An Analysis of Communication Theory in the Media

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Mervin Hudson
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1 An Analysis of Communication Theory in the Media Though communication is generally seen as a simple practice in our everyday lives, when studied carefully we see that communication is an all-encompassing and widespread phenomenon which has influenced thousands of theorists across centuries to explain the complex nature which constructs communication in our society, as Littlejohn and Foss (2008) stated, communication is one of those everyday activities that is intertwined with all of human life so completely that we sometimes overlook its pervasiveness, importance and complexity (p.2). From the simple acts of picking up a magazine at a supermarket shelf, to the phenomenological explanations which delve into the communicative human mind, communication is so broad that it cannot be essentialized or confined within a single paradigm. (Littlejohn and Foss, p.5). I attempt to explain how and why communication happens through utilizing semiotic, critical, sociopsychological and sociocultural traditions as tools with a particular focus on the effects of the media in society. In modern society, the rapidity of communication transmission to individuals around the world can be accounted for within communication media. The media attributes to the all-encompassing nature of communication since individuals are encapsulated within a media driven society which Gerbner relates as having the ability to create publics, define issues, provide common terms of reference, and thus to allocate attention and power (Littlejohn and Foss, p.285). The media is a powerful force in society as it institutionalizes socially constructed concepts which are also culturally shaped; Media organizations distribute messages that affect and reflect cultures of society, and they provide information simultaneously to large heterogeneous audiences, making media part of society s institutional forces. (Littlejohn and Foss, p.287) However, though the macrocosmic effects of media communication are evident through the shifts in values of a society, a focus on the effects of the media upon individuals is also an issue worth exploring. Hence, there is value in analyzing how and why communication occurs through observing the effects of the media upon society using broader semiotic and critical traditions, as well as the effect of the media upon individuals using sociospsychological and sociocultural traditions. The cultural meanings of visual signs presented by the media shape the ideas and values of a particular society, highlighting the importance of utilizing the semiotic tradition when analyzing how and why communication occurs within the media. The semiotic tradition involves the interpretation of signs, a study which Barthes explored as signs that are seemingly straightforward but that subtly communicate ideological or connotative meaning and perpetuate dominant values of society. (Griffin 2006, p.359). In my second e-journal I attempted to explain the impact of racial and cultural perceptions in society upon ideas of communication; from the development of technology to the introduction of contemporary forms of racism, culture is ever-changing and this affects the way we define communication (Ho 2010). In my example, I referred to the discourse of Islamophobia as a contemporary form of racism. One 1

particular image which I came across in my study of this discourse is a photograph captured by Ridwan Adhami for Illume Magazine, a Muslim-American supporting magazine.

2 particular image which I came across in my study of this discourse is a photograph captured by Ridwan Adhami for Illume Magazine, a Muslim-American supporting magazine. Photo by Ridwan Adhami The image demonstrates Van Leeuwen s inquiry into visual racism using the semiotic tradition; semiotic divisions of labor are historically and contextually specific they convey all of the values and idea which the popular culture associates with that place of origin. The meanings seemingly emanate from the depicted objects themselves rather than from an act of signification. (Van Leeuwen 2008 p.137) Hence when comparing the concepts proposed by Van Leeuwen and Barthes, it is evident that dominant values of racist discourse in society exist within accessible forms of media such as magazines. This act of signification is a complex process of semiotic systems whereby Griffin attempts to explain Barthes idea of the interconnected sign systems of ideological signs through introducing connotation as a second-order semiotic system. This semiotic system distinguishes the second-order relationship between the signifier and signified to produce an ideological sign, a shift from a denotative sign to a connotative sign. This systematic relationship between ideological signs however, enlist support for the status quo by transforming history into nature everything personal, conditional. 2

3 Cultural and temporal disappears. We are left with a sign that makes the world seem inevitable and eternal. (Griffin 2006 p.365) Thus through using the Semiotic Tradition to explore cultural meanings presented by the media, we are able to see how and why communication occurs as it shapes discourses and values through socially constructed signs seen in Baudrillard s work; Media messages are filled with carefully designed symbolic images formulated to influence individuals and society a malleable mass of people in which societywide depersonalized relations replace individuality, community life and ethnic identity. (Littlejohn & Foss, p.288) Racial disparity and social oppression as a result of the reshapen discourses constructed through semiotic methods in the media reflect the key ideas explored in the Critical Tradition. Ideas represented in the media through different forms of communication contribute to the power imbalances and structures which affect the equity within a certain society. In the image above, it is evident how easily ideas and cultural approaches can be distorted through forms of media, particularly advertising, as Griffin states, discrepancies between the liberal values of freedom and equality that leaders proclaimed and the unjust concentrations and abuses of power that made those values a myth (Griffin, p. 30). After reflecting upon the interview and editing process I discovered how and why communication occurs in the media with relation to the Critical Tradition. When conducting the interview our group arranged a pre-interview meeting with the interviewee to build an extended, trusted exchange through human interchange as guided by Rabiger (2004, p.329). Upon discussing our intentions as to how and why we were conducting the interview, our group gave our interviewee our planned questions. Though this did establish some sense of security for our interviewee, it also enabled her to alter her answers so that they would be presented more favourable to the reputation of her company. However, this fault of distortion of reality and truth was not only found with the interviewee, but also with us, the video editors. By cutting out certain scenes and questions we were able to determine what we personally thought would be more interesting or relevant questions. However, in doing so, we constructed our own image of the interviewee and of the video interview itself. Hence, it is evident that through something as simple as editing a five minute video interview, media can distort truth leaving room for distortion of truth. Though a video interview would seem harmless, broader institutionalized forms of media are just as capable of propaganda and bias to promote a product, reflecting the Critical Tradition and its inquiry of communication seen as discursive reflection; Discourse that reflects on assumptions that may be distorted by unexamined habits, ideological beliefs and power relations (Craig & Muller 2007, p. 425) Furthermore, as mentioned in my fourth e-journal, the introduction video montage aimed to reflect theories which defined communication as a transactional process, a process in which people generate meaning through the exchange of verbal and nonverbal messages in specific contexts, influenced by individual and societal forces and embedded in culture. Alberts, Nakayama & Martin (2007, p. 21) Our interviewee pointed out that different magazines reflect different social practices or societal forces. As she said, Famous would cover things like Twilight and pop culture whereas Women s Health is more about living a healthy life and exercising (Tran 2010), therefore communication through marketing strategies in the media reflect the concept of communication as a transactional process since these social practices are negotiated in our society to generate meaning in communication. However, leading back to the ethical issues explored within the Critical Tradition, the negotiation and distortions of certain meanings may often lead to inequity within society, particularly if negative values are promoted, 3

4 Our commodity culture, which the media foster, is one aspect of the simulation in which we live. The simulated environment tells us what we want it forms our tastes, choices, preferences, and needs...most people s values and behavrious, then, are highly constrained by the reality simulated in the media. (Littlejohn and Foss, p.289) Through analyzing communication theories within the media using semiotic and critical traditions, we are able to observe what Marshall McLuhan refers to as living in the global village ; modern communication media make it possible for millions of people throughout the world to be in touch with nearly any place on the globe. (Littlejohn and Foss, p.285) However a micro focus on the effects of media communication upon individuals also needs to be taken into consideration when analyzing theories of communication. In my fifth e-journal I made reference to the effective role of sociopsychological traditions on an audience in relation to marketing strategies. A sociopsychological approach to communication involves the study of psychological explanations toward human thinking, how individuals plan message strategies, how receivers process message information, and the effects of messages on individuals providing insight into the ways human beings process information. (Littlejohn and Foss, p.42). Two theories I noted in my e-journals which I found related to the effect of advertising and marketing schemes used within communication media industries were the Cognitive Dissonance Theory and the Heuristic Systematic Theory. The basic idea of dissonance is explained as a sense within humans which causes the pressure to change and in response, humans attempt to reduce the pressure by avoiding the situation. One example explained by Littlejohn and Foss of a situation in which cognitive dissonance was likely to occur was buyer s remorse. The influence and strategic interests of salespeople impacted on peoples decision making in terms of forced compliance. The role of the sociopsychological tradition is evident in the media through various marketing strategies employed by companies, as Balnaves, Donald & Shoesmith (2009) noted, Sociopsychological approaches to analysing and segmenting audiences influenced advertising for the next 75 years (p. 276). One particular marketing strategy our interviewee, who was involved in the Marketing area for Women s Health and Famous magazine, mentioned were freebies placing a promotional product on the front cover of the magazine to make it more appealing to buy. This idea relates to the Theory of Cognitive Dissonance in that if a consumer had a particular dissonance toward buying the magazine, the Dissonance theory would predict the more pressure to conform, the less the dissonance toward a certain object, therefore the added pressure to buy the magazine by placing a promotional product on the front cover of the magazine would lessen the consumer s dissonance toward buying the product. The Heuristic Systematic Theory also involved sociopsychological aspects through the use of mental shortcuts (Severin & Tankard 2001, p. 175) 4

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=p9jjlz9dn_q For example, the television ad for NAB bank above uses Heuristics to link the idea of children with banking.

with the innocent generosity discourse of children.

5 For example, the television ad for NAB bank above uses Heuristics to link the idea of children with banking. Although institutional banks generally bring negative connotations of unreliability, distrust and coldness, the ad attempts to increase its customer service credibility by associating the company with the innocent generosity discourse of children. This creates a mental shortcut to the audience, to demonstrate this sense of fairness of the company s slogan more give, less take (Ho 2010) However, sociopsychological processes of the human mind are intricately complex processes involving the study of behaviour in social contexts (Craig & Muller 2007, p. 313). Essentially, it explores the psychological predispositions of the human mind. The Sociocultural Tradition explains how and why these psychological processes are constructed, as Berger and Luckmann (1966) observe in their study of society as subjective reality, the individual member of society, who simultaneously externalizes his own being into the social world and internalizes it as an objective reality is not born a member of society. He is born with a predisposition toward sociality, and he becomes a member of society. (Berger & Luckmann, p.119) In their study, Berger and Luckmann theorize the subjective nature of individual identities through the processes of Primary Socialization the influence of roles and attitudes of specific others upon a child s consciousness (p.122) and Secondary Socialization the internalization of institutional or institutionbased subworlds (p.127). Hence we can observe how sociopsychological processes are embedded within the concepts of the Sociocultural Tradition since the individual not only takes on the roles and attitudes of others, but in the same process takes on their world. (p.122) In a world of socially constructed ideas and values sensationalized and enhanced through the power of the media, one can argue that society exists not only by transmission, by communication, but it may fairly be said to exist in transmission, in communication (Dewey 1916,p. 5; cited in Carey 2009, p. 11). Through exploring the interconnectedness of Semiotic, Critical, Sociopsychological and Sociocultural traditions of communication theory, we are able to gain a deeper insight into how and why communication happens in our society. 5

6 References: Adhami, R. 2001, Cover and Feature Photography, Video Advertisement and Magazine Redesign for West Coast Based Illume Magazine s Relaunch, Illume Magazine Alberts, J. Thomas, K. & Martin, J. 2007, Human Communication in Society, Pearson/Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ. Balnaves, M. Donald, S. & Shoesmith, B. 2009, Media Theories and Approaches: A Global Perspective, Palgrave Macmillan, Basingstoke, UK. Berger, P., Luckmann T. 1966, The Social Construction of Reality: A Treatise in the Sociology of Knowledge, Garden City, New York Carey, J. 2009, Communication as Culture, Routledge, New York (Original work published 1989) Craig, R. & Muller, H. (eds) 2007, Theorising Communication: Readings Across Traditions, Sage Publications, Thousand Oaks, CA. Dewey, J. 1916, Democracy and Education, Macmillan, New York. Griffin, E. 2006, A First Look at Communication Theory, McGraw-Hill, New York Foss, A., Littlejohn, S. 2008, Theories of Human Communication, 9 th, Lyn Uhl, California, USA Rabiger, M. 2004, Directing the Documentary, Focal Press, Amsterdam, Boston Severin, J. & Tankard, J. 2001, Communication Theories: Origins, Methods, and Uses in the Mass Media, Addison Wesley Longman, New York. Van Leuween, T. 2008, Discourse and Practice: New Tools for Critical Discourse Analysis, Oxford University Press, Oxford, New York NAB Bank 2010 Ad 2010, online video advertisement, National Australia Bank (NAB), Australia 6

Theory or Theories? Based on: R.T. Craig (1999), Communication Theory as a field, Communication Theory, n. 2, May,

Theory or Theories? Based on: R.T. Craig (1999), Communication Theory as a field, Communication Theory, n. 2, May, 119-161. 1 To begin. n Is it possible to identify a Theory of communication field? n There