DRAMA EXTRAS 1. Book One. The History and Styles of Theatre. Written by Angie Barillaro 1997 revised 2009.

Transcription

1 1 DRAMA EXTRAS 1 Book One The History and Styles of Theatre Written by Angie Barillaro 1997 revised Radiant Heart Publishing P.O. Box 272 North Essendon Victoria 3041 ISBN:

2 2 Drama Extras! Book One The History and Styles of Theatre Contents 1. The Ancient World - Greek Theatre 1 2. The Ancient World - Roman Theatre 5 3. Medieval Theatre 8 4. The Italian Renaissance Theatre The Elizabethan Theatre Seventeenth Century French Neoclassicism English Restoration Theatre Eighteenth and Nineteenth Century Theatre 25 Sentimental, Romantic & Melodrama 9. Late Nineteenth Century Theatre Realism 29 & Naturalism 10. Early Twentieth Century Theatre Non-Realism Twentieth Century Theatre Some Important innovators Epic Theatre Twentieth Century Theatre 43 Some Important Innovators Australian Theatre - An Overview 47

3 3 1. THE ANCIENT WORLD - Greek Theatre The story of the beginning of modern western theatre began around the fifth Century B.C. in Greece. Emerging from the religious ceremonies and rituals of the Greeks was the Greek tragedy or play. It was a slow process of development, although many of these plays are so great they are still performed today. DIONYSUS - the Wine God The Greeks had many Gods such as Dionysus, the God of Wine, pleasure and fertility. Every year in the City of Dionysia, the Greeks held competitions and festivals to honour this important God. It was a week long feast of fun, plays, rituals, food, drinking, dancing and worship. Thousands of people gathered together to celebrate and participate in the outdoor festivities which were often bordering on riotous. The Theatre of Dionysus The first theatres were outdoors and an altar to Dionysus. Actors could go backstage to change costumes and masks. The plays were presented by a chorus of people who performed as a group not as individuals. The chorus would dance, sing, and speak in unison. The Theatre of Dionysus was built beneath the Athenian Acropolis and was very central. Spectators originally sat on a slope which was later built up with stone seats, like a semi circle stadium. A permanent building was set up called a scene house and this provided the background scenery for plays. Instead of building new sets for different plays, other techniques were used. If the action was supposed to be taking place by the sea, for example, the actors would mention it in their dialogue, rather than have painted backdrops of the sea as would later happen. If something happened, it was often backstage or indoors and again it would be mentioned in dialogue or proof would be brought back, such as a dead body. Ancient Greek Theatre was not meant to be representational or pretending to be realistic.

4 4 Greek Drama The three greatest playwrights are thought to be Aeschylus ( BC), Sophocles ( BC), and Euripides ( BC), who along with others also competed in the drama competitions in the fifth Century. All three wrote tragic plays. Typical features of Greek tragedy included: A prologue or introduction where background information is explained and introduced. Five episodes each divided by Choral passages where the chorus sing and dance in unison Most of these plays were religious and dealt with the theme of the power of the Gods and the relationship between the many Gods and men. Other themes included suffering, the role of evil, fate versus free will and deep tragic events where the hero usually dies in the end. Later, Greek comedy plays were produced which were energetic and lively. Aristophanes (448 BC-380 BC) was one of the best known comedy playwrights. Greek Style As plays were performed to an incredible 15,000 to 100,000 people at a time, many features developed to overcome the problem of being seen and heard by such large crowds. Greek theatre was big! Such features included: Masks: Actors wore large masks which represented what type of character they were playing and allowed the audience to tell them apart easily. They could also become another character with a simple mask change, and males could play female roles. Costumes: Actors also wore high platform shoes to add height and brightly coloured, stunning clothes and sometimes, headpieces. Thus the appearance was often larger than life. Acting: Much of the plays were delivered in singing, dancing and poetry. Because small details could not be seen from far away, actions on stage were deliberate, slow, easily recognised and simple. Voice skills needed to be well developed so that words could be heard by all and being able to project one s voice was essential.

5 5 Chorus: Although the first performances featured only a chorus of actors, later individual characters broke away and took on major roles. The chorus was still kept and their role was to divide the episodes of the play, give advice and express opinions about the action of the characters, reflect audience feelings and add to the excitement, mood and drama of the performance. The chorus remained on stage at all times. Music: Music was important as it added to the action on stage and accompanied the chorus.

6 6 1. THE GREEK THEATRE A. COMPREHENSION QUESTIONS 1. How important was religion to the beginning of Greek Theatre? Explain. 2. Who was Dionysus? 3. Describe the celebrations that took place in the City of Dionysus every year. 4. Draw a picture/sketch of the Theatre of Dionysus. 5. How did the Greet actors and playwrights show the audience where the action or location was, without creating sets? 6. Name four Greek writers. 7. What was a Greek tragedy play like? 8. List the problems you would encounter performing outdoors, in front of 15,000 to 100,000 spectators? 9. How did the Greeks overcome these challenges? 10. Explain the role of the chorus and why they were important. B. CREATIVE EXTENTION QUESTIONS 1. Design/draw four masks that stand for different characters and summarise who they stand for. 2. Create and write a scene that features a prologue (introduction), some action and a chorus, around a topic of your choice.

7 7 2. THE ANCIENT WORLD - ROMAN THEATRE As the Romans expanded their Empire and Greece was conquered, the theatre began to change and some would say for the worst. The Buildings The Romans further developed the theatres built by the Greeks. Instead of building them on slopes they were built on flat ground and the auditoriums were sheltered by a wall and covered by a roof. A two to three metre stage was introduced and the back of the stage area was large and could be decorated. Curtains were used for the first time at the start and end of performances. Although the theatre buildings were often majestic and comfortable, it was another story when it came to what was being performed in these Roman theatres! Roman Performances The Romans copied and modified many aspects of Greek culture such as their religion and drama to suit themselves. They tried to take many Greek plays and adapt them for the Roman stage as well as pay for writers such as Andronicus to write poems glorifying and praising Rome. However, most plays were set in Greece and actors wore Greek masks and costumes. At Roman festivals, plays were part of the entertainment Not much work survives from the Roman Theatre with the exception of Plautus and Terence. Both men copied Greek plays and adapted and changed them to suit the Romans. As a result there is no such thing as a typical Roman play, like the Greek Tragedies, except for the later comedies. The Romans did not take theatre or drama as seriously as the Greeks and seemed to be mocking them Mime Plays The Romans preferred comedies, especially exaggerated and crude ones. Rather than challenge and explore the deep questions raised by Greek plays, the Romans wanted pure entertainment, lots of laughs and excitement. Mime, or performing without speaking words, was popular with the audiences. Such mimes recreated and made fun of middle class citizens, as well as famous myths. Features included drunkenness, obscenity, adultery, semi-naked dances, greed, acrobats and jokes! As a result of crudeness on stage, actors were seen as an inferior group whereas they had been respected in Greece. By the end of the Roman Empire, a particular type of mime began to emerge. One actor played all the parts in the performance (wearing masks), danced and mimed, while a chorus narrated or told the story he was acting out to music. This became known as pantomime, and still survives today in children s plays.

8 8 Bloodthirsty Entertainment Unfortunately, the Roman need for excitement and action seemed to know no limits, causing problems for the future of theatre in their society. More and more people, especially the Christian Church began to attack the theatre because of the shocking acts that were taking place on stage. Obscene language and actions were applauded, real bloody violence was acceptable, criminals were killed on stage, sexual acts were performed by prostitutes and gladiators fought to their bloody death. Watching performances was like watching sport for the Roman audiences. Other popular entertainments of the time included chariot races, horse racing, battles, acrobats, wrestling, animal fights and fights between people and animals such as lions. In the Colosseum ampitheatre, seating fifty thousand spectators, thousands of animals were killed, and people enjoyed watching Christians being eaten by lions. Needles to say, the theatre had lost its way for a time. The End of the Roman Empire As the Roman Empire collapsed under invaders in 476AD, so too did support for the theatre. As Christianity became stronger, the Church banned theatrical performances and for hundreds of years only small troupes of wandering actors continued performing.

9 9 2. THE ANCIENT WORLD - ROMAN THEATRE A. COMPREHENSION QUESTIONS 1. What did the Romans contribute to Greek Theatre? 2. What changes to the theatre buildings did the Romans add? 3. Describe early Roman plays such as those written by Andronicus and Plautus. 4. Why were there no typical Roman plays? 5. How did the Romans differ in their attitude towards drama compared with the Greeks? 6. What were the features of mime plays? 7. Describe Roman pantomime plays. 8. Why were people increasingly attacking the theatre? 9. Describe the popular forms of entertainment in Roman times. 10. What happened to theatre and drama when the Roman Empire collapsed? B. CREATIVE EXTENTION QUESTIONS 11. With regard to recreation and entertainment, explain what are the differences between our world today and Roman times. 12. Draw/design a cartoon strip of 6 to 10 panels depicting an aspect of the Roman theatre. 13. Imagine you are living in Roman times and you have just been to the Colosseum. Write a letter to a friend in another country describing what you have seen and your reactions.

10 10 3. MEDIEVAL THEATRE After the collapse of the Roman Empire, the theatre lost support and funding. With the spread of Christianity throughout Europe, actors and acting were banned and seen as evil from the fifth Century on. Church Drama However, by the ninth century these same Christians began to use drama to portray the story of their religion and church. Slowly, starting from short scenes and gradually moving to plays, Churches became the venue where performances were given. This become known as liturgical/church drama and was widespread throughout Europe. At first these plays were acted by priests and choirboys, and later as the popularity increased, by other men (woman were not allowed). As these plays were performed in Churches, the Altar was the central background, and on one side was Heaven and the other was Hell. Simple sets and props were created and used as part of the plays, and the audience sat in the usual church pews. As plays became more complicated, Church performances became impractical and some were now performed outdoors, in front of the church doors. Stepping Out When the plays left the Church, the towns ran pageants, featuring the work of different trade guilds. All the tailors were in one guild, all the carpenters were in another guild and so on, and each guild organised to create and present a scene relating to its trade. The fishermen may stage a scene from the Bible story Jonah and the whale, or Noah s Ark could be staged by the shipbuilders guide. Each scene would be performed in a different place and the audience walked around to watch them, or the scene would take place on a moving procession of carts. All the plays were religious or Bible stories and managed to be comic at times. Plays became quite complex, with many actors, and elaborate staging, costumes and effects.

11 11 Characteristics of Medieval Drama There were various types of Medieval plays - biblical stories or mystery plays, miracle plays (about Saints) and morality plays to teach people right and wrong according to the Church. Town people were easily influenced as they were largely illiterate and uneducated. Most plays were well written. The plays highlighted the ever present reality of eternity, by hell and heaven being so dominant on stage. Eternity was more important than time on earth, so historical accuracy was not seen as necessary. God s power was seen as all powerful, cycle plays were common. These cycles consist of many short plays that are run together to represent the Bible from beginning to end. As there were no theatre buildings, performances took place at various venues and usually outdoors. Stages were set against buildings or in the middle of the town square and represented earthly and eternal existence. Specific scenery to suggest location were also used in a tokenistic way. Medieval clothes were worn by all the human characters in the play. Whereas fancy dress and accessories were worn by non-human characters like God, Angels, Saints and so on. Devils wore elaborate, hideous costumes and masks. Special effects were exciting and numerous, and often highly symbolic. Some of the Medieval plays still performed today include Everyman (Anonymous), The Wakefield Cycle and the Passion Play from Oberammergau, Germany. Moving On As society changed and began to probe issues deeply, there was a need for non-religious drama and so the religious plays declined in the fifteenth century, especially with the new Renaissance and the split in the Church.

12 12 3. THE MEDIEVAL THEATRE A. COMPREHENSION QUESTIONS 1. How was the theatre perceived in the fifth century? 2. Where did plays re-emerge? 3. Describe liturgical drama. 4. What was the role of guilds in the town pageants? 5. What types of plays were performed in Medieval times? 6. What were the plays concerned about? 7. Describe the cycle plays. 8. Where did performances take place? 9. How were human characters dressed in contrast with non-human characters like God and the Angels? 10. Why did religious plays decline in popularity? B. CREATIVE EXTENTION QUESTIONS 11. Imagine you are staging a Medieval morality play. Design the set, including Heaven and Hell on either side. 12. Design the costumes for three characters in your play: - an Angel - God - Devil.

13 13 4. THE RENAISSANCE THEATRE OF ITALY Commedia Dell Arte Commedia Dell Arte In Italy during the 16 th century, a new type of comedy drama was commencing which gained immense popularity, and is still enjoyed today. Commedia Dell Arte translates to comedy of professional players. There were many companies and they toured all over Europe and England. Commedia Dell Arte featured a very unique style of drama, often presented by family groups. The commedia sprang from the classical Roman comedy farce and other Roman plays. Commedia Dell Arte was widely popular, fun and spontaneous. Commedia Scenarios There were no long, printed Commedia plays because it was improvisational theatre. That is, there were standard characters and brief scenarios. It was up to the actors to improvise, or make up the story and dialogue as they went. Many scenarios were used again and again for two hundred years. Story lines usually involve love, lies, disguises and mystery or suspense, with hundreds of enjoyable and energetic performances. Plays were made in many different settings, especially outdoors in streets and markets. Often an actor would play a particular character for many years, changing him/her as the need arose. Later, the performer would pass this character role onto someone else in the troupe or family. This was actor based theatre so it was essential that everyone worked together co-operatively. A lazzo or lazzi was a trick or turning point where a particular character could initiate a new twist in the play and then return from. Lazzi added interest to a play and were popular with the audience.

14 14 Commedia Characters Commedia Dell Arte consisted of a set of standard characters or roles. Masks and costumes were worn by the characters, except for the lovers who were usually the centre of the performances. There were three main types of characters - servants, lovers and old men or masters. Lovers The scenario usually revolved around the young lovers who were attractive and young. The audience was to be on their side in their fight against opposition to their relationship. These love affairs were often opposed by the father and servants. Masters/Old Men They were typically professionals such as doctors and lawyers, and their goal was to stop the lovers getting together. Two of the most famous old men were Pantalone and Il Dottore, both targets of satire. Pantalone was a wealthy merchant who was reluctant to share his money with anyone, because he wanted it all for himself. He was fiery and impulsive, sneaky and hypo critical. Pantalone was usually trying to prevent his daughter (one of the young lovers) from marrying someone who is of a lower class. Pantalone s mask reflects his character and is mean, angry and ugly. Il Dottore (the Doctor) was usually paired with Pantalone who is constantly bragging about his intelligence and showing off, lecturing to everyone. His lecturing was often gibberish and did not make sense. His mask featured heavy, serious face. Servants or Zanni Servants were constantly fighting with their masters and emphasised the differences in social classes. The fights and misunderstandings were comical, and stories were usually seen through their eyes or perspective. They were not satirised or made fun of like old men. Arlecchino was one of the most famous servants, usually dressed in bright clothes and probably stemmed from the fool or jester role of the past. Arlecchino was often hungry and getting into hilarious messes that he must get out of. Acrobats and physical feats were a feature of this character. Arlecchino was an open and optimistic character.

15 15 Commedia Characters 2 Brighella was another servant, but was very different to Arlecchino. He was untrusting, sneaky and cruel, often commencing fights and problems. Brighella s mask was ugly and rough. Colombina was the main female servant. Females did not wear masks in Commedia Dell Arte, so as to highlight their beauty and keep audiences interested in watching. Arlecchino and Colombino were often romantically linked, however there were usually many complications. She was a friendly but firm character. Commedia Dell Arte reached its peak between 1575 and 1650 but was still popular for a further 100 years before it began to lose favour. Many of its traditions were passed on, influencing acting styles and characters in later performances.

16 16 4. THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE COMMEDIA DELL ARTE A. COMPREHENSTION QUESTIONS 1. What was the Commedia Dell Arte? 2. Where did the Commedia originate from? 3. What were the scenarios? 4. How were lazzi used? 5. In what places were the Commedia plays performed? 6. How were troupes organised? 7. Describe the three types of character roles. 8. Why were the lovers unmasked? 9. Explain why the Colombina and other female characters did not wear masks. 10. What was the difference in the way the Commedia presented servants and old men? B. CREATIVE EXTENSION QUESTIONS 11. The masters or old men, such as Pantalone and Il Dottore were caricatures, or exaggerated characters. Draw two full length, cartoon pictures of them, emphasising the type of people they were meant to portray. 12. Write a scenario featuring: - a pair of young lovers - a father who opposes this relationship and wants to interest his daughter in marrying his very old friend. Try to make it comical - you may add other characters.

17 17 5. THE ENGLISH RENAISSANCE ELISABETHAN THEATRE & SHAKESPEARE The theatre of England during the 1500s was dominated by the writing and plays of William Shakespeare. He is one of the most widely read and performed playwrights of all time. His plays are still studied and performed today, and many have been made into films. Background to the Renaissance During the period of time in history commonly referred to as the Renaissance, many exciting and inspirational beliefs and works were created. It was a time of new learning and ideas, where people became very philosophical about such questions as human individuality, intelligence and the meaning of life. There was a revival of ancient and classical art and philosophy (study of ideas). During that time, England had become a very powerful and proud nation. Fortunately for the theatre, the ruling Queen Elizabethan I loved the theatre and supported it. The drama of this time is called Elizabethan theatre. Elizabethan Theatres Many playhouses or theatres were built during this time after the first one was built by James Burbage in London in It was called The Theatre and James son became a great actor. The buildings were all wooden structures with circular walls and an open air centre called the pit (the centre had no roof). The raised stage was surrounded by audiences on three sides. Behind the backstage wall was the backstage area used for dressing rooms, scenery and special effects machinery. The stages were portable and were occasionally removed to house sporting events involving baiting and killing animals! Roofs were made of thatched straw and wood. Musicians played from the upper balcony or musicians gallery. Most plays featured scenery and props which were self supporting and painted, as in Medieval productions. As well, real props and furniture was used on stage when needed. Actors mostly wore the clothes that were in fashion at the time except for special types of non-human characters such as fairies. The clothes were beautiful, detailed and expensive, which added to audience interest.

18 18 Elizabethan Acting Companies Actors belonged to companies of ten to twenty men. Each company had its own manager and each company usually has important patrons and people who supported them in financial and other ways. Woman were not allowed to act and so males had to play the female roles! These companies were professionally run to make money, so most actors were very dedicated as this was their livelihood. To survive and succeed actors also needed other skills like dancing, singing and being able to play musical instruments. Companies also employed backstage crew and musicians. Life was not easy for Elizabethan actors because many things could go wrong. Theatres sometimes burned, disease such as plague forced others to close and winters were bitterly cold. Sometimes, companies took to the road, and toured their plays outdoors. Audiences were also known to be tough and rowdy, especially as many theatres were in the rougher areas. However, people did love going to the theatre as it was the most popular form of entertainment. The Great Playwright - Shakespeare ( ) William Shakespeare was born at Stratford-on-Avon in England, and was considered to be a genius. He wrote over thirty-six plays, all of which are admired for their powerful language, how well crafted they are and the depth of characters. Very little is known about Shakespeare s life, except that he married at eighteen and then went to work as an actor and playwright in London. His plays touched everyone who went to see them, often exploring deep human experiences that all people seem to be able to relate to. In one of his plays Romeo and Juliet, we see two young, innocent lovers torn apart by the conflict of their rival families. This tragedy written four hundred years ago still speaks to those who see it today, and was recently made into yet another film version which was hugely successful. Despite the poetic language and complexity, Shakespeare was a shareholder in The Globe theatre built 1599 where his plays were performed to huge audiences. He had his own theatre company The King s Men which was supported by the Lord Chamberlain s men.

19 19 Playwrights Ben Johnson and Christopher Marlowe Although Christopher Marlowe died at the age of twenty-nine in a pub fight, he left behind some plays that were well received at the time, although they were not as great as Shakespeare s plays. One play that is still studied and performed today concerns an aging man who sells his soul to the devil, and is the morality play known as Dr Faustus. Another popular playwright of the time was Ben Johnston who also lived a troubled life like Marlowe. His comic plays including Volpone and Every Man and his Humour enjoyed success because they satirised (or made fun of) all types of people. Johnson also wrote special performances for the new Royal leaders, called Masques. They were very elaborate and decorative and were aimed at impressing Royalty. The End of Elizabethan Theatre The quality of plays declined and became more and more spectacular which drew objections from the growing strict Puritan Religion followers, who saw them as a waste of money. To make matters worse, other inferior plays were being performed. These were filled with violence and bloody death, so much so that the government banned all plays. By the time the English Civil War began in 1642 all the theatres were closed down for twenty years.

20 20 5. THE ENGLISH RENAISSANCE ELIZABETHAN THEATRE & SHAKESPEARE A. COMPREHENSION QUESTIONS 1. Describe the Renaissance period in history. 2. What types of plays do you think were created in such a world? Explain. 3. Why was Queen Elizabeth I important to English Theatre? 4. What were the theatre buildings like? 5. For what other purposes were the theatres used for? 6. How did actors dress on stage? Why? 7. Describe a typical Elizabethan acting company. 8. Why was life not easy for actors? 9. What is known about William Shakespeare? 10. Describe the types of plays he wrote. 11. List two other playwrights and what they are remembered for. 12. Why were the theatres closed in 1642? Give two reasons. B. CREATIVE EXTENSION QUESTIONS 13. Imagine you are a member of the strict and serious Puritan religion. You are angry at the state of theatre both in the Royal courts and out in the other theatres. Write a letter of objection, describing what you see.

21 21 6. SEVENTEENTH CENTURY FRENCH THEATRE Neo Classicism Neo Classicism French theatre began to grow and develop after 1625, as the political climate stabilised. Previously, in the 1500 s there had been battles to fight during the Civil War, meaning little energy and time went into theatre. This situation greatly improved due to the work of Cardinal Richelieu who set out to reform the theatre, and looked at what the other European countries were doing. Some ideas he adopted from these countries, especially Italy, included using a proscenium stage and scenery. He also believed in an ideal of drama which became known as neoclassical. Neoclassical Ideas Neoclassical drama was very ordered and ideals or rules had to be followed. Plays were either all comedy or tragedy. Tragedies featured noble characters who were based on royalty, whilst the comedies were based on ordinary people. The plays were written in five acts, and all the action on stage took place within the same day and place. Moreover, the plot or storyline should be simple and the ending had to be a good outcome. This meant that the evil characters were punished, and the good characters were rewarded. Plays that were performed in France that did not follow these neoclassical rules were often disregarded or attacked. The best places to perform these plays was in a specially built theatre with a proscenium arch. In such a theatre, the audience sits in front of the stage which is framed with a border around the sides and across the top, forming a picture frame effect. Therefore when watching the play, the audience was looking in to another world. Proscenium arch stages became the most popular form of stage and are still popular today. Famous Playwright Moliere Two playwrights, Corneille and Racine were famous for their tragedies. Moliere ( ) however became the most famous French playwright, with his outstanding comedy plays. Moliere had spent many years touring with his theatre company and had learnt so much from the Italian Commedia Dell Arte troupes. Once established in Paris again, he worked at the Palais Royal Theatre with other companies.

22 22 Moliere Not only did Moliere run his own company, but he also wrote the plays and acted in them! French theatre companies like his comprised of ten to twenty members, including musicians and backstage support crew. Woman actors were allowed, and all the profits were shared. One of Moliere s most popular plays was Tartuffe. this play was a religious satire, attacking groups who spent their time judging other peoples morals and worth. Tartuffe is still enjoyed today. Moliere s whole life was the theatre. His wife was one of the company s actresses, and Moliere wrote excellent female parts for her in his plays. The company was immensely successful. Quite fittingly, Moliere s life nearly ended on the stage, during a performance of one of his plays The Imaginary Invalid in which he became very ill, dying only hours later. Moliere s greatest achievements were his comedies. The Stage The French adopted the Italian Proscenium arch stage, as discussed earlier. These were fully indoor theatres, so lighting was necessary. As this was pre-electricity, light had to be provided by candles and oil lamps and included chandeliers and footlights. Unlike today, the audience lights were still left on because the lights needed to light up the stage. Various lamps and chandeliers were also concealed on stage but lighting effects were difficult, and the stage was not as brightly lit as today. Scenery was kept simple and minimal. As neoclassical plays were set in one place, there were no scene changes required, and the same settings could be used for many plays. Furniture and props on stage were used sparely, leaving room for the actors. Interestingly, it was common practise for some of the audience to also sit on stage! On stage seating was more expensive, but very disruptive to performers and the rest of the audience - so not surprisingly, abolished by the 1750s. The French Actors Like the Elizabethan theatre actors, the French actors were professionals who earned their living from their craft. With ten to twenty members, including women, the companies had to make good profits to survive. Shareholders bought shares or parts in the companies and they were allowed to vote on which plays should be produced next. Each company had many set plays it performed at different times. Actors specialised in the type of roles they played, which were fairly stereotyped. A major expense for actors was having to provide their own costumes which were usually contemporary and expensive.

23 23 6. SEVENTEENTH CENTURY FRENCH THEATRE A. COMPREHENSION QUESTIONS 1. Who reformed and revived the French theatre and how? 2. What were the rules of neoclassical drama? 3. From where did the French adopt the Proscenium Arch Stage? 4. Describe the Proscenium Arch Stage and its features. 5. Describe Moliere s career as a playwright and actor. 6. How were woman viewed in French theatre? 7. As theatres were now indoors, what lighting was used to illuminate the stage auditorium. 8. What were the advantages/disadvantages of audience members sitting on stage? 9. How were the French and Elizabethan theatre companies similar? 10. What were Moliere s plays about? Give an example. B. CREATIVE EXTENTION QUESTIONS 11. Imagine you work for a French theatre company in Paris. Write a letter home to your family in the country detailing your work and life. 12. Design a set including scenery that can be used for many types of plays. After drawing the scenery image three types of plays that could be performed there. i.e. - an outdoor park setting - play about a wedding - play about a family picnic - play about two lovers

24 24 7. THE ENGLISH RESTORATION THEATRE After the English Civil War, Charles II returned from exile in By this time, the old English theatres which had been attacked and shut down for eighteen years were derelict and a new start was needed if the theatre was to survive and continue. The New Theatre The new theatres were established which combined the Italian Proscenium arch stage with the Elizabethan apron stage, where the audience sits around three sides. The stage featured painted slats or wooden structures that were used for painted scenery. There were doors on either side of the stage for the actors to move in and out of from the backstage area and wings. Many changes took place over the years and by the early eighteenth century (1700 s), Georgian playhouses were the new style. An example of such a theatre was Potter s Little Theatre which began a new trend in style. Potters Little Theatre features seating boxes around the side walls for the audience as well as a pit seating area. For the first time, the orchestra was moved to a pit at the front of the stage. Candles lit the stage, and the curtain was used at the beginning and end of every play. Later, stage design and sets became more detailed and spectacular. Restoration Audiences As theatres had been closed for so many years, audiences were intrigued and curious about the theatre. For the first time on the English stage they could watch women perform. The audiences were mostly sophisticated and friendly young men and women. As audience numbers rose, so too the audience standards and expectations dropped followed by a decline in plays being performed. Restoration Plays Most plays during this time were comedies, with a few exceptions. Restoration comedy was also referred to as comedy of manners because the plays imitated the English aristocracy (rich) and their way of living. The plays were witty, clever, filled with intrigue and mystery and fast paced. The dialogue was filled with sexual imagery and innuendo or double meaning. Plays centred around the same themes - affairs and love triangles. Loud, crude, speeches were made at the start of each play (prologue -introduction, and at the end of the plays (epilogue or ending). Many of these attracted complaints by Puritan religious groups.

25 25 Restoration Acts Despite the lack of great plays to perform in, actors still worked hard and developed their craft. Actor-managers ran their own theatre companies, acted in their plays and were constantly improving the stage and acting. One such person was David Garrick who is remembered for his great acting ability, improving stage scenery and introducing hidden stage lighting. Actors appeared in Restoration comedy dressed in elaborate contemporary clothes. This comprised of huge hats, curly wigs, long coats, ruffles for the men, and wide sumptuous dresses were worn by women. Makeup was heavy and hid the natural face.

26 26 7. ENGLISH RESTORATION THEATRE A. COMPREHENSTION QUESTIONS 1. What was the state of drama and theatre in England in 1660? 2. When did things begin to change? 3. Describe the playhouses of Restoration England. 4. What was new in Potters Little Theatre? 5. Who went to the theatre and how did this later change? 6. Describe the kind of plays from this time. 7. Who was David Garrick and what was his contribution? 8. Describe what actors wore on stage. 9. How important was scenery? 10. Why did many of the plays performed attract opposition from Puritans? B. CREATIVE EXTENTION QUESTIONS 11. The Puritans were a strict religious group who emphasised simplicity and seriousness. They did not approve of the bawdy plays being performed, calling them immoral. They wanted wholesome, virtuous plays. Imagining you are a puritan, write a diary entry describing a theatre visit that has disgusted you. 12. What type of play would you like to see, as a Puritan? Write a letter to a theatre company, outlining a great idea for a play you have written.

27 27 8. EIGHTEENTH & NINTEENTH CENTURY THEATRE Sentimentalism, Romanticism & Melodrama Many people objected to the disrespectable antics of the Restoration plays. They disliked their crudeness, sexual comment, innuendos and lack of morals. Partly as a reaction, new types of plays were written and performed in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. These were Sentimental dramas or plays, and aimed at being the opposite of the bawdy plays that had gone before. Sentimentalism Sentimentalism relates to feelings or emotions. Therefore, sentimental drama aimed at touching the feelings of the audience deeply. A successful sentimental play was one that made the audience members strongly sympathise, or feel sorry for the characters on stage, and created emotional reactions. If audience members cried, worried or felt anxious about the drama on stage, the play was successful. Plots and acting were aimed at our sympathy. Plays were usually based around stories with happy endings. A typical plot could involve tragedy or comedy, with many terrible events taking place before the happy or tragic endings. Good people were always rewarded, whilst the bad were always left dead or despairing. Using magic or incredible twists of fate, where after much suffering, the good and the patient characters were rewarded and lived happily ever after. The stories were not believable but people enjoyed them for entertainment and escape value. As the plays worked on the audience s emotions, people felt relief at being able to express their feelings freely in the theatre. This still happens today, with millions of people hooked on certain TV soap operas which they watch day after day, year after year! Sentimental plays were very popular, especially with middle class people. Melodrama By 1800, Sentimentalism gave way to Melodrama. Melodramas were still very sentimental but they had developed into a distinct style which was also successful. Melodrama plots were the same as in the earlier Sentimental plays. They were filled with suspense and very emotional. Good people were rewarded and bad people were punished.

28 28 Melodrama Special effects and big colourful scenes were very important to melodrama because they excited the audience, and were so new and unusual. Music was an important part of these plays, in the form of songs as well as musical background. The orchestra was an essential part of the play. The action on stage was gripping and exiting, attracting large audiences of middle and lower class people. Audiences were rough and loud often interrupting plays. Most melodramas featured the following characteristics. Musical score and sound effects Spectacular effects and scenery An evil villain An innocent, good, victim heroine Narrator Disguises and deception Humour Scenes that build up suspense such as last minute rescues. Melodramas were so popular they were churned out in large numbers, although few of them were considered of a high quality. Because of the need for spectacle and action, incredible realistic feats were performed on stage, including volcanos erupting and horse races! These were possible thanks to the invention of electricity and electric motors. Sometimes scenery was painted on cloth and electronically moved behind the actors, suggesting movement. Popular novels and stories were also adapted for the stage, such as Monte Cristo and Uncle Tom s Cabin or the works of Charles Dickens. Finally, lighting played a major role in the success of melodrama because of the invention of gas. Candles and oil lamps with their dim, dangerous lighting were a thing of the past. Lighting was now easily controlled and could be dimmed and brightened for special effects. Romanticism Romantic theatre started in Germany thanks to the works and influence of the playwright Goethe, who combined Greek tragedy with Shakespearean theatre. Romantic theatre had nothing to do with love and romance in particular, but was a description for a movement or style of art, music and drama. Romantics lived deeply, were influenced by ancient classics and often combined all the arts. For example, the artists would paint popular poems, or musicians would write a musical score based on a play. Romantics valued emotions, ideals, freedom and emphasised the role of arts to inspire people.

29 29 Romantic poets were adored and included Wordsworth, Byron, Shelley, Keats and Tennyson. Living with heart and passion, the Romantics valued imagination and spirituality. Acting in Romantic plays was poetic, flowing, very emotional and dramatic. Today s audiences would probably find Sentimental, Melodramatic and Romantic plays too exaggerated and emotional to take seriously. 8. EIGHTEENTH & NINETEENTH CENTURY THEATRE Sentimentalism, Romanticism & Melodrama A. COMPREHENSION QUESTIONS 1. Why were the new Sentimental plays developed? 2. What was the aim of Sentimental plays? How was this achieved? 3. Why were such plays so popular? 4. Describe a typical melodrama. 5. What effect did the invention of electricity and gas have on the theatre? 6. Describe Romanticism and the Romantic era. 7. Why would today s audiences not accept Melodramatic drama? 8. What was acting like in these Romantic plays? 9. How did audiences behave at these plays? 10. How was movement suggested on stage?

30 30 9. THE LATE NINTEENTH CENTURY THEATRE Realism and Naturalism Towards the end of the nineteenth century, people grew tired of Romanticism and Melodrama and their exaggeration. There was a movement towards the opposite - or realism and naturalism. People wanted to see real-life people in real-life situations portrayed on stage, and that is what they received. Realism As scientific and technological breakthroughs were changing the world at a fast pace, more emphasis was placed on seeing reality in a scientific, factual manner. Whereas Romantics based their ideals on the emotional and spiritual, the Realists emphasised ideas and proof, especially through observation. Physiology, psychiatry - or the study of human behaviour was gaining recognition. People were starting to seek scientific answers to questions about what motivates our actions, or why do we do things we do? Realism can be tracked back to the 1850s as people began to study the influence of the environment (including family background, work, culture, etc) on the person. Playwrights became more interested in observing people and writing plays focusing on characters and contemporary society - or the real world. This was new because previously playwrights had dramatised myths or historical occasions. Many plays dealt with the harsh realities of life, representing on stage the problems in the world around that time. To see plays about poverty, homelessness, prostitution and other problems shocked many people, who would have preferred to escape from these realities and see happy ever after melodramas. Writers believed they could change the world for the better if they could draw attention to the injustices of life. Henrick Ibsen ( ) Henrick Ibsen was a Norwegian playwright who best represented realism in drama. Ibsen s plays had a profound impact on the theatre and steered the way ahead. His plays were controversial because he did not follow the usual happy endings, but rather highlighted that sometimes bad things happen to good people and vice versa. Common themes in Ibsen s plays included divorce, unhappiness, diseases, the role of woman, depression and struggles, and the plays offered insights into the human mind and heart that were genuine or real, rather than what society wanted to hear. Some of Ibsen s most famous plays were A Dolls House, Hedda Gabbler and ghosts.

31 31 Given the nature of his plays, the style of acting had to change drastically from the previous melodrama style. Characters in Ibsen s plays spoke realistic dialogue, and all action was believable. Naturalism or A Slice of Life According to the followers of Naturalism in the 1870s, Realism did not go far enough. Writers such as Emile Zola ( ), believed that a play on stage should be exactly as off stage. On stage, one should be treated to a slice of life. Acting became even more life like and story lines did not have to be fully developed, because after all. The audience was just seeing into real life episodes. Other famous playwrights were Henri Becque, August Strindberg, Maxim Gorky and Anton Checkhov. Such writers and their plays created a need for a new breed of actors, directors and designers, and many individuals set out to do their own thing. People such as André Antoine founded Theatre Libre in Paris and led the way directing and staging these new plays. Others such as Gordon Craig and Vsevolold Meyerhold created new styles of staging and lighting design. Europe was swept by pockets of innovative but small theatrical activity. Over in Russia, a collaboration between a director and a theatre company would profoundly influence modern theatre and acting. Konstantin Stanislavski Stanislavski, the artist director of the Moscow Art Theatre developed an acting system with his partner Vladimir Nemirovich-Danchenko. Although detailed, the system enabled actors to enter into the world of the character they were playing on stage. The emphasis was on a totally believable performance. Speech and body movement had to

32 32 be as life like as possible, and the way to understand the character was through research, observation and most of all, empathizing with the character. Empathy with the character being played meant imagining as fully as possible what it must be like to be in the character s shoes and life. In the past, actors had tended to play roles in a rigid, stereotyped manner. Stanislavsky s system recognised that every individual is unique and worth understanding. Acting Style Voice had to be life-like and authentic. Accents had to sound realistic. Speech was all important because it emphasised character s motivations, state of mind, etc. and silence was used for impact. Movements and gestures came from what the character was saying or feeling. Free use of body and space was key - whatever was needed to create a natural, believable performance. The Stanislavski System Stanislavski s acting system was a way of life, such was the dedication he required. Some parts of Stanislavski s system could be summarised as: 1. Personalisation Actors should become the character they are playing so the audience sees a real performance, not just an actor pretending to be like someone else. By combining who they were, and entering fully into the character, actors achieved this. 2. Magic If Actors asked themselves the question What if I was in the character s shoes/situation? This enabled them to create more believable performances and to stretch themselves so they could play a character very different to themselves. 3. Given Circumstances Actors needed to identify the character s past and present life and reality (I.e. family background, being unemployed, etc.) this enabled them to understand their character. 4. Concentration Actors who could concentrate were more disciplined, focused and attentive. Relaxation techniques were important. 5. Observation If actors become more observant they could develop greater understanding and empathy for others, which could be used in their characterisations.

33 33 6. Emotional Memory Actors were encouraged to relive memories or experiences to bring up genuine feelings. In other words, instead of trying to act sad, they were to relive the memory of an experience that made them sad, and as the sad emotions resurfaced, they could then play the sad moment on stage. 7. Superobjective Actors had to work out what the character s motivations or objectives were. What is this person really trying to do throughout this play? Stanislavski wrote his detailed theories in several books, highlighting how seriously he valued acting and the theatre. He is considered the most influential person in the modern theatre. The Moscow Art Theatre Stanislavski worked with the Moscow Art Theatre, producing excellent plays. The company was very dedicated, studying plays and rehearsing intensely. Productions were realistic with detailed scenery and special effects. If a scene was set in a lounge room, the whole room was recreated including real furniture and the stage was often cluttered. (This later changed). The Moscow Art Theatre achieved great success staging the plays of Anton Chekhov ( ), including The Seagull, The Cherry Orchard, The Three Sisters and Uncle Vanya. As these plays offer great insight into the frustrations of life, they are still meaningful and performed today. Stanislavski trained actors, directed the plays with support from others and sometimes even acted himself.

34 34 9. THE LATE NINETEENTH CENTURY THEATRE Realism & Naturalism A. COMPREHENSION QUESTIONS 1. Why did people move away from Melodrama? 2. Define Realism. 3. How were Realistic plays received by the public? 4. Describe the issues Realistic plays dealt with. 5. What sort of plays did Ibsen write? 6. How and why did acting styles change? 7. Define Naturalism. 8. Describe what Stanislavski believed actors should be like. 9. How did Stanislavski s acting style differ from Melodrama? 10. How were voice, movement and gesture used in Stanislavski s system? 11. Describe the Realistic stage set (scenery).

35 EARLY TWENTIETH CENTURY THEATRE Non-Realism In 1885 a new dramatic movement emerged, believed to signal the beginning of Modern theatre. At the height of Realism, a group of artists reacted against all forms of representing the natural world on stage. In other words, why should despair be represented by a man talking about his feelings in a realistic looking lounge setting - when the same feelings could be symbolised on a bare stage with minimal, if any dialogue? Modernism could be seen emerging, especially in the visual arts as abstract paintings and sculptures appeared. Symbolism Symbolists demanded freedom to explore and interpret the inner and outer world. According to Symbolism, great truths may not always be obvious or easy to prove. What about the inner truth of intuition, symbols, dreams? Real life issues and everyday concerns were not performed, however their plays portrayed dreams, hidden fears and emotions. These plays were mysterious and did not make sense to many people as symbolists did not feel the need to imitate the world or its ways. Whilst these plays meant something to creators, they were often rejected by theatres as they seemed meaningless or too weird. As a result, the Symbolists set up their own theatres. A typical Symbolist play was very atmospheric and dreamy. Settings were abstract, colour symbolised feelings and action and the acting style was seemingly non human. Actors used chant, unusual movements, stillness and silence. Maurice Maeterlinck s plays The Intruder, The Blind and Melisande, amongst others all seemed very mystical, as though a dream. Dreams and the Subconscious Symbolists were greatly influenced by, and interested in the power of the subconscious mind. This is believed to be a hidden part of the mind where people may store long lost memories and traumas and by unlocking it, gain greater inner freedom. At this time, physiatrists such as Sigmund Freud were becoming well known with their theories about the human person and the role of the subconscious. Dreams were seen to be the keys to unlocking all that was hidden or not understood. For example, to dream of water symbolised emotions. Therefore, to dream of nearly drowning symbolised feeling overwhelmed and unable to cope. Just as strange, disconnected images appear in out dreams - so too were some of the Symbolist plays.

36 36 Expressionism Another abstract movement was Expressionism. Although it too did not believe in recreating the real world on stage, it differed to Symbolism because it made stronger, social and political messages. Expressionists were protesting against what they saw as increasing dehumanisation because of technology and industrialisation. Distortion (or exaggerating) was used on stage to make strong political statements. In one play, R.U.R. by Josef and Karl Capet, robots were used instead of people as a warning of the future. Expressionist plays combined reality, fantasy and symbolism to put a message across or recreate a state of mind. There in no logical time sequences, no individual characters and no continuity. Background sets were symbolic and fantasy based. Lighting and music were very important in creating the overall mood. Futurism In 1909, Filippo Tommaso Marinetti began the Futurism movement. Unlike the Expressionists, Marinetti was not threatened by technology and industrialisation, believing they were great innovations. Tired with what he perceived as old fashioned theatre stuck in the past, he attempted to create energetic, fast paced plays. Different scenes were performed at the same time, audiences were often challenged and involved in the action. Futurism did not last much more than ten years as it was too extreme for popular consumption. Dada In 1914, World War I began and many artists expressed their anger and disgust through their works. A group of artists who had escaped to Switzerland created the Dada movement to highlight the pointlessness and stupidity of war. Music, art, drama and poetry were combined, sometimes using shock tactics to confront people in what we today would call Performance Art. Although seemingly short lived, there is no doubt that these modern movements created waves, opened up a whole new world of possibilities to other artists and influenced later works.

37 EARLY TWENTIETH CENTURY THEATRE NON-REALISM A. COMPREHENSION QUESTIONS 1. Why did the Symbolists move away from Realism? 2. Where did the Symbolists gain inspiration for their art? 3. What were their plays about? 4. How were these plays accepted and why? 5. Describe a typical Symbolists play. 6. Explain the importance of Dreams and the Subconscious mind. 7. How did Expressionism differ to Symbolism? 8. Describe Futurism. Why did it only last ten years? 9. What was the point of Dada? 10. Overall, what was the importance of these non-realistic movements? B. CREATIVE EXTENTION QUESTIONS 11. Think back to a dream you have had in the past where everything seemed jumbled up. - Turn this into a scenario for a play. - Design/draw and describe the setting, lighting and sound you would use to stage your dream. If you do not have a dream, create one, after rereading the notes on Symbolism and Expressionism.

38 TWENTIETH CENTURY THEATRE Some important innovators As Modern theatre opened up to the influences of non-realistic movements such as Symbolism and Expressionism, as well as the demands of staging works of Realism, there was a need for change in the area of acting styles, stage design and directing. Many individuals made valuable contributions that both shaped the theatre and influenced others. The innovators below are just some of these people. Adolphe Appia ( ) Appia was born in Switzerland and sought to unify the stage elements such as set and lighting to create a harmony that would better serve the play being performed. Instead of harmony and unity on stage, many plays were spoilt by the clashing elements and flat scenery and floors which did nothing to enhance the actor on stage. To blend such elements together, Appia introduced differing heights on stage (I.e. small platforms, blocks) which opened up the stage. In the area of lighting, Appia used the newer, better lights available and lit the stage from different angles, creating many special effects and moods. He set high standards and inspired directors and designers. Gordon Craig ( ) Craig was an English actor who elevated the status of the director as someone whose vision should be created on stage. He favoured simplicity, with everything working together to manifest this vision. Moving away from naturalistic sets, Craig worked with the abstract and symbolic, creating stunning and original designs and effects. Every bit of space and what filled it (or did not fill it) mattered and was used to carry his concepts. Craig emphasised the visual aspects of theatre to create the marriage of the play. Everything was united and important in Craig s theatre. Max Reinhardt ( ) Reinhardt was a German director whose work and ideas further developed the central role of the director. He also studied past theatrical traditions to learn from their staging of plays. If a historical play was staged, Reinhardt introduced the importance of recreating elements from that time. That was different because in the past very little attention was given to theatrical history. Reinhardt believed the director was free to choose and combine elements in staging a play in the best possible way.

39 39 Vsevolod Meyerhold ( ) Meyerhold began his career in the Moscow Arts Theatre in Russia, working with the famous director-actor Konstantin Stanislavski, who greatly influenced the craft of acting. Meyerhold left after disagreeing with the Company s ideas. Whereas Stanislavski emphasised creating an illusion (or appearance) of Realism, Meyerhold disagreed believing instead in theatre for theatre s sake. The audience did not need to be fooled that they were anywhere else other than a theatre. Some ideas Meyerhold played with included no curtains and extending the stage into an auditorium/theatre which was fully lit. The key factor was the actor, and sets, costumes and words were not so essential. Meyerhold s interests in human movement led him to develop biomechanics, or a detailed form of physically training actors that enhanced focus

40 TWENTIETH CENTURY THEATRE Some Important Innovators A. COMPREHENSION QUESTIONS 1. Why was there a need for changes in the way plays were staged? 2. How did Appia unify the stage elements and what impact did this have? 3. What lighting innovations did Appia introduce? 4. What two aspects of theatre did Craig emphasize? 5. How important was the role of the director to Appia, Craig and Reinhardt? Discuss. 6. On what point did Stanislavski and Meyerhold disagree? 7. What was Meyerhold s biomechanics system? 8. Describe Meyerhold s theatre. 9. Which director/s used past theatrical traditions to influence their work and how? B. CREATIVE EXTENSION QUESTIONS 10. Imagine a new play has been commissioned on the subject of the future and Appia, Meyerhold and Craig have been invited to write visions for the way the play should be produced. Write their three vision statements explaining what they would like to see on stage.

41 BERTOLT BRECHT ( ) & EPIC THEATRE Born in Germany, Bertolt Brecht wrote and directed many plays that have had a great impact on how plays and theatre have been seen in the last fifty years. Brecht s philosophy was that theatre should be political and force people to think. He opposed the tradition of theatre as entertainment or escapism and sought out to create the opposite. Audiences were to leave his plays having learnt something about themselves and the world. Given that Brecht lived during times of turmoil including two World Wars, the Great Depression, Nazism, etc. it is not surprising that people like Brecht used the theatre in this way (politically), to get their message across. Features of Epic Theatre Brecht created a distinct style called Epic Theatre, also referred to as theatre of Alienation. In reality, Brecht was influenced by many other people and theatrical traditions. The characteristics of Brecht s Epic Theatre included: Alienation To feel alienated means to feel not part of something. Brecht did not want his audiences to sympathise with characters on stage, he wanted them to feel estranged, separate, detached so they could remain objective and learn from the message being portrayed. Some doubt this was ever achieved. Narrative A character was often used to narrate or comment during the play. This stopped the action of the play, reminding the audience it was not real, and added more food for thought. Episodic Brecht s plays consisted of short episodes broken up with narration, song and dance. No Stage tricks or illusions Actors moved props around, lights were left on - in other words no tricks. Props were minimal. Scenes were often slide projected.

42 42 Chorus Actors spoke or sang in unison as had previously happened in ancient Greek theatre. The chorus broke up the scenes of the play and commented on the play directly to the audience. Signs Big signs were hung to spell obvious stage props or to comment on action, characters etc. Generalised Characters As Epic theatre discouraged audiences identifying with or becoming too attached with characters, general roles were written. Examples included Mother, Worker. Brecht s best plays included Mother Courage and her Children, The Life of Galileo and The Caucasian Chalk Circle.

43 BERTOLT BRECHT ( ) & EPIC THEATRE A. COMPREHENSION QUESTIONS 1. Explain Brecht s philosophy of theatre. 2. What was the point or objective of Epic theatre? 3. What influenced Brecht s political motives/thoughts? 4. Define alienation. 5. How did Brecht alienate his audiences and what was the effect of this? 6. What was the role of the narrator? 7. Why were there no elaborate sets and lighting? 8. How was the chorus used? 9. Why were characters usually generalised rather than fully rounded? B. CREATIVE EXTENTION QUESTIONS 10. Write a three minute Epic play with a strong message. For example: Republican Australia Include the elements of Epic theatre such as short scenes, signs, narration, etc. Write in all stage instructions.

44 44 Artaud & Grotowski 13. TWENTIETH CENTURY THEATRE SOME IMPORTANT INNOVATORS Many innovators of modern drama were too confronting and different to be accepted and understood in their own life time. This was certainly the case with people such as Brecht, Artaud and others. Their ideas have now been accepted and allowed to influence many directors, designers, and actors. Artaud and the Theatre of Cruelty At the same time as Bertolt Brecht was writing his Epic, political plays - Antonin Artaud ( ) was more interested in exploring the inner world of the human mind. Artaud was a surrealist in the 1920s, believing that there were many dark secrets hidden deep inside our minds (unconscious) that we were not aware of, that caused us to do the things we did. Another member of the Surrealist movement was Salvador Dali, famous for his strange dream paintings filled with objects. Artaud was greatly influenced by the Surrealist movement even when he left. Artaud believed that theatre should force people to confront and heal their inner selves or they would become negative and destructive. He disapproved of the typical plays that dealt with social problems and individuals. Unlike Brecht, who wanted to brainwash his audience with strong messages - Artaud thought that was a waste of time. Theatre was to be more primitive and instinctive if it was to really touch people and change them. He used the term Theatre of Cruelty because he was forcing the audience to face itself, or being cruel to be kind. Rituals and symbols were seen as powerful. Artaud felt that plays should be taken out of the traditional theatre building which he rejected as being too formal, and preferred large spaces such as warehouses. The audiences were intermingled with the actors and there was to be no scenery except for symbols. Lighting was to be exciting, fast and sound was also important. Artaud believed that the audience could be assaulted with a fast paced light/sound/human show and their inner selves be released and be confronted and healed. Although this aim may seem far fetched, Artaud s ideas can be adopted into contemporary performances. As well, many people use drama in this way to heal from psychological pain and this is called psychodrama. Artaud suffered mental and emotional breakdowns, perhaps explaining his area of interest. After he died, his published works inspired many dramatists and in 1963 the Theatre of Cruelty was formed and Artaud s ideas were materialised and toured.

45 45 Grotowski and Poor Theatre Jerzy Grotowski was born in Poland and his ideas about acting and theatre have contributed greatly in that they reclaimed the essential importance and role of the actor. Grotowski reminded people that one did not need expensive sets, lighting, costumes, because his theatre was actor based. Hence he called his Theatre - Poor Theatre. When all stage elements are removed, only the essentials are left - actors and audience. The relationship between actor and audience is a powerful one which Grotowski studied closely as part of his laboratory. Great demands are made on actors in Poor Theatre because they are the centre of attention, the key. Effective actors must work on themselves until they can give of themselves fully. Grotowski worked intensely with his actors as he recognised all individuals are unique. Grotowski s book Towards a Poor Theatre included many of the exercises that he used to help free his actors. Some of his techniques included silence/inner meditation, physical endurance and training in emotional memory (or reliving an event to recreate the emotion). Plays were staged in diverse settings from ordinary rooms to warehouses. Like Artaud, he saw no need to separate the audience and actors, as he wanted to create a dynamic relationship, Grotowski believed the power of the actor should be so strong that he/she could transform anything around him through the power of his/her belief. In other words the floor could become the sea or a boat, etc. Grotowski s influence came at the best possible time for it seemed to re-invent drama and the theatre at a time when dramatists had to compete with films, videos, and television, and the only plays being staged seemed to be lavish expensive musicals. Grotowski showed us that even a vulnerable lone actor with no props can have as much impact as any blockbuster film.

46 46 Absurdism Absurdism was a movement based on the ideas of Existentialism, first developed by Jean-Paul Sartre. According to existentialists, life is meaningless - jus a series of acts - nothing. Absurdism was somewhat popular in the 1950s and 1960s due to the plays of Eugene Ionesco, Samuel Beckett and Jean Genet. Absurd plays highlight the meaningless or absurdity of life and often feature an underlying despair. Features of absurd plays may include some of the following: simple/minimal sets; meaningless dialogue and repetition highlighting futility. Some people find Absurd plays hard to understand and cope with, however the movement provided some impressive plays, notably Samuel Beckett s classic Waiting for Godot.

47 TWENTIETH CENTURY THEATRE - SOME IMPORTANT INNOVATORS - Artaud, Grotowski A. COMPREHENSION QUESTIONS 1. Why are some innovators of modern drama often not accepted? 2. How did Artaud s attitudes differ compared with Brecht s ideas? 3. Define surrealism. 4. What was the goal of theatre according to Artaud. 5. Why was the term Theatre of Cruelty used? 6. Where were Artaud s plays to be staged and why? 7. Describe Artaud s ideal play. 8. What contribution did Grotowski make to modern drama? 9. How did Grotowski prepare actors? 10. Where did Grotowski stage his plays? Why? 11. Where did Grotowski use the term Poor Theatre? 12. Define Absurdist theatre. 13. What were Absurdist plays about? 14. List the key features of Absurdist plays. 15. Describe how a performance directed by Grotowski would be different to one directed by Artaud.

48 AUSTRALIAN THEATRE - An Overview Australia s first English settlers sought to reproduce the theatre they had left behind when they arrived here in the late eighteenth century. Established as a convict settlement, this produced interesting results, as conditions could not have been more different. It is believed the first play was held in 1789 in a small mud hut. At that time, Restoration comedy was popular in England, and that was the style of drama copied here. Restoration comedy was based on the manners and lifestyle of the aristocracy, or rich people. Convict Theatre During the 1800 s, convicts engaged in acting and staging many plays, although they received much opposition. Drama seemed too much like fun and enjoyment for the convicts. Although much of the drama was from England, a few Australian plays were now being written, such as the 1829 play The Bushrangers by David Burn. Plays like this about convict conditions, bushrangers and so on were not allowed to be performed because it described the horrible conditions of like for the convicts. In 1833, the Sydney Theatre Royal opened, imitating an English theatre with a proscenium arch stage setting the standards for other states to follow. Audiences enjoyed light entertainment. However, the theatre was poorly organised. Gold Rushes of the 1850s Gold was discovered in the 1850s causing a rush of people arriving to search for gold and make their fortune. More people went to the theatres, and new theatres were being built. George Coppin, an entrepreneur invited an American performer J.C Williamson to Australia. Williamson enjoyed great success. J.C Williamson J.C Williamson and his wife, Maggie Moore, acted and managed in their successful plays - all musicals from overseas. The couple encouraged overseas stars to tour including the world famous actress Sarah Bernhadt. Audiences loved the entertainment but this discouraged the writing and staging of home grown Australian plays. Vaudeville dominated the stages of the 1890s with variety style musical, dancing and comedy shows.

49 49 A Slow Acceptance As radio developed in the 1920s, quiz shows, radio plays (serial and drama) developed with a uniquely Australian flavour. It was not until the Australian Elizabethan Trust was set up in 1945 that truly Australian drama could come to the foreground. The aims of the trust were to encourage Australian writing, and performers. Ray Lawler s play Summer of the Seventeenth Doll was a great success critically and with audiences. Summer of the Seventeenth Doll was a realistic play about two North Queensland cane cutters, Barney and Roo who came down to Melbourne where they meet and develop relationships with Nancy and Olive. It was both moving and funny and changed Australian theatre forever, giving permission for Australians to support their own culture, rather than as second best compared with American and English work. Many other Australian plays soon followed. In 1956, the dawn of television in Australia meant the actors, directors and writers had a new avenue for their work. Another milestone for Australian theatre occurred in the 1950s - the establishment of NIDA - National Institute of Dramatic Art in NIDA has profoundly impacted the training of Australian actors, directors and designers. Other states followed with their own courses in the Dramatic Arts. The Sixties Life was moving rapidly during the 1960s - it was a time of great change and upheaval. Much experimentation was happening in drama around the world, as well as Australia, as people struggled to make sense of it all. Alternative theatre, requiring little money and much innovation and experimentation, thrived. New playwrights emerged including John Romeril, Jack Hibberd, David Williamson, Barry Oakley, Tim Roberts and Barry Dickins. By the seventies, every State had its own theatre company (e.g. Melbourne Theatre Company) which received government subsidies.

50 50 Australian Theatre Today After initial experimentation and searching for an identity, Australian theatre has become diverse. Writers have broadened their views and their world. Louis Nowra, Stephan Sewell, Ron Elisha, Michael Gow as well as others, have been praised for their plays. Many community theatres have been established, created to meet the needs for and with particular groups. Limited grants are distributed by various government bodies to support the Arts. Moreover Aboriginal drama, dance and art has received much attention over the last twenty years. Although the big American and English blockbuster musicals (like Phantom of the Opera) still receive the greatest box office support - the richness and diversity of mainstream and alternative Australian theatre continues to survive.

51 AUSTRALIAN THEATRE - An Overview A. COMPREHENSION QUESTIONS 1. When the English arrived in Australia, what type of theatre did they set up? 2. What role did the convicts play in the early theatre? 3. Why was David Burn s play The Bushranger not allowed to be performed? 4. Describe Sydney s Theatre Royal when it first opened. 5. What was the impact of the gold rushes? 6. How did J.C Williamson change Australian Theatre? 7. What was the effect this had on Australian plays? 8. Explain what the Australian Elizabethan Trust achieved. 9. Describe the impact Summer of the Seventeenth Doll 10. Why was the establishment of NIDA important? 11. List all the live theatre experiences you have had. Are they Australian or from overseas? 12. Do you think Australians still compare the locals with the overseas stars? 13. Do you think Australian theatre, television, music and art is as good as overseas products? Explain? 14. In your mind, how would you describe Australian Culture or tradition? Is there such a thing? Explain your opinion.