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1 Metaphor Networks
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3 Metaphor Networks The Comparative Evolution of Figurative Language Richard Trim Université de Provence
4 Richard Trim 2007 Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of this publication may be made without written permission. No paragraph of this publication may be reproduced, copied or transmitted save with written permission or in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, or under the terms of any licence permitting limited copying issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency, 90 Tottenham Court Road, London W1T 4LP. Any person who does any unauthorised act in relation to this publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages. The author has asserted his right to be identified as the author of this work in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act First published 2007 by PALGRAVE MACMILLAN Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 6XS and 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, N.Y Companies and representatives throughout the world PALGRAVE MACMILLAN is the global academic imprint of the Palgrave Macmillan division of St. Martin s Press, LLC and of Palgrave Macmillan Ltd. Macmillan is a registered trademark in the United States, United Kingdom and other countries. Palgrave is a registered trademark in the European Union and other countries. ISBN ISBN (ebook) DOI / This book is printed on paper suitable for recycling and made from fully managed and sustained forest sources. A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Trim, Richard, Metaphor networks: the comparative evolution of figurative language / Richard Trim. p. cm. 1. Metaphor. 2. Historical linguistics. 3. Language and culture. I. Title. P301.5.M48T dc
5 In memory of Kitty who first awakened my interest in language at the age of ten
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7 Contents List of Figures List of Tables Preface Acknowledgements x xii xiii xv Part I Synchronic Networking 1 The Role of Cognition Historical origins Defining metaphor The history of ideas on approaches to metaphor and cognitive science Prototype metaphor Metaphor scenarios 21 2 Universal Trends Conceptual metaphor and linguistic form The body and universal metaphor The drugs metaphors network The cross-language dimension The universality of personification 47 3 Culture-specific Conceptualisation Universals and culture The American cultural model of marriage Cultural transfer of metaphor Interaction between language and cultural environment Determining universal or cultural sources Colour metaphors 56 4 Conceptual Equivalence and Translation Translation options Traditional views of translatability The BUSINESS CORPORATION FAMILY model 72 vii
8 viii Contents Part II The Diachronic Dimension 5 Cultural Patterns of the Past New perspectives from a diachronic viewpoint Diachronic cultural patterns Cultural history of the BUSINESS CORPORATION FAMILY model 86 6 Metaphor and Semantic Networks Semantic fields and polysemy in meaning change Vagueness and ambiguity Centralised meaning in metaphor networks Random polysemous features Chronological polysemy in diachronic change Regularity in change Unidirectional change Chaining in semantic fields Metaphor Paths in Base Concepts Diachronic conceptual networking The metaphor path of FLATNESS The metaphor path of SMOOTHNESS Binary concepts: TIGHT/LOOSE Complex systems: DRYNESS Germanic Influences in Old English Long-term metaphor Short-term Germanic influences Links to other Germanic languages Collocational interchangeability in Germanic origins Cultural influence and saliency Diachronic saliency Metaphor Death Problems of definition Patterns of metaphor death Regeneration of metaphors Historical Mindsets Similarities between time-specific and culture-specific models Attitudes towards imagery through time 154
9 Contents ix 10.3 Changing attitudes in long-term models: Ancient Greece Religious mindsets 160 Part III Historical Networks 11 The Evolution of Love Metaphors: a Case Study Exploring medieval metaphor The structure of emotions Concepts of love The historical networking of love metaphors Matches between Middle and modern English Medieval courtly love Time-specific saliency in English medieval metaphor Latinate-based Origins in English Medieval Metaphor Literature as a record of metaphor evolution Medieval French sources Medieval Italian sources Chaucer and Boccaccio Petrarch Latinate sources in Antiquity Metaphor links to the classical period Historical Models of Love Metaphors Literary paths in metaphor creation Long-term models of love Long-term models of love with variable cultural connotations Time specificity: models of diachronic saliency Conventionalised love metaphors Metaphor death in love The overall picture 218 References 222 Index 229
10 List of Figures 1.1 The HABITAT classifier in Egyptian hieroglyphics The Akhet hieroglyph: a horizon or solar eclipse symbol Three-dimensional model of metaphor interpretation of cancer Conceptual linking in the mother concept Sub-images linked to a base PU component Linear sub-images linked to a phraseological unit Networking in the love metaphor scenario Major phases in the drugs war scenario Networking in the UP-DOWN model of drug effects The container image viewed from different sections of society Networking in the binary concepts of temperature, health and dirt The cultural colour web Colour overlapping and shifts Translatability and cross-language equivalence in metaphor Comparative networking in shared conceptual metaphors Comparative networking in language-specific conceptual metaphors Predominance in cross-language networking patterns Trier s semantic field theory Diachronic chaining in the semantic field PRIMATES BRUTISHNESS Networking in the semantic field BIRDS FOOLISHNESS The comparative evolution of metaphor paths Diachronic networking in the FLATNESS concept The diachronic network of SMOOTHNESS Metaphor paths in the TIGHT/LOOSE binary concept Secondary clusters in the DRYNESS model Cross-language divergence in the DRYNESS model Replacement by borrowing of the SWELL ANGER conceptualisation in Old English 127 x
11 List of Figures xi 8.2 Changing evolution of cross-language metaphoric collocations Collocational switching resulting in a change of metaphor paths Diachronic network of comparative collocational metaphors in English and German a Diachronic saliency in time-specific metaphors b Fluctuating saliency in long-term metaphors Relationship between literal and metaphorical meanings in dead metaphors Variation in the perception of metaphor death Death of the pedigree metaphor Regeneration in dead metaphors Diachronic phases of live, dying and dead metaphors Chaining of conceptual forms of love Literary paths of English love metaphors with Latinate-based sources The long-term diachronic network of the conceptual metaphor FIRE LOVE Variable connotations of the LOVE PAIN metaphor Fluctuating diachronic saliency in the pain model Conventionalisation in the LOVE UNITY model Metaphor death and conceptual switching 218
12 List of Tables 3.1 The lexical legacy of humoral theory Warfare ontology in business enterprises Chronology of the family scenario The diachronic model ANIMALS/BIRDS STUPIDITY The French model ANIMALS/BIRDS STUPIDITY Present-day collocations of sharp in English and German 134 xii
13 Preface Among the vast number of books which have been published on metaphor in recent years, it seems there is still a lack of studies concerning one major aspect: its historical evolution. Where do a lot of our metaphors originally come from? How do they evolve? How long do they last and where do they end? It is hoped that this book will help to answer some of these questions and fill the gap in our historical knowledge of metaphor evolution by proposing a fundamental process at work: the role of conceptual networking. Based on substantial empirical data, the book suggests that this cognitive process is responsible for the evolution of a large part of our present-day figurative language. Although it is, of course, impossible to re-trace every figurative expression, whether they be metaphoric or metonymic features, proverbs, idioms, puns or other kinds of figurative structure, it can nevertheless be seen that many of our basic conceptual metaphors, together with their various linguistic derivations, do have specific models of evolution. Much of our creation of metaphors depends on their links to related concepts and on what has gone before. In many cases, models cluster into groups and are linked to pre-existing ones. Our conceptualisation of the environment is linked to the images of previous generations and our metaphors can have a long history. Regular patterns develop in specific directions. There are a number of different ways in which they may evolve according to cultural and linguistic parameters. Some of these depend on cultural history or contact with other cultures, the nature of saliency at a given point in time or the complex area of conventionalisation and metaphor death. All these issues play a role in the types of long or shortterm metaphor paths which are created in a given linguistic environment. Despite the complexities and fluctuations in evolutionary paths, it appears that the same networking processes have been at work since time immemorial. The hypothesis is that the same kind of process operates in all cultures and regular patterns develop in specific directions due to underlying base concepts. A model of diachronic conceptual networking would appear to explain these patterns. Part I looks at the general cognitive process of conceptual networking, as well as the implications of universal trends and their culture-specific limitations from a synchronic angle. Part II explores the diachronic dimension with reference to regular trends, saliency, metaphor death and xiii
14 xiv Preface historical attitudes towards metaphor in long or short-term paths. Part III looks more specifically at a case study of a historical network involving love metaphors, which are well documented in European literary works. With the aid of recent studies in the present-day metaphorisation of love, which are used for the purposes of comparison, these networks are traced back through time with corpus analyses of manuscripts from the Middle Ages and Antiquity. These analyses are discussed in conjunction with research into the pathways of literary ideas throughout European history. This study grew out of a long-standing interest in comparative and historical linguistics. It took shape in conjunction with teaching university courses in both translation studies and the history of language, as well as with ongoing research in the field of metaphor. It is hoped that the book will therefore be of use to all those who are engaged in metaphor research and also to those with a general interest in language evolution. I would like to take the opportunity of thanking the (anonymous) reviewer at Palgrave Macmillan for the useful comments and suggestions made on improving the first draft of the manuscript. Any outstanding errors or omissions are entirely my own responsibility. In addition, thanks are also due to Palgrave Commissioning Editor, Jill Lake, for all her assistance in preparing the typescript for publication. I am also grateful to various colleagues and friends from different universities for their useful references, examples, articles and helpful suggestions in the making of this book. They include, in particular (and in alphabetical order): Jean Aitchison, Kathryn Allan, Jonathon Charteris- Black, Caroline Gevaert, Adrian Harding, Jean-Marie Merle, Joanny Moulin, Anita Naciscione and Jacqueline Percebois. Last but not least, a special word of thanks is due to artist, Anisa Caine, for designing and producing the painting specially for the front cover of the book. RICHARD TRIM
15 Acknowledgements Acknowledgements are due to the following publishers and authors for permission to reproduce illustrations and tables of data: to Cambridge University Press for including Figure 9.1 on the relationship between literal and metaphorical meanings in dead metaphors (Searle, 1979); to History of Intellectual Culture and Ulrich Teucher for reproducing Figure 1.3 on a three-dimensional model of metaphor interpretation of cancer (adapted from Teucher, 2003); to Mouton de Gruyter for permission to reproduce data with regard to the lexical legacy of humoral theory in Chapter 3 (Geeraerts and Grondelaers, 1995); Figures 6.2 and 6.3 on diachronic metaphor chaining in primate and bird images (Lehrer, 1985) and data on drugs metaphors in Chapter 2 (Trim, 1997); to Anita Naciscione for her models on phraseological units (Figures 1.5 and 1.6.); and to UCREL Technical Papers and Kathryn Allan for permission to reproduce Table 6.1 on a diachronic model of animal images (Allan, 2003). xv
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