FOLIA LINGUISTICA ET LITTERARIA: ČASOPIS ZA NAUKU O JEZIKU I

Transcription

1 FOLIA LINGUISTICA ET LITTERARIA: ČASOPIS ZA NAUKU O JEZIKU I KNJIŽEVNOSTI (9) Institut za jezik i književnost Filozofski fakultet, Nikšić Univerzitet Crne Gore

2 FOLIA LINGUISTICA ET LITTERARIA: Časopis za nauku o jeziku i književnosti FOLIA LINGUISTICA ET LITTERARIA: Journal of Language and Literary Studies Glavni urednik / General Editor: Marija Krivokapić Izdavač: Institut za jezik i književnost, Filozofski fakultet, Nikšić Publisher: Institute for Language and Literature, Faculty of Philosophy, Nikšić Uređivački odbor / Board of Editors: Rossella Abbaticchio, University of Bari Aleksandra Banjević, University of Montenegro Nick Ceramella, University for Foreigners of Perugia Vesna Vukićević Janković, University of Montenegro Ginette Katz-Roy, Pairs West University Nanterre La Défense Bernhard Kettemann, University of Graz Jelena Knežević, University of Montenegro Radmila Lazarević University of Montenegro Aleksandra Nikčević Batrićević, University of Montenegro Ana Pejanović, University of Montengero Ljiljana Pajović Dujović, University of Montenegr Dirk Skiba, Friedrich Schiller University of Jena Sekretar / Secretary: Tatjana Ćalasan, University of Montenegro Recenzenti / Reviewed by: Janko Andriješević, Univeristy of Montenegro Branko Crnogorac, University of Banja Luka Jasmina Đorđević, Faculty of Business and Law, Novi Sad Rajka Glušica, University of Montenegro Biljana Mišić Ilić, University of Niš Marko Lukić, University of Zadar Petar Penda, University of Banja Luka Biljana Radić Bojanić, University of Novi Sad Violeta Stojičić, University of Niš Sanja Šubarić, University of Montenegro Vanja Vukićević Garić, University of Montenegro Grafički dizajn / Graphic Design: Biljana Živković, Studio Mouse Štampa / Printed by: ITP Kolo, Nikšić Copies: 1000 Filozofski fakultet, Nikšić,

3 SADRŽAJ / TABLE OF CONTENTS Nauka o jeziku / Language Studies About Belief Sentences and Belief Contexts: Traditional vs. Contemporary Views Svetlana Zečević... 7 Forme učtivosti u okviru govornog čina molbe u odnosu na parametre regija i starost u crnogorskom jeziku Milena Mrdak Mićović Assessment in the EFL Reading Classroom Marija Mijušković Studije književnosti i kulture / Literary and Cultural Studies Dubito Ergo Sum: Milton's Satan as the Embodiment of Cartesian Philosophy Branko Marijanović Kritika na djelu: američki Zoil (I) Saša Simović Organizacija narativnih elemenata u pentalogiji Sinovi sinova Čeda Vukovića Ivana Petrović Račić False face must hide what the false heart doth know: Reading A Streetcar Named Desire through R.D. Laing s Concept of Ontological Insecurity Ivana Pehar Seks, droge i rock'n'roll devedeste u fikciji irskih književnica Vesna Ukić Košta Eksperimentalni američki pesnici i srpska kultura (Džerom Rotenberg Beogradska apokalipsa i Bob Perelman Da li si ga čuo ) Dubravka Đurić «Écrire sur soi» : Les Problèmes de l identité chez Marguerite Duras Jovana Slijepčević

4 Različiti stručni prilozi /Miscellaneous Feministička književna teorija (Drugi dio) Priredila Aleksandra Nikčević-Batrićević O kanonima: Mučna istorija i uspon crnih feminističkih studija (II) En Dusil Feministička psihoanalitička književna kritika Elizabet Vid Šta je feminizam uradio izučavanju romana? Nensi Armstrong UPUTSTVO AUTORIMA INSTRUCTIONS FOR CONTRIBUTORS

5 Nauka o jeziku / Language Studies

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7 7 ABOUT BELIEF SENTENCES AND BELIEF CONTEXTS: TRADITIONAL VS. CONTEMPORARY VIEWS Svetlana Zečević, University of Montenegro UDK :16 Abstract: The main aim of this work is to represent the analysis of the belief sentences from the respect to traditional and contemporary views. The two main representatives are Rudolf Carnap and Saul Aron Kripke. First analysis regards the belief sentences as intensionally isomorphic and in this particular context Carnap regards the concept of context that is neither extensional nor intensional, and finds that it is the case of the sentences about belief. Second analysis goes through translational and disquotational principle, where Kripke arises question whether we may have contradictory beliefs and finds such possibility in the concept of different cognitive contexts. Key Words: belief sentence, de re, de dicto, disquotational principle, extension, hermeneutic principle, intension, intensional isomorphism, linguistic representation, translational principle. The main aim of this paper is to represent one of the most known analysis about the belief sentences, as a sort of paradigm of the analysis of meaning/ naming and modality/necessity relationship so present in philosophy of language today. Since the main framework is traditional vs. contemporary views about belief sentences, the key figures here are Rudolf Carnap and Saul Aron Kripke. As the representative of traditional view, R. Carnap is the eminent member of Vienna Circle and S. A. Kripke is the great contemporary American logician. In general, Carnap s system represents a study in semantics and modal logic, where the method of semantic analysis is developed and serve as a ground for further analysis of modality, while Kripke s system is a study of modalities and corresponding semantic concepts, where basic modal concepts are defined (necessity, analyticity, and aprioricity) aimed to determine basic semantic relations. In fact, these two systems represent two possible ways of analysis: we can start with semantics and its basic concepts to define modality, or we can start with modalities and try to define basic semantic concepts. This is not something that could be taken as contradictory. The analysis of belief sentences will provide clear insight.

8 8 Journal of Language and Literary Studies 1. Carnap s Analysis of Belief Sentences We know that Carnap regards the question of extensions and intensions of sentences, using the definitions of two designators who have the same extension and the same intension (Carnap 1955). Extension of sentences is something that equivalent sentences have in common, its truth-value, which leads Carnap to definition that the extension of sentence is its truth-value (Ibid.). A further step is to decide what entities have to be taken as intensions of sentences, and Carnap points out that (declarative) sentence expresses a proposition. He does not use this word neither for sentences nor for sentences with their meaning, but for entities which themselves are extra-linguistic entities expressed by sentences. The main question here concerns the condition under which two sentences express the same proposition, and his decision was to take L- equivalence as condition of identity for intensions (having in mind that if two designators have the same intension they are L-equivalent), which leads him to the definition that the intension of sentence is the proposition expressed by it. Proposition is used neither for linguistic expression nor for subjective (mental) occurrence, but for something objective that may or may not be exemplified in the nature. But, in this particular context, Carnap regards the concept of context that is neither extensional nor intensional, and finds that it is the case of the sentences about belief. At the first glance, the sentence seems clear and unproblematic, used and understood in everyday life without any difficulty. But, when we try to analyze it from the logical point of view, it starts to be problematic. Here, replacement of subsentence by an L-equivalent sentence changes the truth-value and intension of the whole sentence. This kind of sentence has the usual form like Petra believes that p, containing the psychological terms. Carnap was interested in question how to analyze the sentence reporting belief, and whether they are about proposition or sentence, or about something else. In the purpose of his analysis he has constructed the object language S which contains the predicator... believes that..., having its ordinary meaning, and the main semantical concepts true, L-true, equivalent, and Lequivalent (used in accordance to established conventions and definitions, Carnap 1955). 1 Analysis begins with belief-sentences like Petra believes that D. and Petra believes that D*. The possible answers to the question whether Petra 1 Sentence of any form is true if and only if (or iff) it holds in the true state-description, and on this ground the main L-concepts are defined. L-truth is defined as explicatum for logical or necessary or analytic truth. The logical truth is taken as explicandum for L-truth, and sometimes has been characterized as truth based on purely logical reasons, or on meaning alone and independent of the contingency of facts. This means that the meaning of sentence, or its interpretation, is determined by the semantic rules. On this convention Carnap states that sentence is L-true in S iff its truth can be established on the basis of the semantic rules of S alone, which means without any reference to any extra-logical facts at all. Accordingly, F will stand for factual.

9 believes what these sentences say or not are affirmative or negative. The affirmative answer leads to her belief and negative to her non-belief. Carnap distinguishes two possibilities: one of professing belief and other professing neither belief nor non-belief. His result was that two belief-sentences have different truth-values and that they are neither equivalent nor L-equivalent. With respect to interchangeability and L-interchangeability Carnap points that occurrence of D in first sentence is not interchangeable with D* in the second sentence, it is not L-interchangeable with D* (Carnap 1955: 50 55). He shows that in the case of the first belief-sentence both conditions of extensionality and intensionality are not fulfilled, which allow him to conclude that belief-sentence is neither extensional nor intensional (with respect to its subsentence, Ibid.). Although D and D* have the same intension (L-true or necessary proposition) and therefore the same extension (the same truth-value) their interchange transforms the first belief-sentence into the second belief-sentence which does not have the same extension as the first one. The answer to question whether belief sentence is about proposition or sentence, according to Carnap, is that belief-sentence is about sentence and about proposition. His point is that belief sentence must have a stronger relation to its subsentence and something more in common with it than intension. This means that two sentences must be understood in the same way, they must be L- equivalent and consist of L-equivalents parts in the same way: two sentences must have the same intensional structure. Thus, if two sentences are built in the same way out of designators, such that two corresponding designators are L- equivalent or have same intension, then they are intensionally isomorphic (have same intensional structure, Ibid.), and this kind of relation Carnap calls synonymous. So, the special question is that of analysis of intensional structure of designators (especially sentences). Analysis is meant as semantical analysis by semantical rules, and Carnap s main purpose was to show how sentence is built out of designators, and what are their intensions. The special requirement for the isomorphism of two expressions consists in analysis of both expressions down to the smallest subdesignators. Also, metalanguage has to be introduced in purpose of comparative analysis of intensional structures of two expressions belonging to different language systems. The two sentences, belonging to two different language systems, are intensionally isomorphic iff the L-equivalence of the corresponding signs is established. But, this request was not enough and Carnap defines intensional isomorphism as relation between expressions that is stronger than the relation of L-equivalence (see also: Church 1954: 65-73; Salmon, Soames 1988: ). Of course, here he deals with different contexts: the crucial point is that intensional contexts and the contexts provided by belief sentences are not the same the former admits the substitution of L-equivalent expressions while latter doesn t. We know that his method of extension and intension is two-level semantical system and it is obvious that it cannot treat the problem of belief 9

10 10 Journal of Language and Literary Studies sentences on the analogy of modal sentences. This is the reason why the concept of intensional isomorphism is used. But, the question is whether Carnap s solution based on the intensional isomorphism is adequate, since the problem of belief sentences is putt over into the object-language. What is the main conclusion? Our conclusion is that Carnap gives no semantical analysis of belief sentences, not in the sense in which he gives semantical analysis of intensional contexts. For intensional contexts he lays down the rules for the interchange of expressions, based on semantic relations between expressions and entities. Meaning analysis of designator within the intensional sentence shows how meaning of sentence is constituted. In the case of belief sentence such semantical analysis is not provided. Rather, the analysis translates belief sentences into other sentences to which then semantical analysis may be applied. The analogy between the intensional context and the belief sentence context raises the following question: If only full semantical analysis is appropriate to intensional contexts, on what grounds similar treatment is denied for the belief sentences? The answer is that Carnap s system admits just two varieties of entities: his system appeals to extensions and intensions. The assimilation of the belief sentences to the intensional contexts is not plausible to Carnap. His treatment of intensional contexts is directed to the interpretation of language in which modalities and quantification are intermixed. In short: his intensional entities depend on L-truth, L-truth depends on state-descriptions, and state-descriptions are constructed in purpose to give semantical analysis for languages combining modalities and quantification. The next step of analysis is to compare the intensional isomorphism with synonymity in order to extend the interpretation of the belief sentences. This understands that the exact translation of belief sentence requires much more than agreement in the intensions of sentences (their L-equivalence). Even in the case of restricted meaning (designative or cognitive meaning) the L-equivalence of the sentences is not sufficient. Does Carnap use the translation principle? So, it is clear that belief sentences are neither extensional nor intensional, and they cannot be reduced to extensions or intensions. This implies that the principle of interchangeability with respect to extension and intension is not useful here. On the other hand, the translation principle states that if sentence of one language expresses the truth in that language, then any translation of it in any other language also expresses a truth. Further, since we know that the intensional contexts and contexts provided by belief sentences are not the same (former admits the substitution of L-equivalent expressions, while latter do not), the translation of belief sentences to the sentences of intensional context is not possible. But, what about the intensional isomorphism? If we accept, like Carnap, that the intensional isomorphism is what we need it follows that the translation could work between two sentences with same intensional structure. But, since problem of belief sentences is put over in object language we have to introduce

11 11 the metalanguage for the analysis of two expressions that belong to different language systems: it is necessary to analyze the belief sentences not in the context of object language but in the context of metalanguage. What we need here is the translation of the sentences of object language to the sentences of metalanguage. 2. Kripke s Analysis of Belief Contexts We know that traditionally there is argument used against J. S. Mill s theory of names and his thesis that the meaning of name is exhausted by its referent. For example, one of the representatives of the contemporary view regarding the belief sentences, Kripke points that Mill s theory implies the transparency of proper names, which means that coreferring proper names are substitutable salva veritate. But, some philosophers and logicians like Frege and Quine show that proper names are not transparent in belief contexts. So, Kripke is interesting in this problem, and in his A Puzzle about Belief (Kripke 1979: ) he argues that the problems given by the principle of transparency of proper names can also be generated without the use of that principle, but with some weaker and more general principles. In his famous example, he concludes that Pierre has contradictory beliefs: that he believes that London is pretty and he believes that London is not pretty. Taken in this way, it follows that this puzzle also presents the inconsistency of belief. In general, puzzle has two versions: the inconsistency version the sentences Pierre believes that London is pretty and Pierre believes that London is not pretty lead to inconsistency, the contradiction version: we may conclude that Pierre does not believe that London is pretty, on the basis of his behavior as an English speaker, but on the basis of his behavior as a French speaker, we must conclude that he does believe that London is pretty and this leads to contradiction (Ibid.). Kripke provides a several plausible principles, namely the disquotational principle (Ibid.) and the principle of translation (Ibid.), but beside these some authors speak about additional principle that can be recognized here, and that is the biconditional form of the disqoutational principle. In general, these principles have the following forms:

12 12 Journal of Language and Literary Studies a. the disquotational principle: if a normal English speaker sincerely assents to p, then he believes that p (where p is to be replaced inside and outside all quotation marks by an appropriate standard English sentence); b. the biconditional form of the disqoutational principle: a normal English speaker will be disposed to assent to p iff he believes that p (where any appropriate English sentence may replace p throughout); c. the principle of translation: if a sentence of one language expresses a truth in that language, then any translation of it into any other language also expresses a truth (Sosa ). We may say that these three principles are necessary for Kripke s reasoning. Namely, he needs the disquotational principle in order to move to Pierre believes that London is not pretty from Pierre s assent to London is not pretty, and from Pierre s assent to Londres est jolie to Pierre crois que Londres est jolie. He needs the principle of translation to move from Pierre crois que Londres est jolie to Pierre believes that London is pretty. Thus, in its inconsistency version Kripke s puzzle needs both the disqoutational and the translation principles. In its contradiction version he needs the biconditional form of the disqoutational principle in order to move from Pierre s non-assent to London is pretty to the conclusion that Pierre does not believe that London is pretty. Therefore, the situation is following: the Frenchman does not realize that the town where he lives is the town depicted in the nice pictures he saw in Paris. In fact, he didn t update his earlier belief expressed by Londres est jolie. Then, given that Londres and London (just like Frege s Hesperus and Phosphorus ) have the same reference or same semantic value it follows that the Frenchman believes that London is pretty and that London is not pretty, which means that he holds contradictory beliefs and therefore he is not as rational as supposed. But, we may ask is it a real puzzle? If it is, do we have to reject the causal theory of reference, or we have to find some other solution. If puzzle works, then it is worse for the causal theory of reference. Also, solution could be to criticize and even abandon the disqoutational principle. Before rejecting such principle, or causal theory of reference, it should be shown whether the other theories can solve the puzzle, and Kripke notices that it is not so clear that descriptive theory of reference can do better. In this context Kripke was interested in basic ideas of epistemic logics, and the key point is the distinction between the two aspects of the disquotational principle. In fact, Kripke regards the view according to which we may have contradictory beliefs (e.g. M. Dummett s view who maintains that we may have contradictory beliefs) if they are plugged into different cognitive contexts, such that the contradiction does not destroy the entire system of our beliefs (in the cognitive context of French-viewpoint, London is pretty; while in the cognitive

13 context of English-viewpoint, London is not pretty). According to Kripke we have to avoid the weak version of the puzzle (Frenchman believes that p and not p), and accept the stronger version [(Frenchman believes p) and not (Frenchman believes p)]. The key of the contradiction is that we know that speaker speaks of the same town, and that therefore he is involved in the contradiction. Kripke argues that we express the contradiction by reporting two contradictory beliefs (which are the cognitive context of the representation of Frenchman s set of beliefs). If we have to solve the problem we have to give Frenchman the possibility to update his beliefs, and change his mind on London, or to reach more complex belief such as: London sometimes looks pretty and sometimes it does not. Kripke says that it is possible to have some false beliefs which produce a contradiction, but if we keep our beliefs closed inside some cognitive context we may have unnoticed contradictions through different contexts. Does Kripke s puzzle can be considered as reduction of disquotational principle, and created without any principle of disquotation? There is another idea (David Sosa s idea) that another hidden principle is included in Kripke-type cases, namely the hermeneutic principle (HP), which represents the idea of unambiguous name as a name that has a single referent, and can be represented by a single logical constant. Kripke s example of that ambiguous name is name Cicero used to refer to the famous orator and a pilot in World War II. But, the theory that allows that proper name have a meaning not exhausted by the reference denies the validity of HP. On the other hand, the only justification for HP is Mill s theory and, therefore, Kripke s puzzle can be seen as reductio ad absurdum of hermeneutic principle. Also, Kripke s puzzle can be treated by drawing distinction between beliefs of certain believer (these are constituents of his doxastic logic) and beliefsentences. Beliefs can be treated as linguistic (symbolic) representations, in order to be able to analyze the belief-sentences. In that case, such beliefs sentences do their reporting job not by displaying beliefs, but by describing them by the mechanism of adequate paraphrasing. So, it is obvious that belief of believer play a major role and it can be taken as linguistic representations, whcih can be explained by the following example: let say that at given time t believer is in a certain belief-state, reflecting any beliefs he has at that time. Of course, beliefs being linguistic representations (sentences) are in one language or another: e.g. believer may have Londres est jolie but not London is pretty as one of his beliefs. This could be attested by his disposition to assent to the first but not to the second belief in appropriate circumstances (e.g. when believer does not know English language). If believer assents to both in appropriate circumstances, then they constitute his two distinct beliefs. This perspective is contrasted with the theory which takes beliefs to be propositions where belief is taken to be linguistic representation in particular language (which is not context-independent). Since a multi-lingual believer possesses beliefs in 13

14 14 Journal of Language and Literary Studies more than one language it means that he may possess various distinct beliefs in different languages he speaks, but which convey the same message. In general, verbal dispositions (possibilities to assent or not to assent to certain sentences) are the key indicators of sentences being beliefs. Conclusion Having these two points of view in mind we may conclude that analysis of belief sentenses and contexts first must include the definiton of belief per se and we may recognize this in both Carnap and Kripke s already mentioned determinations regarding it. Carnap treats this problem in the dimension of sentences placing his analysis deeply in the theory of language and even constructing a special language system to deal with this particular kind of sentences. The main question for him is whether we believe what some sentences say or not and the answer can be either affirmative or negative, leading in that way to our belief or non-belief. Carnap s final conclusion is that the two belief-sentences have different truth-values and hence they are neither equivalent nor L- equivalent, they are not interchangeable/not L-interchangeable, meaning that they are neither extensional nor intensional. Therefore, according to him beliefsentence is about (sub)sentence and about proposition, while sentence must have a stronger relation to its subsentence, or, briefly saying, the two sentences are intensionally isomorphic. In fact, Carnap does use the translation principle, but he argues that translation of belief sentences to the sentences of intensional context is not possible, and it follows that the translation could work between two sentences with the same intensional structure., i.e. between intensionally isomorphic sentences. But, to do that first we need the translation of the sentences of object language to the sentences of metalanguage, and this is something that Kripke didn t speak about. On the contrary, in his context of the puzzle of belief Kripke points out that in that particular situation we express the contradiction since we report two contradictory beliefs, we don t have Carnapian belief and nonbelief here, we have two different beliefs. Kripke arises question whether we may have contradictory beliefs and finds such possibility in the concept of different cognitive contexts. His solution is to avoid the weak version of the puzzle and accept the stronger version, which reminds us of Carnap s pair of belief sentences. The difference here is in the fact that Carnap is not interesting in cognitive contexts nor in contradiciton, but in the relation between two belief sentences in the sense of their intension. Kripke doesn t recognize this duality, but pays attention to the fact that beliefs belong to the level of internal representations of believer and that they reside within his belief-world. To specify believer s beliefs is to characterize his belief-world purely internally, or without having to assume the existence of

15 15 any particular object outside the believer himself. From a modal logic we may recognized that beliefs, being linguistic representations, can be classified in two ways: 1. as de dicto ascription that report that believer has a dictum or proposition (or what a sentence says) as the object of an attitude/his belief, 2. as de re ascription that relate believer to thing or res (this is object-dependent belief) (Sosa ; also see: Burge 1977, ). But, it seams that Kripke finds that de dicto-belief construction ( r believes that p ) is puzzling in ordinary language. To take beliefs as linguistic representations means that the possession of different beliefs plays different causal roles in believer s interaction with the world. When believer s assertions are expressed in another language such claim will not be plausible any more. So, it becomes clear that believer s assertion is an adequate paraphrase, which is a cornerstone of the indirect speech construction, which leads to the conclusion that the ordinary language belief statement r believes that p depends upon the notion of adequate paraphrase. This means that Kripke s puzzle can be clarify if we use the analysis of belief sentences which employ the notion of adequate paraphrase in a way that does not make this notion paradoxical. Bibliography: Burge, Tyler. Belief De Re. The Journal of Philosophy 69 (1977): Burge, Tyler. Belief and synonymy. The Journal of Philosophy (1978): Carnap, Rudolf. Introduction to Semantics. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, Carnap, Rudolf. Modalities and Quantification. Journal of Symbolic Logic 11 (1946): Carnap, Rudolf. Empiricism, Semantics and Ontology. Semantics and the Philosophy of Language. Ed. Linsky L. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, Carnap, Rudolf. Language, Modal Logic and Semantics. The Philosophy of Rudolf Carnap. Ed. P. A. Schilpp. Illinois: Open Court, La Salle, Carnap, Rudolf. Philosophy and Logical Syntax. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner &Co. Ltd., Broadway House Carter Lane E. C, Carnap, Rudolf. The Logical Syntax of Language. Amethe Smeaton (trans.) London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, Carnap, Rudolf. Meaning and Necessity (A Study in Semantics and Modal Language). The University of Chicago Press, Church, Alonso. Intensional isomorphism and identity of belief. Philosophical Studies 5, No. 5 (1954): 65 73; also in: Propositions and Attitudes. Eds. N. Salmon and S. Soames. Oxford: Oxford University Press,

16 16 Journal of Language and Literary Studies Church, Alonso. On Carnap s analysis of statements of assertion and belief, Analysis 10, No. 5 (1950): 97 99; also in: Reference and Modality. Ed. L. Linsky. Oxford: Oxford University Press, Crimmins, Mark. Talk about Beliefs. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, Garret, Richard. Putnam on Kripke s puzzlle. Erkenntnis Vol. 34 (May), No. 3 (1991). Higginbotham, James. Belief and logical form. Mind and Language 6 (1991): Kripke, Saul Aron. A Puzzle About Belief. Meaning and Use. Ed. A. Margalit. Dordrecht and Boston, MA: Reidel, Kripke, Saul Aron. Naming and Necessity. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, Putnam, H. Synonymity, and the analysis of belief sentences. Analysis 14 No. 5 (April) (1954): , also in: Propositions and Attitudes. Eds. N. Salmon and S. Soames. Oxford: Oxford University Press, Richard, Mark. Sense, necessity and belief. Philosophical Studies 69 (1993): Richard, Martin. Direct reference and ascriptions of belief. Journal of Philosophical Logic 12 (1983): Schiffer, Stephen. The relational theory of belief. Pacific Philosophical Quartely 71 (1990): Schiffer, Stephen. Belief ascription. Journal of Philosophy 89 (1992): Sosa, Ernest. Propositional attitudes De Dicto and De RE. Journal of Philosophy 71 (December) (1975): O REČENICAMA VJEROVANJA I KONTEKSTIMA VJEROVANJA: TRADICIONALNA NASUPROT SAVREMENIH GLEDIŠTA Glavni cilj ovog rada je da predstavi analizu rečenica vjerovanja sa aspekta tradicionalnih i savremenih gledišta. Dva glavna predstavnika su Rudolf Karnap i Saul Aron Kripke. Prva analiza bavi se rečenicama vjerovanja kao intenzionalno izomorfnim i ovdje Karnap posebno razmatra kontekst koji nije ni ekstenzionalan ni intenzionalan, i nalazi da je to upravo slučaj sa rečenicama vjerovanja. Druga analiza obuhvata princip prevođenja i princip diskvotacije, gdje Kripke postavlja pitanje da li možemo imati suprotna vjerovanja i takvu mogućnost nalazi u pojmu različitih kognitivnih konteksta. Ključne riječi: de dicto, de re, diskvotacijski princip, ekstenzija, hermeneutički princip, intenzija, intenzionalni izomorfizam, lingvistička reprezentacija, princip prevođenja, rečenice vjerovanja.

17 17 FORME UČTIVOSTI U OKVIRU GOVORNOG ČINA MOLBE U ODNOSU NA PARAMETRE REGIJA I STAROST U CRNOGORSKOM JEZIKU UDK (497.16):177.1 Milena Mrdak Mićović, Univerzitet Crne Gore Apstrakt: Pitanje učtivosti u jeziku jedno je od najaktuelnijih u jezičkim izučavanjima još od druge polovine dvadesetog vijeka, te je kao takvo i nas zaintrigiralo i navelo da napravimo prikaz formi učtivosti kod govornog čina molbe u okviru crnogorskog jezičkog sistema. Koliko zanimljiv, toliko i kompleksan, prevashodno zbog prožimanja gramatike, psiho i sociolingvistike, ovaj fenoment predstavljao je ogroman izazov i tražio kako teorijska tako i razmatranje rezultata dobijenih u praksi. U radu se iznose rezultati istraživanja sprovedenog na govornicima crnogorskog jezika a sa posebnim osvrtom na parametre regija i starost, sa ciljem da se pokaže da li su govornici tri crnogorske regije i svih starosnih dobi podjednako skloni da posegnu za tentativnijim jezičkim formama u okviru govornog čina molbe. Ključne riječi: učtivost, govorni čin molbe, lice, parametar regija, parametar starost. Uvod Predmet našeg rada jeste istraživanje govornog čina molbe sa posebnim osvrtom na parametre regija i starost, iako se ovaj govorni čin ne svrstava u konvencije učtivosti već u direktive iz razloga što se kod istog ne upotrebljavaju ustaljene jezičke forme. Budući da se slažemo sa autorima (Milosavljević 2007: 12) koji ukazuju da se i molbe mogu podvesti pod kategoriju govornih činova jer i one podliježu određenim društvenim konvencijama kako bi se ispoštovala pravila komunikacije u društvu koje visoko cijeni ono što nazivamo komunikativnom ravnotežom, odlučili smo se da istražimo da li forma u kojoj govornici crnogorskog jezika upućuju molbu sagovorniku može da zavisi od mjesta stanovanja i godina istih. Teorijske osnove Govorni čin molbe spada u najpodrobnije semantičko-pragmatički istražene forme učtivosti, naročito kod izučavanja uporednog tipa. Prema klasifikaciji ustanovljenoj od strane Džona Serla (John Searle), molba pripada onoj vrsti govornog čina u okviru kojeg se adresat podstiče na izvršenje neke buduće radnje. Ovaj govorni čin ubraja se u direktive u koje spadaju i naređenja, zahtjevi, pozivi,

18 18 Journal of Language and Literary Studies preporuke i savjeti čija pragmatička struktura izgleda na sljedeći način (Searle 1991: 126, up. Popović 2000: 229; Milosavljević 2007: 37): 1. Čin koji govornik želi da sagovornik izvrši ili ne izvrši; 2. Govornik je svjestan da je sagovornik u stanju da izvrši određenu radnju; 3. Adresat ne zna da govornik želi da on izvrši određenu radnju; 4. Govornik želi da adresat izvrši određenu radnju; 5. Govornik izriče želju da sagovornik izvrši određenu radnju. Jednu grupu molbi predstavljaju forme orijentisane prema govorniku (Milosavljević 2007) koja se naziva performativnim iskazom iza kojeg stoji određena namjera govornog lica, kao u primjeru: (1) Molimo, sačekajte svoj red. Dok u drugu spadaju forme orijentisane prema adresatu i njima se iskazuje radnja koju bi isti trebalo da izvrši: (2) Možeš li, molim te, zatvoriti taj prozor? Formama orijentisanim prema ja govorno lice posredno utiče na adresata da mu učini neku uslugu, dok se formama orijentisanim prema ti sagovornik dodatno podstiče na određenu akciju gdje se dodatno vodi računa da se isti ne uvrijedi, odnosno da mu se ne povrijedi lice. Dosadašnja istraživanja sprovedena na jezicima u regionu (Prema Milosavljević: 37) pokazala su da se prva grupa molbi javlja kod komunikacije formalnog, a druga kod one neformalnog stila. Mora se, naravno, naglasiti da se obje grupe molbi razlikuju prema stepenu učtivosti, gdje je, u okviru molbi orijentisanih prema ja, stepen učtivosti direktno proporcionalan stepenu indirektnog iskazivanja ilokucije, a indirektnost se postiže gramatičkim kategorijama načina i vremena, odnosno takozvanim modalizovanjem iskaza (Trbojević 2004). Značajna uloga pripisuje se i upitnim formama u okviru kojih subjekat stavlja sebe u podređeni položaj dok je osoba kojoj se molba upućuje ta koja će odlučiti da li će se ista ispuniti (primjer 2). Prema Perović, lice je naš obraz, ali i tuđi, o je, čak, naša persona, ali i tuđa u jungovskim terminima, odnosno naša javna slika, kako bismo voljeli da nas drugi dožive (2009: 9). Upravo iz tog razloga, smatraju Braunova i Levinson (1987), govorno lice treba da usvoji određene govorne strategije uz pomoć kojih će prevazići ili makar ublažiti eventualne probleme u odnosu na sagovornika u procesu komunikacije. Ako se kojim slučajem govornik svjesno odluči da počini

19 19 prijetnju licu 2, autori nude čitavu lepezu strategija koje će mu pomoći da dijalog prođe što bezbolnije po oba učesnika. Braunova i Levinson shemom prikazanom na slici 1 pokazuju da je moguće ne izvršiti čin ugrožavanja lica sagovornika i ujedno obaviti komunikaciju, kao i ugroziti sagovornika. Lice sagovornika može se ugroziti direktno 3 i indirektno 4. Direktno ugrožavanje može da bude sasvim direktno, bez nastojanja da se taj čin ublaži 5 i direktno, ali sa nastojanjem da se sam čin ublaži. Samo ublažavanje vrši se uz pomoć stategija koje obuhvataju kako pozitivnu učtivost 6, tako i onu negativnog tipa 7. Na osnovu izloženog vidi se da autori prepoznaju dva osnovna modela u procesu komunikacije, a to su modeli pozitivne i negativne učtivosti. Ove modele ni u kom slučaju ne treba razumjeti kao oponente u procesu komunikacije, kao što to nijesu ni pozitivno i negativno lice, već, oni jednostavno, predstavljaju dva osnovna aspekta učtivog ponašanja. Iz ovoga proizilazi da razliku između pozitivne i negativne učtivosti treba tražiti u razlici između manje i više formalnog učtivog izražavanja: Slika 1: Strategije za ugrožavanje lica sagovornika (Brown and Levinson: 1987: 60) Istraživanja sprovedena na engleskom govornom području, Crnoj Gori i regionu Kada se govori o počecima istraživanjima učtivosti u jeziku obično se misli na zapažanje koje je Oto Jespersen (Jespersen 245) iznio u svojoj knjizi pod naslovom Jezik: njegova priroda porijeklo i razvoj 8 u okviru kojeg je izučavao rodne razlike po pitanju izgovora u Velikog Britaniji gdje u zaključku navodi:,,mora 2 Na engleskom jeziku: FTA (face threatening act) - prim.aut. 3 Na engleskom jeziku: on-record; 4 Na engleskom jeziku: off-record; 5 Na engleskom jeziku: baldly, without redressive action; 6 Na engleskom jeziku: positive politeness; 7 Na engleskom jeziku: negative politeness. 8 Na engleskom jeziku: Language: its Nature, Development and Origin.

20 20 Journal of Language and Literary Studies se priznati da se sa stanovišta fonetike jedva primjećuje razlika između govora muškaraca i žena 9. Ipak, pomenuto istraživanje podstaklo je lingviste da se pozabave razlikama u upotrebi jezika, tako da se pojavljuje jedno sprovedeno od strane Pitera Tradgila (Trudgill 92) u okviru kojeg autor izučava pojavu varijable (ng) koja se pojavljuje u riječima tipa hopping, skipping i njima sličnim kod pripadnika više srednje i niže radničke klase u Noriču, te utvrdio da postoje razlike prilikom izgovora iste kod govornika različitih društvenih slojeva, kao i one između muškaraca i žena u smislu da se visočiji društveni slojevi odlučuju za sofisticirane varijante pod pritiskom sredine kojoj pripadaju. Ronald Makoli (Ronald Macaulay) godine bavio se sličnim istraživanjem utvrdivši šablon po kojem svaka visočija društvena grupa proporcionalno koristi više prestižnih jezičkih formi od one koja je na nižem stupnju društvene ljestvice. Veoma reprezentativna istraživanja istraživanja učtivosti u engleskom jeziku predstavljaju ona sprovedena od strane Edine Ajskovic (Ieskovits 1987) na adolescentima iz radničke klase u Sidneju, kao i istraživanja Dženet Houmz (Holmes 1995) i Dženifer Kouts (Coates 2004) sprovedena na Novom Zelandu kojima se sa posebnom pažnjom osvijetlio problem odnosa između učtivosti u jeziku između rodova. Istraživanja iz domena učtivosti u jeziku sprovedena u regionu tiču se problema oslovljavanja koji je osvijetljen iz dva ugla: sociološkog i psihološkog. Sociološki pristup koristili su Radovanović (1979), Kiš i Savić (2007), te Polovina (1983). Problemom su se sa psihološkog stanovišta bavili i Vasić (1979), Jocić (1981), Ivona Žilberg i Svenka Savić (1982). Istraživanjima o oslovljavanju i pozdravljanju u 21. vijeku bavila se Katalin Ozer (2009) koja nudi uporedne podatke dobijene za njemački i srpski jezik, kao i Mirjana Jocić (2011.) koja naročitu pažnju posvećuje leksičkim jedinicama ili etiketama, dok se po pitanju gramatičkih sredstava bavila obraćanjem Ti/Vi. Jedino objavljeno istraživanje na temu učtivosti u crnogorskom jeziku jeste ono koje je sprovela Slavica Perović (2009: 10) među studentskom populacijom, a koje se ticalo govornog čina izvinjenja. Istraživanje je sprovedeno u vidu ankete u okviru koje su se ispitanici odlučivali za jedan od ponuđenih odgovora, ili upisivali nov odgovor prema sopstvenom nahođenju. Autorka je zaključila da studentska populacija na govorni čin izvinjenja gleda kao na,,čin koji u velikoj mjeri ugrožava lice i vjerujemo da se taj generalni nalaz može manje-više primijeniti na čitavu crnogorsku populaciju (Ibid., 39). Budući da ovo istraživanje obuhvata samo jednu društvenu grupu i jedan govorni čin, smatrali smo da bi bilo uputno formulisati istraživanje koje bi se odnosilo i na ostale govorne činove, a pritom bi istim bile obuhvaćene osobe različitih starosnih dobi, koje žive u različitim dijelovima Crne Gore. 9 We must say that from a phonetic point of view there is scarcely any difference between the speech of men and that of women. (Jespersen: 1922: 245)

21 21 Uzorak, metodologija i hipoteza istraživanja Istraživanje koje opisujemo u ovom radu izvedeno je u aprilu i maju godine. Uzorak na kome je obavljeno istraživanje obuhvatio je ukupno sto osamdeset ispitanika (180) podijeljenih u tri regije: sjever opština Berane, centralni dio Nikšić i Podgorica, te jug Bar sa okolinom, i to po šezdeset (60) u svakoj. U okviru svake grupe ispitanici su podijeljeni u tri jednake podgrupe: Ispitanici starosti godina; Ispitanici starosti godina, Ispitanici stariji od 61 godinu. U izvršenom istraživanju primijenjena je deskriptivna metoda, a anketiranje je istraživačka tehnika koju smo koristili. dijela: Upitnik je upotrebljen kao instrument istraživanja i sastojao se iz dva opšti podaci; podaci o upotrebi iskazivanja učtivosti na crnogorskom govornom području. Prvi dio upitnika odnosio se na opšte podatke o subjektima istraživanja, dok su ispitanici u drugom dijelu imali zadatak da markiraju onu formu kojom bi iskazali učtivost u odnosu na adresata. Ispitanicima je data mogućnost da pokažu kako bi se učtivo izrazili kako u pisanoj, tako i u usmenoj formi u okviru govornog čina molbe, čestitanja, izvinjavanja, zahvaljivanja i saučešća 10. U cilju da što preciznije utvrdimo u kojoj mjeri će se govornici odlučiti za učtivije forme iste smo zamolili da markiraju onu rečenicu koja bi bila najbliža načinu iskazivanja učtivosti i nijesmo im dali mogućnost da proizvoljno dopisuju dodatne varijante. Takođe smo ponuđene varijante gradirali prema stepenu učtivosti kako bi upitnik bio transparentniji. te lakši za popunjavanje i obradu. Obrada podataka izvršena je pomoću metoda i tehnika statističke analize. Cilj ovog istraživanja jeste da pokaže koliko su govornici iz različitih regija i različitih starosnih dobi skloniji upotrebi tentativnijih izraza, a samim tim učtiviji u procesu komunikacije. Hipoteza ovog istraživanja zasnovana je na zaključcima do kojih su došli lingvisti sa drugih govornih područja, kako engleskog (Greenbaum 1985: 64), tako kineskog (Gu 1990: 252) i grčkog (Sifianou 2000: 43), a koje se tiče odnosa učtivost, savremeno društvo i komunikacija. Iz tog razloga smo pošli od pretpo- 10 Ovaj rad prikazuje rezultate koji se odnose isključivo na govorni čin molbe prim.aut.

22 22 Journal of Language and Literary Studies stavke da će se utvrditi da su govornici koji spadaju u treću starosnu grupu (od šezdeset jednu godinu i više) biti skloniji upotrebi učtivih formi od mlađih generacija, budući da savremeni jezik oslikava procese demokratizacije u društvu i da se kreće ka pojednostavljivanju formi, te da sve više služi za puku komunikaciju. Takođe smo pretpostavili da će se pokazati da su govornici nerazvijenijih područja, kao što je sjeverni dio Crne Gore, skloniji upotrebi manje formalnih oblika od onih iz centralne i južne regije, gdje se nalaze politički, ekonomski i univerzitetski centri, te da je kod njih izraženija potreba za tentativnim jezičkim formulama. Treba napomenuti da smo vodili računa da minimum stepena obrazovamja ispitanika bude srednja i viša, odnosno visoka sprema, te parametar,,stepen obrazovanja nijesmo uzeli u obzir prilikom ispitivanja. U cilju bolje preglednosti i jasnoće dobijenih rezultata, iste smo predstavili u tabelama u okviru kojih smo za svako pojedinačno pitanje jasno označili koliko se ispitanika iz koje starosne grupe odlučilo za određenu rečeničnu formulu. 1. Opis rezultata dobijenih u opštini Berane: 1. Kada se nekoj osobi ili instituciji obraćate sa molbom u PISANOJ formi istu započinjete na sljedeći način: Odgovori Grupa od godina Grupa od Grupa61+ Ukupno Najljubaznije bih Vas zamolio/la da... Obraćam Vam se sa molbom da Molio/la bih Vas da Molim Vas da Tabela 1: Prikaz rezultata o iskazivanju molbe u pisanoj formi u odnosu na parametre regija i starost- BERANE Dobijeni rezultat pokazuje da se najveći broj ispitanika (36%) opredijelio za formalno Obraćam Vam se sa molbom da, dok je tek jedan ispitanik manje markirao formulu iskazanu potencijalom Molio/la bih Vas da Svega četiri ispitanika, ili 6,6% od ukupnog broja odabralo je najformalnije Najljubaznije bih Vas zamolio/la da..., od kojih dva ispitanika pripadaju najstarijoj ispitnoj grupi. Ako tabelu posmatramo po vertikali, uočićemo da se najveći broj najmlađih ispitanika (40%) odlučio za najdirektniju formulu iskazanu prezentom Molim Vas da..., dok se svega jedan ispitanik izjasnio za najformalnije Najljubaznije bih Vas zamolio/ la da... Približno pola ispitanika iz srednje starosne grupe izjasnilo se za

23 23 formalno Obraćam Vam s molbom da, a potom za formu u potencijalu Molio/la bih Vas da Kad se nekoj osobi obraćate USMENO sa molbom, istu formulišete na sljedeći način: Odgovori Grupa od godina Grupa od Grupa 61+ Ukupno Htjela/htio bih da te zamolim da Zamoliću te/vas da Molio/la bih te/vas da Molim te/ Vas da Tabela 2: Prikaz rezultata o iskazivanju molbe u usmenoj formi u odnosu na parametre regija i starost- BERANE Dobijeni rezultat pokazuje da se nešto više od ukupnog broja ispitanika odlučilo za najdirektniju formulu Molim te/ Vas da... dok su svega dva ispitanika manje markirala najformalnije, preteritno Htjela/htio bih da te zamolim da, od kojih više od polovine ispitanika pripada najstarijoj starosnoj grupi. Posmatrano po vertikali, uočava se da se većina ispitanika iz najmlađe i srednje starosne grupe odlučilo za prezentnu formulu Molim te/vas da... Svega 13% ispitanika od ukupnog broja markiralo je futurnu formulaciju Zamoliću te/vas da..., što ukupno gledano pokazuje da su govornici iz ovog regiona skloniji upotrebi formalnijih formulacija za koje se odlučilo nešto više od pola od ukupnog broja ispitanika (51%). 2. Opis rezultata dobijenih u opštinama Nikšić i Podgorica 1. Kada se nekoj osobi ili instituciji obraćate sa molbom u PISANOJ formi istu započinjete na sljedeći način: Odgovori Najljubaznije bih Vas zamolio/ la da... Grupa od godina Grupa od Grupa 61*+ Ukupno

24 24 Journal of Language and Literary Studies Obraćam Vam se sa molbom da Molio/ la bih Vas da Molim Vas da Tabela 3: Prikaz rezultata o iskazivanju molbe u pisanoj formi u odnosu na parametre regija i starost - NIKŠIĆ i PODGORICA Dobijeni rezultat govori da se najveći broj ispitanika (40% od ukupnog broja) odlučio za formalnu formulu Obraćam Vam se sa molbom da, dok je formulu u potencijalu i najdirektniju Molim Vas da... obilježio gotovo isti broj ispitanika. Za najformalnije Najljubaznije bih Vas zamolio/la da... odlučilo se svega tri ispitanika, među kojima nema ispitanika iz najmlađe starosne grupe. Gledano po vertikali, primjećuje se da se više od pola ispitanika iz najmlađe starosne grupe odlučilo za prezentu formulu Molim Vas da..., koja je od ponuđenih i najdirektnija, dok se većina ispitanika iz srednje grupe odlučila za formalno Obraćam Vam se s molbom da... Najstariji ispitanici u većini slučajeva birali su najformalnije formule kako onu iskazanu potencijalom (50% od ukupnog broja ispitanika iz ove starosne grupe) Molio/la bih Vas da, tako i formalno Obraćam Vam se s molbom da. Za najtentativnije Najljubaznije bih Vas zamolio/la da... odlučila su se svega dva od ukupno dvadeset ispitanika iz ove starosne grupe. 2. Kad se nekoj osobi obraćate USMENO sa molbom, istu formulišete na sljedeći način: Odgovori Grupa od godina Grupa od Grupa 61+ Ukupno Htjela/ htio bih da te zamolim da Zamoliću te/ Vas da Molio/ la bih te/ Vas da Molim te/ Vas da Tabela 4: Prikaz rezultata o iskazivanju molbe u usmenoj formi u odnosu na parametre regija i starost NIKŠIĆ i PODGORICA Dobijeni rezultati govore da se najveći broj ispitanika odlučio za najdirektniju formulaciju u iskazivanju molbe usmenim putem. Evidentno je da među njima nema ispitanika iz najstarije starosne grupe, a da je najviše onih koji pripa-

25 25 daju ispitanicima starosti od dvadeset do četrdeset godina. Posmatrano po vertikali, najveći broj najstarijih ispitanika (75% od ukupnog broja iz navedene starosne grupe) odlučio se za formu iskazanu potencijalom Molio/la bih te/vas da, dok se preostalih pet odlučilo za najformalnije Htjela/htio bih da te zamolim da 3. Opis rezultata dobijenih u opštini Bar sa okolinom: 1. Kada se nekoj osobi ili instituciji obraćate sa molbom u PISANOJ formi istu započinjete na sljedeći način: Odgovori Grupa od godina Grupa od Grupa 61+ Ukupno Najljubaznije bih Vas zamolio/ la da.. Obraćam Vam se sa molbom da Molio/ la bih Vas da Molim Vas da Tabela 5: Prikaz rezultata o iskazivanju molbe u pisanoj formi u odnosu na parametre regija i staros t- BAR sa okolinom Rezultati do kojih smo došli proučavajući govorni čin molbe u pisanoj formi govore da se u ovoj regiji najveći broj ispitanika odlučio za manje formalne formule Molim Vas da... (35% od ukupnog broja ispitanika) i Obraćam Vam se sa molbom da... (36%). Svega šest od ukupnog broja ispitanika markiralo na najformalniju formulunajljubaznije bih Vas zamolio/la da... Ako rezultate posmatramo prema starosnim grupama, uočićemo da se najveći broj najmlađih ispitanika odlučio za najdirektnije Molim Vas da..., te da je situacija ista kog starosne grupe koja obuhvata ispitanike koji imaju između četrdeset i šezdeset godina. Gotovo polovina najstarijih ispitanika obilježila je formulu Obraćam Vam se sa molbom da, kao onu kojom bi iskazali molbu u odnosu na sagovornika kojem se obraćaju u pisanoj formi. 2. Kad se nekoj osobi obraćate USMENO sa molbom, istu formulišete na sljedeći način:

26 26 Journal of Language and Literary Studies Odgovori Grupa od godina Grupa od Grupa 61+ Ukupno Htjela/ htio bih da te zamolim da Zamoliću te/ Vas da Molio/ la bih te/vas da Molim te/ Vas da Tabela 6: Prikaz rezultata o iskazivanju molbe u usmenoj formi u odnosu na parametre regija i starost - BAR sa okolinom Rezultati ukazuju da se više od polovine ukupnog broja ispitanika odlučilo za najdirektnije Molim te/ Vas da..., dok se za formulu iskazanu futurom nije odlučio niti jedan ispitanik. Evidentno je da se najveći broj ispitanika iz najmlađe starosne grupe odlučio za najdirektniju formulu (80% ispitanika iz spomenute starosne grupe), dok su se najstariji ispitanici u većini (70% od ukupnog broja ispitanika iz iste starosne grupe) odlučili za formulu u potencijalu Molio/la bih te /Vas da. Preostalih šest ispitanika markiralo je najdirektnije Molim te/vas da... Zaključak Kada se sagledaju i uporede rezultati do kojih smo došli anketiranjem tri starosne grupe iz tri crnogorske regije primjećuje se da su se kod ovog govornog čina u pisanoj formi za opciju Obraćam Vam se s molbom da odlučio približno jednak broj ispitanika iz sve tri regije. Ova, formalna struktura u okviru koje ne nalazimo niti potencijal niti preterit činila se jednako prihvatljivom za stanovnike sve tri regije. Za formu Molio/la bih Vas da odlučilo bi se, prema rezultatima, najviše ispitanika iz Berana dok bi se za prezentnu formulu odlučilo najviše ispitanika iz Bara i okoline, što je značajno visočiji rezultat od onih dobijenih u Beranama, Nikšiću i Podgorici. Zajednički podatak za sve regije jeste da se za najdirektniju formulu odlučio najveći broj ispitanika iz prve starosne grupe, dok su se najstariji ispitanici iz Berana, kao i njihovi sunarodnici iz Nikšića i Podgorice, u najvećem broju odlučili za formulu u obliku potencijala Molio/la bih Vas da. Molbu u usmenoj formi bi govornici crnogorskog jezika većinom iskazali prezentnim Molim te, dok bi se za tentativno Htjela/htio bih odlučilo najviše govornika iz Berana od kojih više od polovine pripada najstarijoj starosnoj grupi. Za veoma frekventno i formalno Molio/ la bih... u najvećem broju bi se odlučili govornici centralne regije, od kojih je 65% onih koji pripadaju najstarijoj populaciji. Iz navedenog se može zaključiti da se potvrdila naša hipoteza da će stariji govornici biti skloniji upotrebi formalnijih izraza učtivosti nego mlađe populacije. Smatramo da jedan od razloga za navedeno jeste činjenica da mladi ljudi usvajaju i koriste savremeni jezik sa svim njegovim promjenama, koje vode ka

27 27 pojednostavljivanju, što za posljedicu ima upotrebu najjednostavnijih struktura. Mlađa populacija, kao i ona srednjih godina, svakodnevno koristi internet i komunicira putem društvenih mreža u okviru kojih sve češće iskazuju molbu, zahvalnost, zadovoljstvo zbog nečijeg uspjeha ili žaljenje zbog nečijeg gubitka na što ekonomičniji način. Od početka 21. vijeka lingvisti su jezička izučavanja usmjerili na socio i psiholingvistiku. Brojni autori su, analizirajući pisani i govoreni jezik pokušavali da izuče u kojoj mjeri pojedini socijalni faktori, kao što su pripadanje pojednim društvenim slojevima, polu, kao i stepen obrazovanja utiču na svakodnevnu komunikaciju. Stoga se slažemo sa autorima (Cameron & Kulick 2003; Coates 2004; Jones 2012) koji smatraju da će se lingvistička izučavanja ubuduće razvijati stavljajući akcenat interesovanja na jezik pripadnika društvenih grupa specifične seksuane orijentacije. Literatura: Austen, J. L. How To Do Things With Words. New York: OUP, Brown, P. & Levinson, S. C. Politeness Some Universals of Language Usage. CUP, Cameron, D. & Kulik, D. Language and Sexuality. Cambridge: United Kingdom at the University Press, Coates, J. Women, Men and Language. London: Pearson Longman, Greenbaum, S. Ed. On English Language Today. Oxford: Pergamon Press, Gu, Y. Politeness Phenomenon in Modern Chinese. Journal of Pragmatics 14, 1990: Holmes, J. Men, Women and Politeness. London and New York: Longman, Eiskovits, E. ''Sex-differences in inter-group and intra-group interaction among adolescents.'' Pauwels, Anne (ed.) Women and Langage in Australian and New Zealand Society. Sydney: Australian Professional Publications, 1987: Jespersen, O. Language: Its Nature, Development and Origin. London: Alen and Unwin, Jocić M. Osobine jezičkog komuniciranja vaspitača sa decom predškolskog uzrasta. Prilozi proučavanju jezika. Filozoski fakultet. Novi Sad, Jocić M. Oslovljavanje i obraćanje govor Novog Sada: sveska 2. Lingvističke sveske 9, 2011: Jones, L. Language and Identity in a Lesbian Group. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, Kiš N. i Savić I. O nekim tendencijama u izoru jezičkih sredstava u situaciji obraćanja, oslovljavanja i pozdravljanja. Prilozi proučavanju jezika 38. Odsek za srpski jezik Filozofskog fakulteta u Novom Sadu, 2007.

28 28 Journal of Language and Literary Studies Macaulay, R. K. S. ''Variation and Consistency in Glasgowian English.'' Trudgil, Peter (ed.) Sociolinguistic Patterns in British English, Edward Arnold, London, 1974: Milosavljević, B. Forme učtivosti u srpskom jeziku. Beograd: Učiteljski fakultet, Ozer K. Diskursne osobine oslovljavanja u nemačkom i srpskom jeziku: doprinos metodama proučavanja. Novi Sad: Filozofski fakultet. Odbranjen magistarski rad, Perović, S. Jezik u akciji. Podgorica: CID, Polovina, V. Upotreba jednine i množine ličnih zamjenica u obraćanju sagovornikuu srpskohrvastkom jeziku. Naučni sastanak slavista u Vukove dane 13/1, 1983: Popović, LJ. Epistolarni diskurs ukrajinskog i srpskog jezika, Monografija, knj 89. Beograd: Filološki fakultet Univerziteta u Beogradu, Radovanović M. Sociolingvistika. Izdavačko-grafički zavod, Beograd, Trbojević- Milošević, I. Modalnost, sud iskaz, epistemčka modalnost u engleskom i srpskom jeziku, Filološki fakultet, Beograd, Trudgil, P. The Social Differentiation of English in Norwich. Cambridge: CUP, Vasić, I. Govorno ponašanje predstavnika savremenog srpskohrvatskog jezika u situaciji obraćanja. Prilozi proučavanju jezika 15. Novi Sad, 1979: Žilberg I. i Savić S. Neki asprekti oslovljavanja u govoru dece predškolskog uzrasta. Prilozi proučavanju jezika 18. Novi Sad. 1982: FORMS OF POLITENESS WITHIN THE SPEECH ACT OF REQUESTING REGARDING THE PARAMETERS REGION AND AGE IN THE MONTENEGRIN LANGUAGE The question of politeness in language has been one of the most interesting in linguistic studies since the second half of the twentieth century, and as such has intrigued and motivated us to perform a reserch of the forms of the speech act of polite requests in the Montenegrin language system. Interesting and complex at the same time, primarily due to the intertwining of grammar, psychology, and sociolinguistics, the subject of the paper was a huge challenge and asked for both theoretical discussion and the discussion of the results obtained in practice. This paper presents the results of a research conducted on the speakers of the Montenegrin language with a special emphasis on the parameters region and age, with the objective to show whether the speakers of three Montenegrin regions and all age groups are equally likely to use more tentative language forms of the speech act of requesting. Key Words: politeness, the speech act of requesting, the parameter region, the parameter age.

29 29 ASSESSMENT IN THE EFL READING CLASSROOM Marija Mijušković, University of Montenegro UDK 81'243:371.3 Abstract: Many current researchers believe that assessment in the EFL classroom is crucial for the effective context of teaching learning relations. Available literature suggests that assessment is an essential course of action in all learning, and therefore, also in foreign language acquisition. (Jeftić, 2008:25) For several decades, assessment has aroused the interest of many researchers as it is regarded a very important aspect for EFL learners, documenting their level of language proficiency in the EFL classroom using a specific set of categorised and graded measures. (23) Hence, this paper investigates the assessment of students reading comprehension in Textual Analysis lessons where students wrote journals about how well they comprehended the texts they read in class. On the other side, a teacher assessed their journals according to rubrics. The aim of this research is to study the impact of the use of writing journals on students reading comprehension, their reading comprehension post-test score and the scores according to rubrics by which students journals were assessed. The participants involved in the study are 25 university students of C1 reference level of English as their foreign language. Research data was collected through the implementation of a reading comprehension pre-test. According to the results of the test, the students were divided into an experimental and a control group, where the experimental group was exposed to writing journals about their reading comprehension. The experimental group wrote journals in order to check whether they had better results for their journals (rubric-based results) than the control group, due to their writing of journals in reading lessons for the duration of both semesters of one academic year. In such a manner, research data was collected by means of a quantitative analysis of a corpus of assessment tools including a reading comprehension pre-test, journals written by the students, and journal assessment realised through the utilisation of rubrics based on three criteria, i.e. analysis, interconnections and self-criticism, and a reading comprehension post-test carried out at the end of the study. The results of our research reveal that the experimental group was more successful in writing journals during lessons, that is, they had better rubric-based results. The results of this research could serve as an example for future studies in the field on different methods of assessment in the EFL classroom within reading skills and other skills. Key Words: EFL assessment, writing journals, rubrics, rubric criteria, relevance, analysis, interconnections, research, C1 reference level of EFL. The Importance of Assessment in the EFL Classroom At the beginning of the 21st century, there has been a growing interest in the ways of assessing language proficiency in the EFL/ESL classroom. Many

30 30 Journal of Language and Literary Studies current researchers believe that assessment has a very important place in the EFL classroom and that it needs to be developed and constantly improved, deserving constant research-based framework in order to help teachers and learners develop and improve the aspects they are assessing. In the EFL or ESL classroom there are different aspects that could be assessed, such as language skills (listening, speaking, reading and writing). In such a manner, assessment is regarded as the process of documenting knowledge, skills or different attitudes towards learning where the focus is on the individual learner. Assessment, which consists of a variety of educational measures to evaluate the value of gained knowledge, competence, ability or skill, is an essential course of action in all learning, and therefore, also in foreign language acquisition. This measurement of a learner s level of foreign language competence and performance in a range of different circumstances in both methodical and accurate, has specific aims and is based on a set of fundamental principles of assessment. This continuous process of assessing and documenting a learner s level of language proficiency in the ESL/EFL classroom using specific set of categorized and graded measures has been a challenge for many teachers for decades. (Jeftić, 2008: 23) Assessment could be challenging for both teachers and learners because the results of assessment could help teachers improve their teaching approach, on one hand. It is a valuable tool for planning teaching, preparing the teaching syllabus or, more widely, the education curriculum. When results are in, the teacher can see how well the students did on the material being assessed and check for any discrepancies between expectations and actual performance. This information may indicate how well the students are learning or if they have mastered the material, how well the teacher has put across the material, and also how well the item was written. (Cohen, 1994: 15) In such a manner, learners could gain an insight into their learning strengths and weaknesses where a method of assessment not only provides accurate and productive feedback, it also encourages learners to analyse errors in order to improve language production and to reflect on the effectiveness of their language acquisition strategies. (24)

31 31 Methods of assessment There are two different methods of assessment: formative and summative assessment. The first one is based on the teacher s diagnostic information concerning the level of learner progress giving the learner meaningful feedback. It is used to indicate the learner s continuous progress during language lessons in different activities, especially language skills. On the other hand, summative tests compare all the levels of competence and performance of a learner. Both types of assessment could be applicable to achieving the goals of teaching and learning language skills within the foreign language classroom. Since the focus of this paper is on the investigation of the types of assessment for reading comprehension and their effectiveness on reading comprehension results, we will discuss the two means of assessment used in the study, i.e. writing journals and scoring them through rubrics. In this way, in the further text of this paper we discuss types of assessment of reading comprehension in the foreign language classroom used in our study. In the first place, a journal is regarded as a very successful technique for monitoring, in the case of our study s aims, reading comprehension. In their journals, learners write what they do and the way they do it [ ] They also note down about the results they get by using specific methods in class. Doing it at the moment and time when teacher requires in the classroom, they regard learning as a whole and complete process instead on focusing on one task and the teacher s help only. (Perić, 2011: 45) 11 It is also important to mention that this technique is very useful for both the teacher and the learner. It means that the teacher can monitor and evaluate learners understanding of the text he or she is reading by asking the learner to write a journal about the text he or she is reading in class. To be more precise, after reading a text in class, the teacher gives learners the format of a journal where there are a set of questions helping learners to analyse the text in the expected way and form. In this way, the teacher can evaluate the level of a learner s comprehension, in our case, reading comprehension. The teacher collects the class s journals and goes over them using another means of assessment, called rubrics. Before we define this special and useful type of assessment, it is significant to mention that it is used in both formative and summative assessments because rubrics are supposed to help the students understand the 11 Translated by M.M., the author of this paper.

32 32 Journal of Language and Literary Studies process/procedure of what they are learning. During formative assessment, rubrics are actually a guide, almost like a teacher helping them, and for summative assessment there is more emphasis on self- and peer-assessment (self-monitoring), which is a very important part of autonomy in the classroom. (31) Assessing reading comprehension through rubrics As it is already mentioned, students reading comprehension can be assessed by rubrics in many ways. What it is important with rubrics is the fact that students are given criteria for reading comprehension which makes their process of writing journals easier and effective. Students know in advance what the criteria for assessing journals are, that is, the criteria given in rubrics. In such a way, they can pay careful attention to writing their journals, trying to do it in a better way, at the same time questioning their own reading comprehension. Students who are given those criteria in advance, are believed, by many researchers, to be able to complete complex tasks. In such a way, the students participating in our study were given the formats of journals to write about their reading comprehension of the text they had read in class. Also, they were given example of the rubrics their journals were going to be assessed by. In Table 1 is an example of a journal format. INSTRUCTIONS REFLECTIVE JOURNAL PROMPTS (Here are some prompts to help you with your response) Write a reflection on how you comprehended and analysed the text. - What did you look for first in the text? A picture? A headline? - How long did it take you to read and understand the text? - Was there anything you felt was particularly difficult about the text? - Did you have to look up any unknown words? - Were you able to guess the meanings of some unfamiliar words? - Have you read much in your first language about this topic? TITLE OF THE TEXT:

33 33 Table 1: Example of the journal used in the study As shown in Table 1, the journal consists of a set of questions the aim of which was to help students analyse the text they had read. However, the level of their reading comprehension was marked through rubrics based on three criteria: analysis, interconnections and self-criticism. All these criteria were marked on a scale from one to five. Each level had a set of explanations concerning the mentioned criteria. Table 2 illustrates the way rubrics were set for marking students journals. Assessment Rubric for Student Reflection Levels Criteria Mark Reflective student Analysis: The reflection moves beyond a simple description of the experience to an analysis of how the experience contributed to the student s understanding of self, others, and/or the course concepts. Interconnections: The reflection demonstrates connections between the experience and material from other courses; past experience; and/or personal goals. Self-criticism: The reflection demonstrates the ability of the student to question his/her own biases, stereotypes, preconceptions, and/or assumptions and define new modes of thinking as a result. 5

34 34 Journal of Language and Literary Studies Less reflective student The least reflective student Non-reflective student Analysis: The reflection demonstrates the student s attempts to analyse the experience, but the analysis lacks depth. Interconnections: There is less attempt in demonstrating connections between the learning experience and previous other personal and/or learning experiences. Self-criticism: The reflection demonstrates the ability of the student to question his/her own biases, stereotypes, and preconceptions. Analysis: The student makes attempts at applying the learning experience to understanding self, others, and/or course concepts but fails to demonstrate depth of analysis. Interconnections: There is a very slight attempt to demonstrate connections between the learning experience and previous other personal and/or learning experiences. Self-criticism: There is some attempt at self-criticism, but the self-reflection fails to demonstrate a new awareness of personal biases, etc. Analysis: Reflection does not move beyond a description of the learning experience(s). Interconnection: No attempt to demonstrate connections to previous learning or experience. Self-criticism: No attempt at self-criticism. Table 2: Assessment rubric for student reflection As shown in Table 2, the criteria given in rubrics helped the teacher to assess the students level of reading comprehension. Also, students were aware of these criteria so that they had the opportunity to write better journals about the text they read in class. The author of the study took the model of the journal from the web site while the rubrics are taken from the web site where the author adjusted the questions in the journals due to the aims of the study. Research Questions The research questions for the study could be framed as follows: Do writing journals have a positive effect on better and improved reading comprehension of learners at the university level of studies (C1 reference level of EFL) and their reading comprehension post-test scores within an experimental group of learners? Do students in the experimental groups have higher level scores from rubrics used for assessing students journals? It is hypothesised by the researcher that there will be a statistically significant positive effect on better and

35 35 effective reading comprehension and reading comprehension post-test scores due to writing journals within the experimental group. It is hypothesised by the researcher that the experimental groups have higher level scores according to rubrics in comparison to the control groups. Methods The method employed for this research study was to homogenise the sample participants according to their reading comprehension proficiency in the form of a reading comprehension pre-test. The participants were 25 university students with English as their foreign language in their first year of studies. In fact, according to the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment (CEFR) 12 the participants of our study belonged to the C1 reference level 13. According to the reference level of the sample participants, the author of this study choose an online TOEFL standardised reading comprehension test from the following web site: Practice-Tests/ReadingComprehension-5.aspx. This test is aimed at students of English as a foreign language at the university level of studies and it was in accordance with the level of our sample of participants. Additionally, in order to check the readability of the test and its applicability to the C1 reference level, we used Flesch-Kincaid readability formulae. 14 The author of this study retrieved the 12 The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment, abbreviated to CEFR, is a guideline used to describe achievements of learners of foreign languages across Europe It was put together by the Council of Europe as the main part of the project "Language Learning for European Citizenship" between 1989 and Its main aim is to provide a method of learning, teaching and assessing which applies to all languages in Europe. In November 2001 a European Union Council Resolution recommended using the CEFR to set up systems of validation of language ability. The six reference levels are becoming widely accepted as the European standard for grading an individual's language proficiency. Taken from mon_reference_levels. Retrieved 2 May 2014 at 11:08 AM 13 CEFR divides learners into six levels: A (Basic user): A1 (Beginner), A2 (Elementary); B (Basic user): B1 (Intermediate), B2 (Upper-intermediate); C (Proficient user): C1 (Proficiency or advanced), C2 (Mastery or proficiency). 14 The Flesch/Flesch Kincaid readability tests are readability tests designed to indicate comprehension difficulty when reading a passage of contemporary academic English. There are two tests, the Flesch Reading Ease, and the Flesch Kincaid Grade Level. Although they use the same core measures (word length and sentence length), they have different weighting factors. The results of the two tests correlate approximately inversely: a text with a comparatively high score on the Reading Ease test should have a lower score on the Grade Level test. Taken from Retrieved 2 May 2014 at 11:36 AM

36 36 Journal of Language and Literary Studies formulas from the web site According to the results of the reading comprehension pre-test, the students were divided into an experimental group (12 students) and a control group (13 students) where the experimental group wrote journals in order to check whether the experimental group improved in their reading comprehension thanks to the use of writing journals and their assessment through rubrics. The control group did not receive any additional instruction. The reading comprehension post-testing was done in a quantitative manner in order to investigate progression in reading comprehension between the experimental and control groups, to check whether the experimental groups were more successful due to the fact that they used an additional tool in reading, i.e. writing journals about their reading tasks in class. Students reading comprehension was judged through multiple-choice questions about the text in both groups and through journals that were assessed through grading rubrics in the experimental group only. The success was judged according to the difference in average scores between pre- and post-testing and between the rubric-based scores and posttesting, where we included correlation between the two in order to check the validity and reliability of both instruments. The data was analysed with the program SPSS Results The results of the study demonstrate that the experimental group which wrote journals about their reading comprehension scored higher on their reading comprehension post-test than was the case with the control group. These results also lend validity and reliability to the effectiveness of writing journals on reading comprehension. In such a manner, the results of the correlation between posttest results and rubric-based scores will also be presented here. Figure 1 shows the results of the reading comprehension post-test scores for both the experimental and control group.

37 Reading comprehension posttest results experimental group control group Figure 1: Post-test score average As illustrated in the graph, the average post-test score for students in the experimental group was ( =14.08) while the control group had an average post-test score of = The t-test result on the sample of 25 students was with a statistical coefficient of p=0.002 which means that with a 95% confidence interval we observe a statistically significant difference between the experimental and control group. In this case, the researcher s hypothesis that there will be a statistically significant positive effect on better and more effective reading comprehension and their reading comprehension post-test results as well, due to writing journals within experimental group is justified. Figure 2 shows the journal scoring average based on the rubric criterion of analysis Analysis experimental group control group Figure 2: Criterion of analysis scoring average As illustrated in the graph, the average score for the criterion of analysis in the experimental group was 3.08 ( =14.08) with a standard deviation of s=0.79 while the control group had an average score of =2.46 with a standard