8/28/2008. An instance of great change or alteration in affairs or in some particular thing. (1450)

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2 The action or fact, on the part of celestial bodies, of moving round in an orbit (1390) An instance of great change or alteration in affairs or in some particular thing. (1450) The return or recurrence of a point or period of time; the lapse of a certain time (1430) A complete overthrow of the established government in any country or state by those who were previously subject to it; a forcible substitution of a new ruler or form of government. (1600) 2

3 The Glorious Revolution (1688) French Revolution (1789) American Revolution (1775) Revolutions of 1848 Russian Revolution (1917) Political revolutions involve major transformations in political structures. Social revolutions involve major transformations in social (class?) structure. Scientific revolutions involve major transformations in conceptual structures. Chinese Revolution (1949) 1543 to 1687 (?) to 1859 (?) to present (?) The most profound revolution achieved or suffered by the human mind since Greek antiquity (Alexander Koyré, 1943) It outshines everything since the rise of Christianity and reduces the Renaissance and Reformation to the rank of mere episodes [it is] the real origin both of the modern world and of the modern mentality. (Herbert Butterfield, 1949) Copernicus On The Revolutions (1543) Harvey s On the Motion of the Heart & Blood (1628) Galileo s Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems (1632) Newton s Principia (1687) Lavoisier attacks phlogiston (1783) Darwin s Origin of Species (1859) Einstein discovers relativity (1905 / 15) Wegener proposes continental drift (1915) 3

4 Hypothesis Fact Data Hypothesis Beliefs Fact Hypothesis Facts Testing Values Theory Objective truth Public Sphere Theory Private Sphere 4

5 Soviet Union Lysenkoist genetics Nazi Germany Purging of non-aryan science In a scientific revolution, there is apt to be a series of acts whereby control is gained of the scientific press, the educational system, and the seats of power in scientific academies and laboratories or on major scientific committees which make policy and apportion resources. I.B. Cohen, Revolution in Science, p The intellectual revolution or revolutionin-itself (private) 2. Written commitment to the new method, concept or theory (private) 3. Dissemination of the ideas (public) 4. Adoption by a critical mass of individuals or groups (public) 5

6 Mesmerism / Animal magnetism (France, 1770 s) N-rays (France, 1903) Mitogenetic rays from organisms (Russia, 1920 s) Polywater (Russia, 1961) Mass self-deception and desire to be part of an ongoing revolution. Thomas Kuhn Paul Feyerabend Imre Lakatos Larry Lauden Stephen Toulmin Karl Popper I. Bernard Cohen (historical approach) Paul Thagard (cognitive approach) Pre-science Normal Science Crisis Revolution New Science

7 Disorganized and diverse activity A paradigm organizes scientific inquiry. Constant debate over fundamentals As many theories as there are theorists. No commonly accepted observational basis. The conflicting theories are constituted with their own set of theory-dependent observations. A paradigm eventually emerges Normal science is puzzle-solving and does not question the reigning paradigm. A state of crisis eventually emerges when unsolved puzzles and anomalies accumulate. Revolutionary science is methodologically unconstrained and often irrational forces are at work (idiosyncrasies and accidents of history). Successive paradigms are incommensurable Kuhn himself had 21 different usages, but two levels emerge Narrow sense: A standard exemplar of good science - the right kind of problem to solve and the right way to solve it. Broad sense: A framework of shared methods, standards, modes of explanation, theories Metaphysical views about the nature of the world and the things in it Methodological rules about correct scientific practice A conception of what constitutes a legitimate scientific question and what doesn t A conception of what constitutes a scientific fact 7

8 The conflict among paradigms can t be settled on any rational methodological grounds, because each paradigm contains its own view of rational scientific methodology. The conflict can t be resolved by an appeal to the facts, since each paradigm contains a view of what counts as a fact, and will determine how its adherents view the facts. Different paradigms are in fact incommensurable, not comparable by any neutral standard. Adherents of different paradigms live in different worlds, and speak different languages that are not inter-translatable. A change of paradigm involves changes in the meanings of basic theoretical terms. The replacement of one paradigm by another can t be viewed as progressive on any objective grounds. Since adherents of different paradigms define the questions differently, and accept different standards for a good answer, the conflict between them has no neutral resolution. A scientific revolution has to be regarded as a social and psychological phenomenon rather than as a purely intellectual one. For an individual scientist, the change in point of view is more like a religious conversion than a rational process of comparing theories against the facts. Scientists with different theoretical viewpoints will generally fail to understand one another. The arguments made in favor of one theory will not be fully understood by, or persuasive for, adherents of the other. New paradigms will introduce new theoretical terms, or change the meanings of old ones, in ways that will be incomprehensible to anyone who doesn t already accept the new theory. The history of science is not cumulative: new theories can t incorporate the successes of older ones, because they have a completely different view of what counts as success. The new theory redefines the old theory in its own terms. 8

9 All science is normal and it proceeds by conjecture and refutation Scientific theories are never truly verified. Moreover, to be always verified is not a virtue in a scientific theory. No accumulation of confirming instances is sufficient to verify a universal generalization, but only one disconfirming instance (anomaly) suffices to refute a universal generalization. Scientific theories are distinguished by the fact that they are falsifiable. Scientific theories are not really falsifiable. They are research programmes that consist of: a hard core of fundamental principles that contain what the theory really says about the world, and The fundamental difference is between progressive and degenerating research programmes. Progressive research programmes lead to novel predictions, new problems, and new solutions. They view contrary evidence as a challenge that will broaden and deepen the theory. a protective belt of auxiliary hypotheses that explain how the fundamental principles apply to particular cases, and how to deal with apparent discrepancies. These include clauses that accommodate problematic cases. Contrary to Popper, even good theories have defensemechanisms. Degenerating programmes spend their time trying to adjust after the fact to new information, and to protect themselves from refutation by constant adjustment. These often become pseudosciences as increasingly contrary evidence is defended against. 9

10 T.S. Kuhn The Structure of Scientific Revolutions 3 rd Edition, 1996 University of Chicago I. B. Cohen Revolution in Science 1987 Harvard University P. Godfrey-Smith Theory and Reality 2003 University of Chicago 10

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