With backgrounds in advertising and shop-window display, these designers were neither high-minded nor ideologically driven like their European colleagues. Their mission was the modernization of the mass environment. As the pioneers of modernism in United States, Norman Bel Geddes, Raymond Loewy, Walter Dorwin Teague, Henry Dreyfuss, they aimed to design consumer goods with a new attractiveness that would give them a competitive edge The New Modernism The new modernism consists of the period starting with the outbreak of World War II and the post-war years until During the war years, the modern design movement and its various manifestations were fully formed. Its influence was felt internationally and the pioneers were widely recognized. The most sophisticated way in which postwar design progressed was the opportunity for a variety of national identities. Many of the countries that reconstructed themselves after the war wanted to reflect a new image in the international marketplace, and design was able to re-create this new image 254 In Europe, the Scandinavian countries, Italy, Germany and Great Britain were the most significant ones that tried to re-build their national identities through design. Outside Europe, the United States and Japan also used modern design as a demonstration of their progressive economies and cultures. For instance, United States was represented by the streamlined goods that were exported to many countries around the world. Meanwhile, many European countries build their own traditions by differentiating 252 Ibid. 253 Ibid. 254 Ibid. 78

97 The Evolution of Design Culture Since 1900 themselves. Sweden and Denmark modernized their craft traditions as an instrument of creating their own identity. Italy s post-war design movement involved organic forms as an alternative modern aesthetic and turned into a highly sophisticated modern design style which was visible in furniture, products, ceramics and glass. On the contrary, Germany started to demonstrate its pre-war efforts after The studies in terms of machine style standardizations were reinforced by the advances in engineering. A systematic approach was followed by designers and manufacturers and the country quickly became well-known with the idea of neo-functionalism, a design movement that was linked with Germany s technologically advanced and visually minimal electrical goods 255. Post-war years especially a decade after 1945, a number of pioneering individuals became very successful. For instance, the organic modernism formulated by designers such as Charles Eames in US, Arne Jacobsen in Denmark, Robin Day in Great Britain and Marcello Nizzoli in Italy, Dieter Rams in Germany and Kenneth Grange in Great Britain became pioneers of Neo-functionalism. New materials such as moulded plywood in particular, made it possible for objects to demonstrate a new modernity while advances in electronics made the consumer machine to become more stylish and more sophisticated as applied art. Objects related to the interior decoration shifted in the direction of the organic, abstract forms derived from the human body and human nature while rejecting the machine. Consumer electronics, on the other hand, was defined as items of equipment characterized by their technological virtuosity in the hands of manufacturers such as the German firm Braun, and the newly established Japanese company Sony Pop Revolution By 1960 s the democratic desire of the early Modernists to make material goods available to all by using mass production had been replaced by recognition that design was an important symbol of modernity and in social terms, a mark of sophistication and cultural awareness. Therefore, designers felt the responsibility to meet those symbolic 255 Ibid. 256 Ibid. 79

98 Chapter 5 requirements adequately and to create the goods that could perform that role. Design ideals established before World War II were re-generated and reformulated to meet the changing social and psychological needs of new consumers that saw modern design as a means of self-identity with the present and more importantly, with the future. However the early modernists, with their strong commitments, would still be the dominant power in designing the many objects of the 1960s. Increasingly this situation resulted with the high level of noticeable consumption that characterized those years. While many designers creating the visually innovative goods that filled the magazines, others began to feel this was not right at all. The shift was stimulated by a number of converging elements and came quite suddenly in the mid-1960s. The emergence of a youth consumer market, which came with the emphasis on fun and expendability, played a key role in helping to shake the value system, based on the ideas of rationality and universality. The new Pop aesthetic prioritized the throw away and the temporary and prohibited the permanent. This shift in consumption values had an enormous impact on valid ideas about design and in the mid 1960s a new radicalism emerged in the work of people like Peter Murdoch and Ettore Sottsass 257. In the 1960s, a fundamental divide became apparent due to the designers openly challenging the relevance of Modernism in a mass marketplace. By the middle of decade the design world openly accepted the fact that Modernism was in crisis. Advances in technology caused this crisis to be deeper. For instance, the developments in electronics made the components of products so small that it was not necessary anymore the products to reflect their inner workings. In the hands of designers, products increasingly became lifestyle and fashion objects rather than of utility and the tried and tested theory of Functionalism became needless 258. It was the combination of several factors that led to a dramatic shift cultural values and a challenge in the Modernism during the 1960s. The arrival of mass consumerism, the emergence of youth market and a general sense of economic and technological optimism developed into what was known as the pop revolution. Its desires fun, change, variety, disrespect and disposability were reflected most clearly in the forms of 257 Ibid. 258 Ibid. 80

99 The Evolution of Design Culture Since 1900 popular music as well as fashion. This change was also reflected within the design community. The values of the previous generation, Modernism were surrendered Post-Modernism The 1970s were already pointing an end to the domination of a single international design movement. While on the one hand Modernism was still under attack and to be widely disgraced, on the other hand latter-day modernists were trying to prove the validity of this movement and to convince us that even with changing economic, social and cultural conditions, the urge of technological progress would lead us into a bright future. The discussion about Post-modernism and its relation to material culture was encouraged by the work of American architects such as Robert Venturi and Michael Graves who made products with the influences of pop culture and stylistic revivalism 260. What was clear from the arguments that accompanied critiques of their work was that stylistically at least, alternatives to Modernism were in place and that the most important theme of the last three decades of the century was going to be Pluralism until the end of the century the fact that no one single architectural or design theory or approach was going to be dominant any longer. While architects discussed the valid style of the day, same as their 19 th century predecessors, designers in the 1970s also had more important issues to consider. These included the effect of the oil crises on the cost of plastics and society s growing interest in ecological issues such as recycling. For that reason the emphasis was taken away from the discussion about style and suggested more serious social role for the designers in terms of their relationship with the manufacturing industry 261. All these fears and anxieties were temporarily forgotten when in the early 1980s design demonstrated that it was as capable of raising its cultural profile and becoming a central focus. The Memphis exhibition in Milan in 1981 was a turning point. The Memphis designs for furniture and related items were brightly decorated and oddly shaped with countless visual references to past styles. For the first time design without the support of architecture, was announcing itself to be free from the limitations of Modernism and in 259 Ibid. 260 Ibid. 261 Ibid. 81

100 Chapter 5 tune with the post industrial age. The 1980s was called the designer decade. During that period another worldwide consumer boom happened and the fully democratic concept of design gained a new meaning in the context of this wealth. In the mass market context of the late 20 th century, the term designer meant a level of individualism and taste that was giving guarantee to people who wanted to be different. However this had one side effect which was the popularization of the concept of design and designers. Designers became celebrities again same as it was in 1930s of America and they forgot their fundamental role as an element within the production process and as part of the everyday material environment. Beginning of 1990s everything returned back to normal, nevertheless designers had to think of ways of overcoming superficiality that had characterized the 1980s. The freeing effects of the early 1980s were still felt, however the values inherited from the early century came back into focus as some designers recognized continuing significance of these early ideals of Modernism. Since there were no contradictions now and there was no dominant design theory to react against, each approach could be judged on its own merits. Some designers still wanted a level of celebrity such as Philippe Starck; some preferred a more behind-the-scene approach. Most understood ecological concerns and incorporated them into their designs. Above all the design world at the end of the 20th century became global, with awareness that it was no longer possible to think just in terms of local or national identities 262. Three clear cultural changes were encouraged by the new technology of the late twentieth century. First one was moving away from a heavy to a lightweight and sometimes invisible infrastructure, second one was narrowing of the gap between what looks like nature and what looks manmade. A third trend was moving away from nonrenewable resources, which also led the research into re-usable materials including a new generation of plastics in the automobile industry. These three trends influenced the nature of design as style and make sharper the arguments over how designers could help people feel comfortable with new technology without having the need of hiding the new with a packaging from the past Ibid. 263 Dormer, Peter and Couldry, Nick - The meanings of modern design: Towards the twenty-first century. Thames and Hudson,

101 The Evolution of Design Culture Since Eco Design / Environmental Design With the several energy crises which have surfaced in the 70s of the Twentieth Century, it started to emerge a conscience towards the effects of the derived products from Industrial Design could have in the world and the environment. From these concerns resulted a set of methodologies for design with an environmental conscience such as Green Design, Eco - Design or Environmental Design. What these methodologies have in common are methods that can be applied in several activity sectors of a product like its design, production, and distribution (among others), aimed at reducing the environmental impact. Victor Papanek in his book Design for the Real World, in 1971, warned that a bigger environmental awareness was needed due to the environmental issues involving industrial design and product, devoting an entire chapter around the Environmental Design problem 264. Indeed, environmental issues must be a constant in any design process. Today, more than ever, it is essential to cultivate harmony between what Man produces, and Nature. Many are the authors who defend the practice of design based on this harmony. Papanek even refers the use of biological prototypes in the Design made by Man, and argues that Nature was, is, and always will be an endless source of solutions to the problems of humanity. In the words of Papanek designers must find analogies, through prototyping and biological systems for a design approach based in areas such as ethology, anthropology and morphology. 45 Also Paulo Parra, Portuguese designer, lecturer, researcher and collector, has been a defender of Design methodologies with environmental concerns, which advocates as essential on the survival of technical systems. In the same perspective, the approach between biological and technological systems development should be a priority and be present at the beginning of design processes of various products. Paulo Parra is the author of a Design methodology, referred to as Symbiotic Design which is defined as a merger between the biomorphic and biotechnical methodologies, also proposed by the 264 Papanek, Victor - Design for the real world. Thames and Hudson London, p

102 Chapter 5 author, in the perspective of a symbiosis between biological and technological systems, which contributes to economic, social and ecological sustainability of humanity 265 Paulo Parra also states that for sustainability of the Design Processes, designers must respect fully the Environmental issues and develop products that are capable of co-exist in the world without harming it. In the words of Paulo Parra, Planet Earth as a living organism can, as all others, die at any moment. Especially if against its nature and its superior ability to regenerate foreign forces are applied The Influence of New Materials The appearance of the modern environment was created by the help of new materials however it also brought new challenges for the designer. The architects and designers were very enthusiastic to investigate the physical and symbolic potential of new materials in order to create symbolic meaning of modernity. Art Nouveau architects and designers were seeking to create a new style that no link with the 19 th century history, were obliged to find and use new materials to achieve this goal. As Helen Clifford and Eric Turner did explain in their book of An Introduction to Design and Culture, Metal architecture stood for modernism. Cast iron was employed by Art Nouveau designers and architects for its practical qualities and aesthetic possibilities cast iron was particularly suitable for the whiplash curve. Art Nouveau designers created a new aesthetic language of modernity together with the achievements in the field engineering 267. Along the twentieth century and beyond, the designers have been constantly challenged by the discovery of new materials and technologies. Designers act as an important link between the technology and culture by finding new forms and meanings for the objects and making new technologies and materials both available and desirable Parra, Paulo - Design simbiótico: cultura projectual, sistemas biológicos e sistemas tecnológicos Ibid. 267 Sparke, Penny - A century of design: Design pioneers of the 20th century. Mitchell Beazley London, p Ibid. 84

103 The Evolution of Design Culture Since 1900 Iron and steel were the materials that transformed the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, while plate glass had created an extraordinary scene in the urban streets. Inspired with the change and the democratization of modernity, the fine artists developed abstract forms in response to the new environment that stimulated a new aesthetic for everyday life. In addition, new materials made everything feel and look different which have been highly appreciated 269. The need of creating new substances hasn t been that stronger at any other era than it was in the nineteenth century and the invention of materials that were used for the midcentury modernity were mainly made by a number of key individuals who had been active in those years. For instance, plastics and aluminum which were the two materials of the two key materials of inter-war modernity had been discovered during the nineteenth century. However they both have been perceived and accepted by the 1930 s as materials of modern age and important agents of design culture 270. Materials cannot transmit meanings without the designers shaping them. However what designers can do depending on the limits of production technologies. For instance the reason of the curves that reflected the streamlining design style popular in 1930 s, was partly the manufacture of plastic products not easy to extract sharp corners from the mould. In addition, designers used crowned surfaces for the fact that the surfaces of plastic products had the problem of sinking inwards. The designer was the responsible for designing the appropriate look for the products made from those materials based on their physical properties. There were countless new objects such as sewing machines, office equipment, vacuum cleaners designed and produced in the USA and Europe in those years. Their common characteristic was their modern identities 271. The aluminum was not accepted very easily as a modern material for the public in its early applications although the manufacturers made many efforts to show the potential of this material. However its use in aeroplane bodies, tableware items, car bodies and avant-garde furniture provided a modern image to this material by the end of the 269 Ibid. 270 Ibid. 271 Sparke, Penny - An Introduction to Design and Culture in the Twentieth Century. Allen & Unwin, p

104 Chapter s 272. For instance, Swiss designer Hans Coray s aluminium chair, the Landi designed for the Swiss national exhibition in Zurich in 1938 gained an iconic importance, not only because of its lightness, but also as a result of Coray s significant design with small round holes that are punched repeatedly into the metal to convey the message of sense of lightness. Figure 41 Landi Chair by Hans Coray, Chromed steel acquired a modern significance during the inter-war years. Its shiny, reflective surface became appealing to the visually conscious consumers of modernity 274. Large scale American corporations have driven the development of new technologies and materials and it was the American designers who have given the final form to those materials. The development of the new materials was driven by large scale American corporations and they were given form by American designers who employed their visual Some European architect designers also made experiments with those new materials, in particular for furniture design. Marcel Breuer, Mies van de Rohe, Le Corbusier and Mart Stam, among others, did perform a fundamental shift from the solid upholstered chair to a new seating object. The Finnish architect Alvar Aalto produced furniture designs made from laminated and 272 Ibid. 273 Chair Landi [Em linha] [Consult. em 5 Dez 2013]. Disponível em WWW: < 274 Sparke, Penny - An Introduction to Design and Culture in the Twentieth Century. Allen & Unwin, p

105 The Evolution of Design Culture Since 1900 bent plywood that could be used to perform similar role to tubular steel (Figure 42) 275. Before World War II Aalto had made some radical improvements in bending wood in not only two but three dimensions; his wood bending techniques were patented in However the method used to bend the wood still involved steam and tough manual work. The major breakthroughs in the technology of bending and molding wood came during World War II while making experiments in the aeronautical industry; laminates were able to be bond with new synthetic resin in order to create stronger material, and able to bend the wood by using electrically driven machinery. Therefore, plywood could be moulded easily effectively which made it possible to manufacture organic and sculptural forms inexpensively and more convenient to the shape of human body 276. Figure 42 Armchair 406 by Alvar Aalto, It was not only technology that made new materials available to contribute to the forms and images of modernity, but also production engineers played a key role in making these forms possible. New materials had a great cultural impact and highly contribution to the modernization of the lives of many people during inter-war years and after World War II Ibid. 276 Sparke, Penny - A century of design: Design pioneers of the 20th century. Mitchell Beazley London, p Armchair 406 [Em linha] [Consult. em 5 Dez 2013]. Disponível em WWW: < 278 Sparke, Penny - An Introduction to Design and Culture in the Twentieth Century. Allen & Unwin, p

106 Chapter 5 The availability of plastics due to technological breakthrough for producing foamed plastics, polyurethane and glass reinforced plastics increased the range of options for the designer. On the contrary, the perception of plastics has also started to be cheap and worse than natural materials. It was a challenge for the post-war designers to transform this perception into a unique combination of properties such as lightness, different color options, hygiene, ductility, robustness and resistance to water. In the 1950s many designers worked hard to overcome this challenge. The plastic chair designs of Charles Eames and Eero Saarinen, for example inspired Marco Zanuso to design the first injection moulded polyethylene chair called model no Figure 43 Child chair model no designed by Marco Zanuso, In addition to Zanuso, the first one piece plastic cantilevered chair was developed by the Danish designer Verner Panton in the 1960s. However the full potential of massproduced chair was designed in 1963 by British designer Robin Day for Hille & Co Ltd. It was named Polyprop and sold over 14 million copies worldwide. Plastics are considered very sophisticated materials. In 1960 s pop designers used plastics such as vinyl and polyurethane foam in order to design soft, flexible, inflatable 279 Model no: 4999 [Em linha] [Consult. em 5 Dez 2013]. Disponível em WWW: < 88

107 The Evolution of Design Culture Since 1900 and disposable (in theory) furniture. The best known example can be considered as transparent Blow chair designed by De Pas, D Urbino and Lornazzi in Figure 44 Blow chair by De Pas, D'Urbino and Lornazzi, The oil crisis in 1970 s caused designers to be more concerned with environmental issues such as biodegradability. For that reason the popularity of plastics decreased. But in 1980s and 1990s it started to raise again with more balanced use of this material. For instance, Philippe Starck combined polypropylene moulded body with aluminum legs for his chair Louis 20 with removable and recyclable legs. Plastics were widely used in 20 th century due to its unique properties and will certainly guarantee its place in the 21th century. However it will be a challenge for the new century designers to balance their advantages with environment issues Twenty-First Century Design By the end of twentieth century, the strongly aesthetic face of design beyond modernism was joined by a new awareness that was more process driven. It involved an 280 Sparke, Penny - A century of design: Design pioneers of the 20th century. Mitchell Beazley London, p Sparke, Penny - A century of design: Design pioneers of the 20th century. Mitchell Beazley London, p

108 Chapter 5 analysis of the design process itself and an attempt to integrate it within wider set practices 283. By the turn of the century, a growing disillusionment with design seen as the marriage of art and industry, as form of added value and as the key to consumer desire within the market economy had led to a radical assessment of its social, cultural and economic on the part of many theorists and practitioners. The electronics revolution had broken the bond that had linked design to the decorative arts for centuries and forced the former to redefine itself as a feature of the new post-industrial world. In that new context, the question of style, now a synonym for lifestyle, remained an urgent one for many individual consumers in an increasingly globalized world and designers continued to respond that imperative. However, designer culture increasingly lost its prominence and designers were replaced by new celebrities, young entrepreneurs, chefs and computer wizards among them, all of who were widely visible in the media 284. Design theorists and practitioners pulled back from the inevitable dilution of what design, in its heroic decades the 1920s, 30s, 60s and 80s in particular had been and looked elsewhere both to reform it and to revitalize its potential to bring about change. The phenomenon called design thinking grew out of that moment of rebirth and developed a new role for design and designers Design Thinking Innovation was the core theme in design thinking and research in the early twenty-first century. It implied taking problem solving to a new level, such that the problem itself was redefined. In the process, the idea of dealing with material products was marginalized. This did not mean that products were no longer important. They were simply repositioned as means to an end. In the case of electric drill, for example, it was a hole that is created that was considered important rather than the object itself. This dematerialized thinking aligned itself with the work being undertaken on interface 283 Sparke, Penny - An Introduction to Design and Culture in the Twentieth Century. Allen & Unwin, p Ibid. 285 Ibid. 90

109 The Evolution of Design Culture Since 1900 design, where systems, rather than images or objects became the focus. The idea of design thinking quickly spread across the globe. It represented a renaissance for design inasmuch as it gave it a higher profile than it had until now enjoyed within the marketplace and the context of consumption 286. Design thinking as it was implemented at Stanford University, underpinned the ideas developed by IDEO at Palo Alto. By 2006, sixty percent of IDEO s projects were strategic rather than design focused. They utilized the technique of storytelling and employed film makers and writers to help them in that area. They worked on the principle that designers have always had to understand a bit of everybody else s discipline and that they were natural T people meaning that they combined specialist knowledge (vertical) with breadth/empathy with other disciplines (horizontal) 287. Through the new emphasis on problem solving, design thinking and its alliance with the wide agenda of innovation in the early twenty-first century, design was, on one level, realigned with its modernist roots, although it was the process rather than the outcome that had come to matter most. On another level, inasmuch as it depended completely on its relevance to a post-industrial world in which the design services, business and the need to address a raft of social issues represented by the main challenges. For the first time, design moved beyond the marketplace and rose to the level of those large-scale challenges and was accepted as a possible means of solving them 288. An important feature of the design thinking process is collaboration. This word can be understood as a key word in the definition of Design Thinking. Collaboration between the three universes - people, technology and business - is essential to reach an innovative product or service. The process Design thinking is composed of a series of intense collaborations that bring to project greater assurance of project- quality. The objective of these collaborations is first to understand what the object means for consumers and their needs. Then, the use of rapid prototyping through models, storyboards, stories, tests with the user, and even theatrical representations of concepts and services, can bring clarity to the concepts in order to reduce the risk of failure and 286 Ibid. 287 Ibid. 288 Ibid. 91

110 Chapter 5 ensure that everything works perfect in the eyes of the future consumer will interact with the product or service 289. In short, design thinking is 290 : A process for addressing complex problems; A process that is innovation oriented; A process that makes use of abductive reasoning of designers; A human-centered process; A process that discovers opportunities; A collaborative process; A process that unfolds in interdisciplinary teams. 289 Gouveia, André - Briefing innovation p Ibid. 92

111 6 CASE STUDY: WHY DO WE LOVE SONY WALKMAN & APPLE IPOD? In this chapter, two significant cases will be analyzed related to the legendary products Sony Walkman and ipod that were loved by the millions of people, influenced their lives, changed the way of listening music, changed the rules of music industry, last but not the least affected the design culture and were affected by the design culture of their era. The main goal of this analysis is to understand if the designers of these products have taken into account what kind of messages they wanted to transmit to the consumers and were the responses in line with the literature review explained in the previous chapters Sony Walkman The Sony Corporation established in 1946 as the Tokyo Telecommunications Engineering Corporation and renamed in is an organization which is both represented and represents itself as the paradigm of a design-led company. Design at Sony is described as putting the customer needs in the first place and responding them in a highly flexible manner 292. The Design Center at Sony develops entire product 291 Sparke, Penny - A century of design: Design pioneers of the 20th century. Mitchell Beazley London, p Du Gay, Paul - Doing cultural studies: The story of the Sony Walkman. Sage, p

112 Case Study: Why do we love Sony Walkman & Apple ipod? concepts. In addition to usual styling function, design has a more strategic role than usually attributed within manufacturing organizations. The first commercially available Walkman TPS-L2 was a carry-over design from the dictation machine TCM-60(Pressman) from which the basic case and the mechanical parts were used. The mechanical performance of the deck was originally designed more with speech and dictation in mind rather than music (See Figure 45). Figure 45 The Sony Walkman TPS-L2 vs. TCM In order to understand the role of Design Centre in the development of most popular Sony Walkman range, the classic Walkman II (WM-2) is analyzed instead of TPS-L2. Because when the term Sony Walkman is mentioned it is very rare to recall TPS-L2 as the first Walkman. Instead, the first creation of Sony s Design Center WM-2 is the most significant product in terms of design characteristics among other typical cassette players and considered as the start of new product concept of the Walkman at Sony Corporation. (See Figure 46) Figure 46 The Sony Walkman WM TPS-L2 [Em linha] [Consult. em 5 Dez 2013]. Disponível em WWW: < >. 294 TCM-600 [Em linha] [Consult. em 5 Dez 2013]. Disponível em WWW: < 94

113 Chapter 6 In traditional companies, product development begins with performance requirements of basic mechanisms and switches defined by engineers and then the designers integrate them into their design. At Sony, the design and development of the classic Walkman II (WM-2) was done completely in an upside down way in accordance with the role of Design Centre within the organization structure. Therefore, engineers were required to work within the parameters such as body size, layout of switches specified earlier by the Design Centre 296. As a result the body of the WM-2 weighed only 280 grams which was 110 grams lighter than the original TPS-L2. Brought onto the market in 1982, the WM-2 has achieved sales of over 2.5 million units and still remains the best-selling Walkman model of all time. According to the former head of design at Sony Yasuo Kuroki, The Design Centre was not only limited with the look and the shape of the product. The whole concept how a product will be sold, how a product will be marketed, how a product will be advertised was totally developed at the Design Centre. He also indicates that design at Sony was not only concerned with creating functionally suitable and understandable products but also with specifying design that symbolizes meanings beyond the ones that are explicit. He says, Designer is a radar scanning art, architecture, technology, fashion, pop, everything and translating it into design Aesthetic Response of WM-2 Analyzing WM-2 in terms of aesthetic response, we concluded that basic aesthetic principles were applied to the product design in different levels. Although there is no evidence that proves that golden section rule was implied, we may easily conclude that the gestalt rules were applied in the appearance of WM WM-2 [Em linha] [Consult. em 5 Dez 2013]. Disponível em WWW: < 296 Du Gay, Paul - Doing cultural studies: The story of the Sony Walkman. Sage, p Ibid. 95

114 Case Study: Why do we love Sony Walkman & Apple ipod? Gestalt rules suggest that when an image is first seen, our brain tends to extract certain types of visual patterns and constructs them into meaningful image. They are considered as the operational rules for the programming of our brain. Rewind and Fast Forward buttons were placed symmetrically to the stop button. All the buttons were placed inside half oblong shaped cavities that have the same width that creates visual proximity. Buttons were chosen from simple geometric shapes such as oblong and circle. The belt clip holder which was attached separately to the Walkman was designed according to the gestalt rules as well. As it is seen in Figure 47 (right), transversal and vertical lines were made parallel to each other to provide visual proximity and symmetry. Fast Forward Rewind Forward /Play Stop Figure 47 The Sony Walkman WM-2 without clip holder (left), with belt clip holder (right) 298 Prototypicality demonstrates the degree to which something is a reference to a category. Therefore products that are slightly different from the prototype are considered more positive than the ones that are either very typical or very atypical. WM-2 was a machine for listening to recorded music. There were many other electronic replay devices for this purpose. Walkman was similar to other type of 298 WM-2 with and without clip holder [Em linha] [Consult. em 5 Dez 2013]. Disponível em WWW: < 96

115 Chapter 6 equipment such as tape recorder, dictating machine or the hi-fi set. In this perspective, we may claim that Walkman is prototypical. MAYA principle suggests that we prefer the products that are easy to categorize, the ones that are very familiar to us. On the other hand we also tend to be attracted by new, unfamiliar and original things mainly to handle with boredom and saturation feelings. It had a very sleek appearance which was created by having no distinct front or back. Both faces were styled with equal attention to detail; it did not look obviously like a tape player at all. The buttons were placed on the front panel instead along the side which was also very different from TPS-L2 and its ancestor WCM-600. This combination of similarities with other machines and differences from them gave the Walkman a definite and specific position confirming the presence of MAYA principle in WM-s design. Visual complexity/familiarity principle recommends that visual patterns with low arousal potential do not provide stimuli and leave the observer indifferent; patterns with high arousal potential are difficult to grasp and are considered unpleasant. Despite having a sleek design, the buttons were organized on the front panel instead of conventionally on the side which aroused pleasantness Semantic Response of WM-2 The semantic functions allow the designer to communicate a clear message through the product. In this manner, we analyze the semantic functions of Sony Walkman as below: Description: The product form describes its purpose and the way to use it. Sony Walkman as being the ancestor of popular ipod, was the first practical device that enabled users to listen the exact music they wanted, when they wanted, where they wanted. 97

116 Case Study: Why do we love Sony Walkman & Apple ipod? It was mobile and it came with the headphones. It could be played, at top volume and with very fine technical sound quality in public without disturbing or being overheard by anyone else. It was designed to be played with one person. However with two headphone sockets, two people could listen to the music at the same time. Expression: The product form expresses the product s values and attributes. It is lightweight. It weighed only 280 grams which was 110 grams lighter than the original TPS-L2. Therefore it was small enough to be carried; it could be slipped into a pocket or attached to a belt with a belt clip holder shown in Figure 47. It was also shock-proof, therefore ideal for jogging. A battery door was placed inside the cassette compartment. This also made the machine more robust, reducing the chance of the door falling open by accident and the batteries spilling out The control keys were placed on the front of the machine rather than along one edge, reducing the size of the Walkman. It was available in metallic grey which demonstrated the high technology and modernity. Black and red vivid color options were also available. Stimulation: The product form drives the user to react in a correct and safe way. The functions ( fwd / play (later models) and stop ) were engraved on the buttons. Those two most used buttons were bigger than other two buttons which are fast forward and rewind. This size difference also allowed user to discriminate them without checking what is written on them. Play button had a green dot which also prevented user to mix stop and play buttons. There was a battery light on the front panel that warned when the battery was low. The original headphones had a large orange push button where the two leads separated that muted the sound (replacement of hot line button on model TPS- L2). 98

117 Chapter 6 Identification: The product form identifies origin, nature and product area (it creates the bound with system, family and product range via text, graphics and design cues). Sony brand was embossed on the top, left of the product. The generic name Walkman was written at the bottom. When the belt clip holder was assembled, Sony logo was also seen on the black plastic with white letters Semiotic Response of WM-2 In order to understand how a particular meaning or identity is encoded into a product, it is necessary to review the broad range of Sony Walkman available for consumption since the launch of the original model in The Walkman design was originally targeted to particular consumers who are mobile, young-music listeners. However, the consumer profile of Walkman became much more diverse than the company forecasted. Sony s strategy was instead of selling only one type Walkman model worldwide, to customize products that aim to reach different consumer This attempt of Sony was called lifestyling It involved tailoring and customization of a particular market segment. As a result of this, the Walkman was available in over 700 versions by the early 1990 s. The motto was different Sony Walkman s for different people. We discussed that designers are cultural intermediaries. Walkman designed by Sony Design Center at Japan, definitely connoted some certain national characteristics that are Japanese and rooted in particular practices like the rituals of tea ceremony or cultivation of the bonsai. Central features of Japanese design such as compactness, simplicity and fine detailing were consistently represented. The Walkman has often been represented as the modern embodiment of this traditional Japanese design aesthetic. Its small size and the simplicity of its visual look elicited typical Japanese attributes. However we cannot categorize Walkman as purely Japanese, because just like other nation s designers, Japanese designers were also influenced with a variety of cultures around the world in creating Japanese products for an increasingly global marketplace. 99

118 Case Study: Why do we love Sony Walkman & Apple ipod? What makes the Sony Walkman a part of our culture is the social practices with which it has become associated like listening while travelling in a crowded train, on a bus or in an metro which are specific to our culture or way of life. It is associated with certain kinds of people (young people or music lovers); with certain places (the city, the open air, walking around a museum). The Walkman was a meaningful object because we gave this meaning by talking, thinking about it and imagining it. Some set of social practices like listening to music while travelling on the bus or train) helps us to construct this meaning. For instance, if we think of the moment in 1979 that Walkman did not existed and nobody knew anything about the product. How were journalists able to make sense of something they had never seen before? Just looking at the device would not help unless the machine could explain itself. Objects cannot possess or express their own meaning 299. We construct the meaning through cultural practices and through the symbols that the designer encodes into the product appearance. The Walkman had no meaning of itself. It was us who assigned the meaning, through the process of using words and images to form concepts in our heads. We symbolized Walkman as high-tech, modern, typically Japanese and associated it with youth, entertainment and the world of recorded music and sound 300. High tech: WM-2 was designed in 1982 as a product of New Modernism when consumer electronics, was defined as items of equipment characterized by their technological virtuosity. Associating with the world of advanced electronic; Sony Walkman was characterized as the product of recent, cutting edge technological development. Modern: Walkman was signified as something up-to-date. Private-listening in public places and mobility aspects of Walkman triggered connotations of modernity as a distinctive way of life. 299 Du Gay, Paul - Doing cultural studies: The story of the Sony Walkman. Sage, p Ibid. 100

119 Chapter 6 Japanese: Associated with Japan s rapid post-war economic growth, it evoked Japan s superiority in advanced electronics and other design characteristics such as compactness, simplicity and fine detailing. Youth: Walkman was identified with a particular section of the market with young people and youth culture. However, after the success of WM-2 among a broad variety of people all over the world, this symbolic meaning was differentiated with different Walkman models that were designed based on various lifestyles. Entertainment: Being an object of listening to the music, Walkman was connected to the world of entertainment and pleasure and thereby associated with the world of popular music and the recording industries Apple ipod vs. MpMan The first portable music player was Saehan Information Systems MpMan introduced in February of Saehan It is Saehan Group, one of Korea s 30 business groups. However, the information Systems division was only established in 1997, it had no experience in consumer electronics and revenues under $15 million. In the first year, Saehan sold about players; about and were shipped throughout the world including USA. In 1998, South Korea s Saehan Information Systems created the first portable digital audio player, MPMan. It sold 50,000 players globally in its first year. By the launch of the ipod in 2001, there were approximately 50 portable mp3 players available in the U.S. and no firm had achieved anywhere near the dominance that the Walkman had enjoyed 20 years earlier. Compared to the Walkman and cassettes, the story was very different for mp3s. It was not possible to purchase them in traditional retail settings. Downloading an album legally or not could be a multi-hour affair. It didn t matter that MPMan was first it wouldn t have mattered if they were 6th, 23rd, or 42nd. Without the widespread availability of mp3s and broadband, the value proposition could not come together. 101

120 Case Study: Why do we love Sony Walkman & Apple ipod? Figure 48 World s First MP3 Player MpMan -F Apple waited until 2001, when it finally made its move, putting the last two pieces in place to create a winning innovation: an attractive, simple device supported by smart software. On its own, the mp3 player was useless. In order for the device to have value, other co-innovators in the mp3 player ecosystem first needed to be aligned such as a software that will allow users to download mp3 s from a broad range of an online market. By 2001, the first generation ipod for Macintosh entered to the market with the price of $399. Despite being available only for Mac users, the ipod was the fastest selling mp3 player to ever hit the market Aesthetic Response of ipod (1 st gen) Analyzing ipod(1 st gen) in terms of aesthetic response, we concluded that basic aesthetic principles were applied to the product design in different levels. The Golden Section (Proportion rule): Depending on the Fibonacci sequence, the golden ratio is a proportion that is found abundantly in nature, mathematics and ancient Greek art. It is considered to be one of the most visually pleasing proportions to look at. When we look at ipod, at first glance, we can think that Apple just took a rectangular block and add some buttons? However there is much more behind it. 301 MpMan [Em linha] [Consult. em 5 Dez 2013]. Disponível em WWW: < 102

121 Chapter 6 The shape of the original ipod was actually based on the golden section rule. As shown in Figure 49 the ratio of square to the rectangle was 1 to 0,618 which is considered as the perfect golden ratio. Figure 49 - ipod Golden Section 302 In terms of Gestalt rules, we may conclude that its sleek design was based on these rules. The rewind and fast forward buttons were designed symmetric to each other as well as the menu and stop/play buttons. All the buttons were designed to create a circle shape and a visual continuity. Only two types of simple geometric shapes were chosen circle and rectangle. The corners of the device were also rounded as well as the screen corners in order to create a visual harmony. As prototypicality rule suggests products that are slightly different from the prototype are considered more positive than the ones that are either very typical or very atypical. In this perspective, we may confirm that the appearance of the ipod was prototypical due to its similarity with its precedent MpMan (See Figure 50). 302 ipod Golden Section [Em linha] [Consult. em 5 Dez 2013]. Disponível em WWW: < 103

122 Case Study: Why do we love Sony Walkman & Apple ipod? They were both in rectangular shape with similar sizes and with LCD screens. So it was not very difficult for an MpMan user to recognize ipod as a new type of Mp3 player. Figure 50 - Ipod versus MpMan Maximum effect with minimum means rule suggests that a visual pattern pleases the eye when relatively simple design features elicit rich information. The Apple ipod s is an mp3 player in a small white box which has four main buttons, a hole for the earplug, a hole for the USB connection and a simple click-wheel for navigation with a small LCD display to search and view the played songs easily. According MAYA principle, people tend to prefer designs with an optimal combination of novelty and typicality. Compared to MpMan, we may confirm that it has novel design, especially the presence of simple yet functional click wheel design, neutral white color(including buttons) and chrome plated shiny backside provided this effect (See Figure 51). 303 Apple ipod [Em linha] [Consult. em 5 Dez 2013]. Disponível em WWW: < 304 MpMan [Em linha] [Consult. em 5 Dez 2013]. Disponível em WWW: < 104

123 Chapter 6 Figure 51 - ipod chrome plated backside Semantic Response of ipod (1 st gen) The semantic functions allow the designer to communicate a clear message through the product. In this manner, we analyze the semantic functions of Sony Walkman as below: Description: The product form describes its purpose and the way to use it. ipod s user interface is intuitive. Finding songs is very easy with the display screen and the click-wheel. It enables to store music directly to the device (5Gb). It connects to the computer easily and it can be charged via computer The attached itunes software makes it easy to store and manage music. The itunes software connects the user to the online music store of Apple and makes it very easy to buy the music at one click. Expression: The product form expresses the product s values and attributes. Its neutral white front and chrome shiny backside gives the impression of cleanness same as the bathroom materials(e.g. a shiny white porcelain of bathtub and the reflective chrome of the faucet). Simulation: The product form drives the user to react in a correct and safe way. The product s interface was so sleek. However it was very user friendly to navigate with the click-wheel. 105

124 Case Study: Why do we love Sony Walkman & Apple ipod? The main purpose of ipod design is to make it intuitively obvious to use. That s why the number of buttons were reduced to minimum (Only 4 basic functions). Despite having a clean design, those four buttons had the symbols printed on them. Identification: The product form identifies origin, nature and product area (it creates the bound with system, family and product range via text, graphics and design cues). Apple brand and logo, the memory capacity and the design location was printed on the backside of the device. It was only available in white color which demonstrates its clean and sleek design Semiotic Response of ipod (1 st gen) Its surfaces are seamless and have no moving parts that have often been used in science and science-fiction to connote advanced technology. Apple s mantra is simplicity. Rather than a heavy industrial look such as gunmetal and black, Job preferred to follow the path of Bauhaus simplicity in particular Braun. As shown in Figure 52 the first generation ipod from 2001, has similarities with the Braun T3 pocket radio from He believed that making white and beautiful products and fitting them in a small package would also show them high-tech. According to Jobs, it was not necessary to design very complex products in order to prove them that they were functional. Figure 52 - Braun T3 Pocket radio vs. Ipod (1st gen) Braun vs ipod [Em linha] [Consult. em 6 Dez 2013]. Disponível em WWW: < 106

125 Chapter 6 Apple did not limit its definition of user interface to the small screen on the product. Via itunes software, they mapped out all the touch-points the consumer goes through when finding, storing and sorting through music, and looked for opportunities to simplify their life. itunes was not only a software it was the new ecosystem that Apple created for the users of ipod where they could share their music tastes, exchange music and buy the songs that like from an online store very easily. 107

126 7 HOW TO DESIGN GLOBALLY LOVED PRODUCTS? The literature review and the case study results enable us to answer the main questions of the research study. In Section 7.1, we may find the answers for the first two questions and in Section 7.2 for the last question; What is the relationship between the consumer and the product? (New framework for communication through design) Do designers need to take into account cultural differences while designing their products? What are the key factors to design a product that will be accepted and loved globally? (Design guideline for the designers to give intended meaning to the product) 7.1. A New Framework Proposal for Communication Through Design The new framework proposal is based on Crilly, Moultrie and Clarkson framework which explains the cognitive responses in three levels. However that framework does not clarify the link between cognitive and emotional responses and how the emotions evoke behavioral responses. Desmet s basic model of emotions that was explained in Section 2.3 is integrated into this new framework and the link between cognitive and emotional responses are re-established (See Figure 53, Appendix C). Except the white colored modules, rest of the framework from Crilly, Moultrie and Clarkson is re- 108

127 How to Design Globally Loved Products? organized to create this missing link between cognitive and emotional responses. Also the movement of cultural meaning is emphasized by creating sub-cultures and showing the direction of cultural context from Design Culture (culturally constituted world) into sub-cultures of the designer and the consumer. Figure 53 A New Framework Proposal for Communication Through Design According to Desmet s model, there is a concern hidden in every emotion. Concerns can be considered as reference points in the appraisal process. Therefore, the importance of a product for our favor is determined by an appraised concern match or mismatch: products that match our concerns are appraised as beneficial, and those that mismatch our concerns as harmful. There are three types of concerns: goals, attitudes and standards. As explained earlier, the goals are the reference points in the appraisal of motive compliance and elicit instrumental emotions such as disappointment or satisfaction. The attitudes on the other hand, are reference points in the appraisal of pleasantness and elicit aesthetic emotions such as disgust or attraction. The third concern standard elicits social emotions such as indignation or admiration in the appraisal of legitimacy. When we appraise any product as novel, it elicits surprise emotions such as surprise or amazement. Surprise emotions are different from the previous three emotion types because they are not related to a particular concern type. Instead, a positive surprise is elicited by a sudden and unexpected match with any concern (i.e., a goal, attitude, or 109

128 Chapter 7 standard), and unpleasant surprise is elicited by a sudden and unexpected mismatched concern. When we appraise a product challenging and promising, it elicits interest emotions like fascination, boredom, or inspiration. Products that evoke interest emotions make us laugh, stimulate us, or motivate us. We may match these emotions with the products that apply MAYA (most advanced, yet acceptable) rule. Since people are intrinsically motivated to seek and maintain an optimal level of arousal, a shift away from this optimal level is considered unpleasant. The difference of the new proposal from Desmet s emotional model is the cognitive process placed between concern and appraisal, because Desmet s model does not involve cognition in the appraisal process. This new approach is supported with the statement of an American Psychologist Paul Ekman 306 who is considered as the pioneer in the study of emotions, proposed in 1977, the notion of two distinct appraisal mechanisms, one automatic and the other extended consciousness: There must be an appraiser mechanism which selectively attends to those stimuli (external or internal) which are the occasion for... [one or another emotion]. Since the interval between stimulus and emotional response is sometimes extraordinarily short, the appraisal mechanism must be capable of operating with great speed. Often the appraisal is not only quick but it happens without awareness, so I must postulate that the appraisal mechanism is able to operate automatically...appraisal is not always automatic. Sometimes the evaluation of what is happening is slow, deliberate and conscious. With such a more extended appraisal there may be some autonomic arousal, but perhaps not of a kind which is differentiated. The person could be said to be aroused or alerted, but no specific emotion is operative. Cognition plays the important role in determining what will transpire. 306 Ekman, Paul - Biological and cultural contributions to body and facial movement p

129 How to Design Globally Loved Products? Ekman claims that a cognition process is necessary to evaluate the appraisal of the concern. Emotions can be elicited in two ways, either with automatic appraisal or appraisal that involves cognitive processing. The aspects of cognitive response on the other hand, do not operate independently, but they are highly inter-related; each one influences the others. These interactions are also shown in the new framework by double-headed arrows. The relative importance that the consumer places on aesthetic, semantic and symbolic responses may vary depending upon the situation. This assessment is based on the cognitive process which includes aesthetic, semantic and semiotic responses. For instance, instrumental emotions may result from these three responses, if the product is considered to promise the satisfaction of decorative, functional and social objectives. On the other hand, aesthetic emotions are directly related with aesthetic responses 307. Moderating factors discussed within the existing frameworks remain the same except the cultural influences. Culture is shown a moderator that influence consumer decisions. However as it is explored in Chapter 4 and Chapter 5, we may consider Design Culture as the atmosphere that surrounds everything and then we may argue about sub-cultures that is constituted by group of individuals. Designers and consumers may belong to the same sub-culture, but it is not very unlikely to consider designer and consumer within different sub-cultures as shown in Figure 53. For instance, being a Portuguese designer, one may design products for German market or a designer growing up in a middle class social environment, may design products for the niche market. There is no problem if the designer and consumer are in different sub-cultures. The problem only occurs when designer do not take into account the sub-culture of the consumer and its dynamics. This framework can be used as a tool for the designers to understand what kind of elements affect eliciting positive emotions. For instance, if a designer is designing a chair that will be sold in Portugal, he has to understand the cultural dynamics of 307 Crilly, Nathan, Moultrie, James and Clarkson, P. John - Seeing things: consumer response to the visual domain in product design

130 Chapter 7 Portuguese people but in particular the target consumers. What kind of music they listen, what kind of colors appeal them most, how they communicate with each other (e.g. sms, facebook, twitter), what are the most suitable communication channels (e.g. blogs, famous bloggers, most read design magazines), which design movement is most appealing for the target consumers (e.g. Victorian, conservative modernism) etc. It is important to state that, if the designer can work with market researchers to collect this data, the output of the research would be more specific. After gathering the data related to the culture of target consumer, the design process starts with the design goals and constraints which is the common step for every design project. However while reading this framework; it is necessary to start from consumer response side of the process, because designer s intention has to match (or at least approximate) the consumer s response. The idea is to design the product based on consumer s response. Designer s intention or personal taste is not the priority. For that reason, before starting the project, the designer needs to understand what the concern of the consumer is. In this case, we assume that he has a specific goal which is a very ergonomic, easy to clean, soft chair. This shows that the consumer s appraisal (cognitive) process will be based on motive compliance. We can conclude that, the designer has to emphasize semantic functions of the product. This means that the chair could be beautifully designed (just as an exhibition item), but if it is uncomfortable, or designed in white color (not easy to clean), it will not elicit positive instrumental emotions on consumer side. On the other hand, the designer has to find balance between aesthetic and symbolic functions also. The designer needs to use the cultural data in order to construct the symbolic meaning of the product while considering the aesthetically appealing colors and shapes that Portuguese s (in particular target consumer) likes. However, the symbolic meaning of the product is dynamic and can differ from people to people. For that reason designer has to create common experiences that the consumers will have when they sit on the chair for instance by demonstrating the chair in a decorated house and by providing clues to the consumer about the meaning of the product (e.g. IKEA showrooms). The idea here is to make-sense and to match the identity of the chair with the self-identity of the consumer. The categorical meanings also have to be created by using print media (magazines), film media 112

131 How to Design Globally Loved Products? (advertisements) or with the help of bloggers and trendsetters. It is essential for the designer to keep the communication within these cultural platforms so that the target consumers can feel themselves belong to a group and categorize themselves in their social environment with the object (in this case a chair) that they own. If the consumer sees that the chair he wants to buy is recommended by a well-known magazine (e.g. Elle Decoration), it might have the effect on the consumer to associate this chair with Elle decoration readers Key Factors of Designing Globally Loved Products In the Sixth Chapter, the case study of Sony Walkman and Apple ipod was analyzed, in order to find out what these companies did so that these products were loved globally. Within this section, the key factors of designing globally loved products are identified based on the literature review and case study results. 1) Designing aesthetically attractive products: Designers can make better decision on the attractiveness of their design by understanding why people are aesthetically attracted to some properties or patterns over others. There are some principles that can predict and explain people s aesthetic responses. When these principles are applied properly, it is most likely that people will agree on an object s aesthetic value if they belong to similar sub-cultures. The golden section (proportion rule): Depending on the Fibonacci sequence, the golden ratio is a proportion that is found abundantly in nature, mathematics and ancient Greek art. It is considered to be one of the most visually pleasing proportions to look at. Gestalt rules suggest that when an image is first seen, our brain tends to extract certain types of visual patterns and constructs them into meaningful image. They are considered as the operational rules for the programming of our brain. (the rule of symmetry, similarity, good continuance, figure/ground judgments and visual simplicity) 113

132 Chapter 7 Prototypicality demonstrates the degree to which something is a reference to a category. Therefore products that are slightly different from the prototype are considered more positive than the ones that are either very typical or very atypical. Maximum effect with minimum means rule suggests that a visual pattern pleases the eye when relatively simple design features elicit rich information. Most advanced, yet acceptable (MAYA principle) suggests that we prefer the products that are easy to categorize, the ones that are very familiar to us. On the other hand we also tend to be attracted by new, unfamiliar and original things mainly to handle with boredom and saturation feelings. Optimal match to the senses suggests that products tend to address various senses at the same time. It is is related with the correlation between these various sensory impressions. Consumers have the tendency to prefer products that transmit similar messages to all our senses. 2) Designing functional products: The semantic rules allow the designer to communicate the product s practical qualities through the product. In this manner, it is the designer s responsibility to be explicit about what to or not to communicate through the product form. A good functional product has to be considered as a human-centered activity and mainly has to focus upon how to satisfy the needs of the people that actually use the designed product. Description: The product form describes its purpose and the way to use it. Consumers may conclude the practical benefits that the product will offer and how they must interact with it. We may refer this subject to Norman s function and understandability components explained earlier. Expression: The product form expresses the product s values and attributes. Changes in product s visual form may affect the consumer s interpretation of the product s qualities such as density, stability and fragility. This semantic function is similar to Norman s physical feel component. 114

133 How to Design Globally Loved Products? Caution: The product form drives the user to react in a correct and safe way. For instance the user is triggered to be careful and to be precise in his/her operation of the product. Identification: The product form identifies its origin and nature so that it creates the bound with system, family and product range via text, graphics and design cues (e.g. A bowl can be identified as part of a specific china set; Coca Cola brand can be identified with its unique bottle, a company can be identified by a specific design philosophy that exists in its products). Physical feel: Physical touch can make a significant difference in the appreciation of the object. 3) Encoding meaning to the products: Designer has to convince the consumer that a specific designed object possesses a certain cultural meaning. For that reason it is designer s task to clearly display the symbolic properties of an object as well as its physical properties. Designers encode their creations a meaning derived from the culture, which they intend the consumer to extract. Designers expect consumers to prefer products that communicate meaning that are desirable within a particular culture or subculture. If a culture values high technology, forms that communicate technical sophistication should be preferred. Designers have to be aware of social, lifestyle and user needs. Designers must recognize the social dynamics their products may initiate; for example, when objects designed for use in one group employ symbols of integration for another, or when high-status symbols are made easily accessible to low-status groups, it may cause negative emotions and an avoidance behavior as a consequence. Producing greater numbers of identical products can easily conflict with social needs for symbols of differentiation, integration, and status. When it comes to showing who they are or want to be, people seem to totally ignore the functional criteria or at most assign lower importance. The self-expressive symbolism associated with products allows the expression of unique aspects of one s personality. 115

134 Chapter 7 This includes individual qualities, values and attributes. These self-expressive meanings serve to differentiate the consumer from those that surround them. However, people want to be different but never so different that they no longer look like others in some respect. A user's identity is but one extreme by which the self is distinguished from all others. By the above premise, individualization can never be total. The feeling of belonging to or being part of larger social entities, classes, professional groups, or religious denominations is, again, mediated largely through the deliberate use of particular objects. With the emphasis on similarities such objects become symbols of integration. The categorical symbolism associated with products allows the expression of group membership, including social position and status. Designers have to know that these categorical meanings serve to integrate the consumer with those that surround them. 4) Eliciting positive emotions via product design: As shown in the new framework proposal (Figure 53), eliciting positive emotions are the result of cognitive responses. Designers cannot have direct effect on emotions. The only way to do this is creating products that will have the intended aesthetic, semantic and semiotic responses. For that reason it is very important for the designers to understand the consumer s main concern why he/she wants to own this product as the first step of the design process. Next step will be to take into account the key factors (1) and (2) related to aesthetic and functional aspects of the product. However the designer needs to know that consumer will not purchase the product just because it is very aesthetic or very functional. The cognitive loop of the consumer will only be completed when he/she gives a meaning to the product that makes sense based on his/her initial concern to buy the product. This meaning can be very similar to the designer s intended meaning. Then the product will be appraised as concern accomplished and eventually the product will elicit positive emotions. The most important step within this design communication process is the semiotic response; because encoding a meaning to a product is not a straight forward activity. As mentioned in key factor (3), it requires designer to be engaged with the design culture and the sub-culture of the consumer and to understand the dynamics of this culture by using the available communication channels. 116

135 8 CONCLUSION The starting point of this dissertation was to understand the rules of making sense and create a guideline for the designers to design better products that can be accepted and loved globally while answering the question of what exactly constitutes the value of a product design for consumers. The first step was analyzing all the boundaries of consumer responses and making sense activity. However the literature review found out that product influence on consumer response was very complex which involved subjective feelings and psychological reactions. Different fields of interest were involved with different individual theories. The link between those theories was not established. There were only a few frameworks to describe the design as a process of communication. A lack of framework that explains the interaction between cognitive and emotional responses was identified and the need for a guideline describing how designers could stimulate positive emotional responses was revealed. Within this dissertation, it was emphasized that emotional design is the new way of designing products. Designers have to make significant connotative and denotative meanings of their products. However connotative meaning is often the hardest to address due to uncertainty. Because products are used for different purposes in different contexts and provide different connotations to different people. In this sense, designers need support from psychologists and emotional design researchers. Design is analyzed as a process of mediated communication where designer s intentions related to how a product should be interpreted is transmitted to the consumers. The 117

136 Chapter 8 designer s intention is subjective and one of the main constraints that influence consumer response. Designers perceive form creation is intuitive by nature and difficult to verbalize. However the more strategically successful the design is, the more accurately and consistently trigger similar thoughts and emotions in different receivers. Cognitive responses are not objective qualities of the product. They do not belong to the product itself. It can be considered as the assessment and making-sense activity of the consumer. As an output, consumer assigns a symbolic meaning to the product. It can be similar to the designer s intention or very far from it. Designer s success depends on the approximation of the consumer s symbolic meaning to his intended meaning. Aesthetic appealing and functional properties of the product are important in order for the consumer to be engaged with the product. It is possible to identify some universal rules that will lead the designer during the creation process. However the symbolic meanings attached to the products are culturally defined. For that reason, the extent to which a product is seen to reflect or support identity has to be determined by cultural context within which the product is consumed. Designers are already familiar with the rules related with designing aesthetically appealing products and functional products. However the rules for encoding the symbolic meaning to the product design is the main challenge for the designers. Symbolic value is one of the key factors for purchase decisions and is the reason for the selection of products that are lower in terms of physical properties. Symbolic value can be encoded to a product on the basis of advertising, country of origin or the kind of people using it. But also the product itself can communicate the symbolic value in a more direct way which means by its appearance (using certain design elements consistently). The key questions investigated within the dissertation is where is the origin of symbolic meaning and how different people around the world understand the same symbolic meaning that is encoded in the form of product. The answer is the definition of Design Culture. For that reason, it is very essential for the designers to understand the domains of design culture. As being part of it, it is the designer s responsibility to plan and manage the design process as a team work, to be part of the process from the raw 118

137 Chapter 8 material until the product is purchased by the consumer. The designer has to create an experience for the consumer where even the packaging of the product reflects the identity of the person who owns the product. Design culture must be also seen as a platform for communication, as a huge forum where global actors, connect and communicate their activities. This means that designers have to be open for communicating their design and understanding the new trends of global culture and understanding the cultural dynamics of the culture they present their designs. The acceptance of a particular style by a culture and/or sub-culture may have much to do with culture s values or preferences. Design preferences can be defined by cultural agreements on what looks good, what materials to be valued, what is worth appealing and which materials to use for that look. The analysis of design culture along the history demonstrates that designers were always affected by the design culture surrounding them. It has been either Art Noveau or Functionalism or Pop revolution, but defining the meaning of an object was in the hands of Designers and Architects. They ruled the world of meanings. However the crisis in Modernism was a breaking point in the design history. The 1970s were the end of the domination of a single movement. Beginning with the end of the twentieth century and the beginning of the twenty-first century, the most important movement was the Pluralism. The technological developments in the 1990s, affected the desires of consumers. Easy access to the knowledge, globalization of the world, connection of people from different nations and cultures, increased the individualism and the awareness to what they feel and how they want to feel. The most important was not anymore the object that was desired; instead it was the product experience and the emotions elicited through this experience that made a product sell. It was not the designers ruling the meanings of objects anymore; it was the consumer s responses to the objects within the culturally constituted world that mattered. Within the dissertation, it was concluded that aesthetic, semantic and symbolic responses are the elements of cognitive responses where symbolic meaning is highly interrelated with the design culture that surrounds the designer and the consumer. However it is also necessary to emphasize that symbolic meaning is also a result of interactions between aesthetic, semantic and symbolic responses. 119

138 Chapter 8 What about emotional responses? Emotional responses can stimulate consumers to select a particular artefact from a row of similar products. Although emotions are limitless, it is not fair to state that designers have nothing to do but blind shots while designing their products. There are ways to anticipate the consumer s cognitive responses that may lead to positive emotional responses. Instead of focusing on emotions which is the outcome, the idea defended in the new framework proposal is that designers have to focus on the cognitive responses which are part of the appraisal process to elicit emotions. Because if the cognitive process (loop) confirms that the output is positive, the emotions that are elicited will be positive, as well. As a future direction, the new framework could to be validated empirically. Evidently, it will not be a straight forward research study to validate all the elements of the framework, at once. For that reason, first step could be to investigate quantitatively with survey results what kind of emotions are elicited based on the specific features of the selected products and what are the symbolic meanings that correspond them within a selected culture (e.g., Portugal). Next step could be repeating the same analysis within a different culture (e.g., Turkey) and compare the results by analyzing the cultural effects on consumer s response to product design. 120

139 BIBLIOGRAPHY 121

140 Bibliography BOOKS: Baxter, Mike - Product design: a practical guide to systematic methods of new product development. CRC Press, Crozier, W. Ray - Manufactured pleasures: psychological responses to design. Manchester University Press Manchester, De Mozota, Brigitte Borja - Design Management: Using Design to Build Brand Value and Corporate Innovation. Skyhorse Publishing Company, Incorporated, Disponível em WWW: < Dittmar, H. - The social psychology of material possessions : to have is to be. Hemel Hempstead [etc.]: Harvester Wheatsheaf [etc.], Dormer, Peter; Couldry, Nick - The meanings of modern design: Towards the twenty-first century. Thames and Hudson, Du Gay, Paul - Doing cultural studies: The story of the Sony Walkman. Sage, Frascara, Jorge - Design and the social sciences: making connections. CRC Press, Frijda, Nico H - The emotions. Cambridge University Press, Julier, Guy - The culture of design. Sage, Loewy, Raymond - Never leave well enough alone. JHU Press, Monö, R. - Design for Product Understanding: The Aesthetics of Design from a Semiotic Approach. Liber AB, Disponível em WWW: < Munari, Bruno - Design as art. Penguin UK, Norman, Donald A. - The design of everyday things. Basic books, Papanek, Victor - Design for the real world. Thames and Hudson London, Simonson, Alex; Schmitt, Bernd H - Marketing Aesthetics: The Strategic Management of Brands, Identity, and Image. SimonandSchuster. com,

141 Bibliography Sparke, Penny - A century of design: Design pioneers of the 20th century. Mitchell Beazley London, Sparke, Penny - An Introduction to Design and Culture in the Twentieth Century. Allen & Unwin, Disponível em WWW: < Sweet, Fay - Frog: form follows emotion. Thames & Hudson, Williams, R. - The Long Revolution. Broadview Press, Disponível em WWW: < Forty, Adrian - Objects of Desire. Design and Society Since London: Thames and Hudson, Arnold, Magda B. - Emotion and personality. (1960). ELECTRONIC ARTICLES: Berlyne, Daniel E - The new experimental aesthetics. Studies in the new experimental aesthetics. (1974). pp Consult. 21 Oct Bloch, Peter H. - Seeking the ideal form: product design and consumer response. The Journal of Marketing. (1995). pp Consult. 20 Jul Disponível em WWW: < Bloch, Peter H.; Brunel, Frederic F.; Arnold, Todd J. - Individual differences in the centrality of visual product aesthetics: concept and measurement. Journal of consumer research. Vol. 29. n.º 4 (2003). pp Consult. 11 Jun Disponível em WWW: < Creusen, Marielle E. H. ; Schoormans, Jan P. - The Different Roles of Product Appearance in Consumer Choice*. Journal of Product Innovation Management. Vol. 22. (2005). Consult. 17 Jun Disponível em WWW: <

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143 Bibliography Hekkert, Paul - Design aesthetics: principles of pleasure in design. Psychology science. Vol. 48. n.º 2 (2006). p Consult. 12 Jan Hekkert, Paul; Leder, Helmut - Product aesthetics. Product experience. (2008). pp Hekkert, Paul; Snelders, Dirk; Van Wieringen, Piet C.W. - Most advanced, yet acceptable : Typicality and novelty as joint predictors of aesthetic preference in industrial design. British Journal of Psychology. Vol. 94. n.º 1 (2003). pp Consult. 12 Jan Disponível em WWW: < Hsu, Shang H.; Chuang, Ming C.; Chang, Chien C. - A semantic differential study of designers and users product form perception. International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics. Vol. 25. n.º 4 (2000). pp Consult. 12 Jan Kazmierczak, Elzbieta T. - Design as meaning making: from making things to the design of thinking. Design Issues. Vol. 19. n.º 2 (2003). pp Consult. 10 Jan Krippendorff, Klaus - On the essential contexts of artifacts or on the proposition that" design is making sense (of things)". Design Issues. Vol. 5. n.º 2 (1989). pp Consult. 11 Jun Disponível em WWW: < Krippendorff, Klaus; Butter, Reinhart - Product semantics: Exploring the symbolic qualities of form. (1984). Consult. 11 Jun Disponível em WWW: < Lin, Rungtai; Lin, C. Y.; Wong, Joan - An application of multidimensional scaling in product semantics. International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics. Vol. 18. n.º 2 3 (1996). pp Consult. 11 Jun Disponível em WWW: < Lloyd, P.; Snelders, D. - What was Philippe Starck thinking of? Design Studies. Vol. 24. (2003). Consult. 10 Fev Disponível em WWW: < X Ludden, Geke DS; Schifferstein, Hendrik NJ; Hekkert, Paul - Visual-tactual incongruities in products as sources of surprise. Empirical Studies of the Arts. Vol. 27. n.º 1 (2009). pp

144 Bibliography McCracken, Grant - Culture and consumption: a theoretical account of the structure and movement of the cultural meaning of consumer goods. Journal of consumer research. (1986). pp Consult. 10 Fev Disponível em WWW: < McDonagh, Deana; Bruseberg, Anne; Haslam, Cheryl - Visual product evaluation: exploring users emotional relationships with products. Applied Ergonomics. Vol. 33. n.º 3 (2002). pp Consult. 10 Fev Mick, David Glen - Consumer research and semiotics: Exploring the morphology of signs, symbols, and significance. Journal of consumer research. (1986). pp Consult. 10 Fev Norman, Donald A. - Emotional design: Why we love (or hate) everyday things. Basic Books (AZ). (2007). Disponível em WWW: < Shannon, Claude Elwood - A mathematical theory of communication. ACM SIGMOBILE Mobile Computing and Communications Review. Vol. 5. n.º 1 (2001). pp Consult. 10 Fev Sullivan, Louis H. - The tall office building artistically considered. Lippincott's Magazine. Vol. 57. n.º 3 (1896). p Consult. 10 Fev Tovey, Michael - Styling and design: intuition and analysis in industrial design. Design Studies. Vol. 18. n.º 1 (1997). pp Consult. 10 Fev X Veryzer, Robert W. - Aesthetic response and the influence of design principles on product preferences. Advances in Consumer research. Vol. 20. n.º 1 (1993). pp Consult. 10 Fev Disponível em WWW: < Veryzer, Robert W.; De Mozota, Brigitte Borja - The Impact of User-Oriented Design on New Product Development: An Examination of Fundamental Relationships*. Journal of Product Innovation Management. Vol. 22. (2005). Consult. 10 Fev Disponível em WWW: <

145 Bibliography THESIS: Gouveia, André - Briefing innovation. Tese de mestrado, Design de Equipamento (Especialização em design de produto), Universidade de Lisboa, Faculdade de Belas Artes, Parra, Paulo - Design simbiótico: cultura projectual, sistemas biológicos e sistemas tecnológicos. Tese de doutoramento em Belas Artes (Design de Equipamento), apresentada à Universidade de Lisboa através da Faculdade de Belas Artes, WEBSITES: ICSID - History. Disponível em WWW: < ICSID - Definition of Design. Disponível em WWW: < IDSA - What is Industrial Design? Disponível em WWW: < 127

146 ICONOGRAPHIC INDICES 128

147 Iconographic Indices Apple ipod. Disponível em WWW: < Arab World Institute. Disponível em WWW: Apple imac. Disponível em WWW: < < Armchair 406. Disponível em WWW: < AT&T Answering Machine. Disponível em WWW: < BMW Disponível em WWW: < Braun vs ipod. Disponível em WWW: < Chair Concrete. Disponível em WWW: < Chair Eva. Disponível em WWW: < Chair Landi Disponível em WWW: < masterpieces/detailseiten/landi-hans-coray.html>. Design Time Corporate Design Foundation. Disponível em WWW: < Dual Electronics Hi-Fi System. Disponível em WWW: < Frog Design History. Disponível em WWW: < Golden Section Rectangle. Disponível em WWW: < Honeywell Thermostat. Disponível em WWW: < 129

148 Iconographic Indices ipod Golden Section. Disponível em WWW: < Juicy Salif. Disponível em WWW: < Model no: Disponível em WWW: < MpMan. Disponível em WWW: < Muuto Wood Lamp. Disponível em WWW: < Philips Alessi Coffeemaker. Disponível em WWW: < Philips Essence Coffeemaker. Disponível em WWW: Paola Navone Como Collection. Disponível em WWW: < < Philips Senseo Crema. Disponível em WWW: < The Pie Watch. Disponível em WWW: < The Sinch. Disponível em WWW: < Small Ghost Buster night table. Disponível em WWW: < Swatch. Disponível em WWW: < TCM-600. Disponível em WWW: < TPS-L2. Disponível em WWW: < >. 130

149 Iconographic Indices WM-2. Disponível em WWW: < WM-2 with and without clip holder. Disponível em WWW: < 131

150 APPENDICES 132

151 APPENDIX A: Bloch s Framework 133

152 APPENDIX B: Crilly, Moultrie and Clarkson s Framework 134

153 APPENDIX C: New Framework Proposal 135

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