CONTENTS. PREFACE xv ii INTRODUCTION: What Is Social Theory? Peter Kivisto

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1 CONTENTS PREFACE xv ii INTRODUCTION: What Is Social Theory? Peter Kivisto xix PART ONE THE ROOTS: CLASSICAL SOCIAL THEORY 1 I Karl Marx 3 1. Alienated Labor 3 Alienation is Marx's central focus in this early critique of capitalism. 2. The German Ideology (with Friedrich Engels) 11 In this excerpt from The German Ideology, Marx takes issue with idealistic philosophy and with the ahistorical philosophy of Feuerbach. He makes a case for a historical materialist account of human consciousness. 3. Manifesto of the Communis! Party (with Friedrich Engels) 17 Although Marx seeks the overthrow of capitalism, he appreciates its historically progressive character insofar as it is a highly produaive and dynamic economic System. 4. Commodities 25 This selection from Capital presents Marx's understanding of what he means by the term "commodity." 5. The General Formula for Capital 32 Marx discusses "surplus value," one of the central concepts underpinning his assessrnent of capitalism as an inherently exploitative System. Kivisto, Peter Social theory 2011 digitalisiert durch: IDS Basel Bern

2 CONTENTS II Emile Durkheim On Mechanical and Organic Solidarity 38 Durkheim describes how the division of labor in modern society serves to simultaneously promote individual autonomy while making people more dependent upon others. 7. What Isa Social Fact? 43 Durkheim defines his meaning of "social facts" and contends that they constitute the proper subject matter of sociology. 8. Anomic Suicide 49 In this selection, Durkheim discusses anomic suicide, one of the four types of suicide he identifies. He contends that anomie is a characteristic social pathology of modern society. 9. Primitive Classification (with Marcel Mauss) 56 This summary of the argument advanced in Primitive Classification daims that the ways we structure our social world into classificatory Schemas is determined by social relations. 10. The Human Meaning of Religion 60 In offering a definition of religion, Durkheim not only emphasizes its socialry constructed nature but also asserts that religion is a mirror to society. III Max Weber 'Objectivity'in Social Science and Social Policy 68 Weber's view of sociology is one of concern both with causal explanation and with interpretation, the latter being particularly important in inquiring into the cultural signifkance of social phenomena. 12. The Spiritof Capitalism 74 The "spirit of capitalism" refers to the distinctive mentality that Weber determined was intricately linked to the formative period of capitalist development. 13. Bureaucracy 82 The first imponant analyst of bureaucracy, Weber saw it as an essential ingredient for the expansion of capitalism; here he offers an ideal typical porüait of bureaucracy. 14. The Nature ofcharismatic Domination 88 Adapting it from the realm of religion, Weber used the term "charisma" to describe a form of political authority characterized by an intense emotional bond between the leader and followers. 15. Class, Status, Party 95 This selection presents Weber's understanding of three discrete but interconnected realms: economics, politics, and culture.

3 Contents vii IV Georg Simmel Fashion 101 Simmel, the first keen sociological analyst of consumerism, discusses the reasons that fashions come into and go out of style so quickly in modern life. 17. The Problem of Sociology 207 This essay presents Simmel's understanding of the proper object of sociology which he refers to as "sociation" and his opinion about how sociology differs from psychology. 18. Conflict as the Basis of Group Formation 114 The role of social conflict was a central preoccupation of Simmel's; in this selection he seeks to reveal the ways in which conflict serves to bind individuals and groups. 19. The Stranger 119 "The Stranger" is one of Simmel's classic essays on social types. He discusses a type of person the Jew in European society being his key example who is both connected to and marginalized by society. 20. The Philosophy ofmoney 123 Beginning with the claim that "money is the purest tool," Simmel observes that its instrumental, abstract, and impersonal character makes it possible to expand considerably the ränge and types of social interaction. He condudes by examining what he terms "the surplus value of wealth." V Other Foundational Voices Political Non-existence of Women 130 Harriet Martineau Challenging Thomas Jefferson, Martineau expresses her concem about the exdusion of women from the public sphere, arguing that Claims that it would lead to their moral undermining are unfounded. 22. The Conservation of Races 134 W. E. B. Du Bois DuBois contends that there are significant spiritual and psychical differences among die major races and, as a result, various races have contributed in different ways to dvilizational development. 23. The Dependence of Women 139 Charlotte Perkins Güman In this earry feminist critique of patriarchal sodety, Gilman assesses some of the negative implkations of consigning women to the realm of household labor and child rearing.

4 CONTENTS 24. Pecuniary Canons of Taste 143 Thorstein Veblen Veblen's skills as an acerbic social critic are on display in his discussion of the "pecuniary canons of taste," where he Stresses the dass character of taste, focusing in particular on the leisure dass. 25. Utilization of Women in City Government 147 Jane Addams Addams proposes that the emergence of the modern welfare State brings with it opportunities for women to enter the public arena in order to perform Jobs for which they are uniquely qualified due to their nurturing and caring roles in the home. 26. The Theory of Public Opinion 153 Charles Horton Cooley According to Cooley, public opinion is something that transcends the sum total of individual opinions, constituting what he refers to as the "larger mind." Here he turns to the formation and function of public opinion. VI Voices Outside the Discipline TheMadman 159 Friedrich Nietzsche This aphorism from The Gay Science prodaims the death of God and our responsibility for it, contending that we are only beginning to appredate the füll implications of the end of theistic religion. 28. What Pragmatism Means 162 William James James offers a straightforward definition of pragmatism and then suggests how such an orientation shifts the thrust and focus of philosophy. 29. The Eclipseof the Public 168 John Dewey A major theorist of democracy, Dewey argues that democratic practice entails the opportunity to engage in public discourse. Here he expresses his concern that the autonomy of public opinion is eroding. 30. Civilization and Its Discontents 1 72 Sigmund Freud Freud's tragic view of life is sucdnctly presented in this passage, wherein he discusses both the value of dvilization and the steep psychologjcal price we pay for it. 31. The Fusion of the '1' and the 'Me' in Social Activities 1 79 George Herbert Mead According to Mead, the "I" and "me" are two aspects of the seif that must work together to make acting in social life possible.

5 Contents PARTTWO THE BRANCHES: CONTEMPORARY SOCIAL THEORY 185 VII Functionalism and Neofunctionalism The Unanticipated Consequences of Social Action 187 Robert K. Merton From a structural-functionalist perspective, Merton points to the sociological significance of the unanticipated consequences of sodal action and offers an analysis of some factors contributing to such actions. 33. The Subsystems of Society J95 Talcott Parsons Parsons takes up the subject of societal Subsystems, focusing on what he sees as the "core," which he defines as the "societal Community," the primary function of which is to promote sodal Integration through a process of inclusion. 34. Functional Differentiation 201 Niklas Luhmann According to Luhmann, the inability to speak about the unity of the social system means that our capacity to resolve social problems on the basis of shared value commitments is severely limited. 35. After Neofunctionalism 207 Jeffrey Alexander Alexander, as the major spokesperson for neofunctionalism, seeks to offer correctives to the defidencies of functionalism while simultaneously reviving what he sees of value in the tradition. VIII Conflict Theories The Functions of Social Conflict 216 Lewis Coser Revealing his debt to both Simmel and Parsons, Coser offers a functionalist account of conflict wherein he emphasizes its ability to reinforce group solidarity and to serve as a safety valve for the release of tensions. 37. Culture and Politics 220 C. Wright Mills Written during the height of the cold war, this passage from Mills reveals his sense of the destructive dangers of the modern age. 38. Conflict Groups and Group Confiicts 226 Ralf Dahrendorf Dahrendorf offers insights designed to assess the potential negative impact of conflict in any given sodety at any point in time, paying particular attention to the role of various configurations of author in rither containing or unleashing violence.

6 CONTENTS 39. The Basics of Conflict Theory 234 Randall Collins In contrast to Coser, Collins seeks to unlink conflict sodology from functionalism; here he offers an oudine of a conflict theoretical understanding of occupational stratification. IX Symbolic Interaction, Phenomenology, and Ethnomethodology Society as Symbolic Interaction 242 Herbert Blumer Blumer offers an oudine of what he termed "symbolic interactionism," which seeks to contrast how his approach of beginning with the interpretive work of actors in the process of constructing their sodal lives differs from competing theories such as behaviorism and functionalism. 41. Performances 249 Erving Goffman Goffman uses the metaphor of sodal life as theater to oudine a dramaturgical sodal theory. In this excerpt, he is concerned with the ways in which actors both relate to their roles and convey a sense of authentidty to others, focusing on the significance of "fronts" in achieving convindng Performances. 42. Indirect Social Relationships 255 Alfred Schutz In this essay Schutz describes the characteristic features of sodal relationships other than those that are direct or face-to-face. 43. Rules of Conversational Sequence 261 Harvey Sacks In an analysis of telephone conversations, Sacks offers an ethnomethodological account of the rules or "ethnomethods" people employ in the process of achieving ordeify and stable interactional exchanges. 44. Studies of the Routine Grounds of Everyday Activities 268 Hamid Garfinkel Garfinkel, who coined the term "ethnomethodology," provides an oudine of a theoretical approach intended to bring into focus the ways that sodal order is constructed in the most common routines of everyday life. X Exchange Theory and Rational Choice Theory Social Behavior as Exchange 273 George C. Homans One of the key figures assodated with the development of exchange theory, Homans ouüines an exchange paradigm that in its most elementary form seeks to explain sodal behavior in terms of costs and rewards.

7 Contents 46. Power-Dependence Relations 283 Richard M. Emerson In this classic essay in the exchange theory tradition, Emerson seeks to provide a link among the concepts of "power," "authority," "legitimacy," and "structure" by articulating a view of power that emphasizes its relational character. Power is thus conceived in terms of "ties of mutual dependence." 47. Human Capital and Social Capital 295 James S. Coleman Coleman was a major spokesperson for rational choice theory, an approach wherein actors and resources constitute two central elementary concepts. Here he discusses two important types of resources: human capital and sodal capital. 48. Persons 303 Harrison C. White In this passage from Identity and Control, White daims that in structural theory identities and positions exist prior to persons, who emerge only through network contexts. 49. Formulation of Exchange Theory 310 Peter Blau Blau presents an exchange theoretical account that, in contrast to the earlier version of Homans, attempts to focus on social structure and appreciates the differences between the micro-ievel and the macro-level. XI Feminist Theory Doing Gender 318 Candace West and Don H. Zimmerman Distinguishing between sex and gender, West and Zimmerman borrow insights from both Goffman and Garfinkel to make the daim that gender is the product of sodal interaction. 51. Subversive Bodily Acts 326 Judith Butler Buder's anti-essentialist feminist theory seeks to question the generally takenfor-granted nature of gender categories and calls for a view that appreciates their inherent fluidity and variability. 52. Toward an Afrocentric Feminist Epistemology 334 Patricia Hill Collins Collins endeavors to link an Afrocentric perspective to feminist theory, contending that a black feminist epistemology begjns with an appredation of the concrete experiences of daily life. 53. Sociology from Women's Experience: A Reaffirmation 344 Dorothy E. Smith Smith makes a case for a theoretical perspective that begjns with women's concrete experiences here she discusses her understanding of the notion of "standpoint*

8 CONTENTS 54. Femininity and Masculinity 355 Raewyn Connell In developing the concept of "hegemonic masculinity," Connell Stresses the structured character of gendered power relations, noting that the Situation is always further complicated by the fact that there are multiple types of both masculinity and femininity. XII Theories ofrace, Ethnicity, and Nationalism The Theoretical Status of the Concept ofrace 364 Michael Omi and Howard Winant In critiquing positions that either treat race as mere ideology or that essentialize race, Omi and Winant lay out the contours of a critical theory of race that views it as an unstable, historically contingent, and highly variable construct that come to constitute "racial projects." 56. Between Camps: Race and Culture in Postmodernity 374 Paul Gilroy Gilroy contends that nationalism and radal formations operate in terms of "camps," a word he chooses to "emphasize their hierarchal and regimented qualities," offering as an antidote a cosmopolitan humanism based on interculturalism. 57. Theorizing the "Modes of Incorporation" 385 Jeffrey C. Alexander Depicting multiculturalism as a new mode of incorporation, Alexander outlines its distinctiveness by comparing it to the two alternatives that have much longer histories, which he identifies as assimilation and hyphenation. 58. Ethnicity without Groups 398 Rogers Brubaker In this provocative essay, Brubaker takes aim at the essentializing and homogenizing tendency that treats ethnidty as a thing, countering with what he sees as a corrective that Stresses ethnidty's "relational, processual, and dynamk" character. 59. Nationalism and the Cultures of Democracy 4 11 Craig Calhoun Calhoun is critical of postnationalists who argue that nationalism either is being or should be overcome, contending that such a position fails to appredate the role nationalism plays in fadlitating sodal integration and solidarity, which are prerequisites for democratic practice. XIII Critical Theory Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction 421 Walter Benjamin In a passage from one of Benjamins most widely read essays, the author seeks to explain the impact on art of the shift from traditional to modern sodeties, stressing that in the latter art loses its "aura" and its link to ritual.

9 Contents xiii 61. One-Dimensional Man 426 Herbert Marcuse In a work that influenced the New Left during the 1960s, Marcuse argues that freedom is eroding in the advanced industrial nations as a consequence of the fact that technology and bureaucracy have produced an overly administered society. 62. Traditional and Critical Theory 432 Max Horkheimer According to Horkheimer, critical theory is different from traditional theory, insofar as it is reflexive and concemed with comprehending the world in historical rather than naturalistic terms. 63. Personal Identity and Disrespect 437 Axel Honneth Honneth contends that recognition is connected to both power and respect, and as such the intersubjective character of recognition/misrecognition underpins the way that people understand the justness or unjustness of particular social arrangements. 64. Three Normative Models of Democracy 442 Jürgen Habermas Identifying central problems in the two historically rooted modeis of democracy liberalism and republicanism Habermas offers an alternative, which he refers to as deliberative politics. XIV Contemporary Theories ofmodernity Shame and Repugnance 451 Norbert Elias According to Elias, the dvilizing process has profoundly transformed people psychologically and behaviorally; in this selection he suggests how the ideas of shame and repugnance have been an integral part of this process. 66. Spectacular Time 457 Guy Debord In developing his idea that the contemporary stage of capitalist development can be defined as a "sodety of the spectacle," in this selection Debord defines spectacular time in terms of being both consumable and pseudocydical. 67. The Reflexivity ofmodernity 461 Anthony Giddens Giddens has disagreed with postmodernists that we have entered a new stage of development beyond the modern. On the contrary, he thinks we have entered "late modemity." In this selection from a work devoted to exploring the "consequences of modemity," Giddens distinguishes traditional and modern sodeties insofar as reflexivity assumes a new and more significant role in the latter.

10 Xiv CONTENTS 68. Risk Society: Towards a New Modemity 465 Ulrich Beck (Translated by Mark Ritter) German sociologist Beck has undertaken the ambitious effort of theoretically linking risk to discussions of new stages in the development of modemity. In this essay he discusses the relevance of risk to ecological issues, seeking to frame them within the perspective of globalization. 69. Redistribution 472 Bruno Latour Latour calls for a reconsideration of the relationship between humans and nature and the question of God, and in so doing challenges not only the daims of modemity, but also postmodernity, before suggesting a "nonmodem Constitution." XV Structuralism, Poststructuralism, and Postmodernity The Correspondence between Goods Production and Taste Production 483 Pierre Bourdieu Bourdieu contends that taste is a decidedly sodal rather than individual faculty, one that is in particular shaped by specific dass locations. He goes further by revealing that as taste shapes distinctive group lifestyles, it does so in Opposition to the tastes of others. 71. Advertising 491 Jean Baudrillard As a radical proponent of postmodernism, Baudrillard offers a vision of a world saturated by the media and entertainment industries. The result, he contends, is a dissolving of the differences between the real and images, signs, and simulations. 72. Panopticism 497 Michel Foucault In this passage from Discipline and Punüh, Foucault discusses the Panopticon as a prime example of the uniting of knowledge and power into a new System of surveillance and control. 73. On Living in a Liquid Modern World 503 Zygmunt Bauman Using the term "liquid" to describe contemporary sodal life, Bauman views the present as characterized by rapid change that prevents the establishment of pattems of thought and action, thus preventing people from relying on solid frames of reference. 74. Modern and Postmodern 511 Mike Featherstone Featherstone presents a thoughtful and nuanced analysis of two highry contested terms in contemporary sodal theory: modemism and postmodernism.

11 Contents XVI World Systems and Globalization Theory The Three Instances of Hegernony in the History of the Capitalist World-Economy 521 Immanuel Wallerstein Wallerstein's world-systems theory approaches capitalism as a global System from a perspective that emphasizes the longue duree and the Operation of long-term cycles of development. In this essay, he discusses the concept of "hegemony" in terms of the link between the system's core exploiting nations and the nations on the periphery and semi-periphery. 76. Mapping the Global Condition 528 Roland Robertson Robertson thinks that a theory of globalization must go beyond rather than being subsumed under either world-systems or modernization theory. He seeks to sketch out the contours of contemporary globalization, which is depicted as the emergence of a compressed and united, but not integrated, System. He traces its historical emergence in terms of five historical periods beginning in the fifteenth Century. 77. Disjunction and Difference in the Global Cultural Economy 538 Arjun Appadurai Appadurai's chief concern is with the cultural aspects of globalization, which is shaped profoundly by contemporary transportation networks and communication technologies. In this selection he develops a framework for understanding global cultural flows in terms of five distinct but interrelated dimensions: ethoscapes, mediascapes, technoscapes, financescapes and ideoscapes. 78. Theorizing Globalization 550 Douglas Kellner Globalization is both multidimensional encompassing economic, technological, political, and cultural realms and contested. It is shaped by powerful forces at the top, while it is also being challenged by various mobilizations from below. Kellner seeks to articulate a theory of globalization indebted to critical theory that accounts for this complexity and recognizes that its impacts will be variable and changeable. XVII Further New Directions in Contemporary Social Theory The Subject and Societal Movements 571 Alain Touraine Building on his idea of action sociology, Touraine develops his understanding of the subject conceived in collective terms. This idea of collective actors shapes his understanding of what he refers to as the "distinctiveness of sodal movements." The linking of the subject and sodal movements, in tum, serves as the basis for discussing the democratic prospect today.

12 CONTENTS 80. Interaction Ritual Theory 581 Randall Collins In an original and suggestive synthesis of Durkheim and Goffman, Collins develops the basis for a general sodological theory based on the premise that the starting point for sodological analysis is the Situation and not the individual. His objective in developing the idea of interaction ritual chains is intended to take theory beyond the dichotomies of agency/structure and microlevel/macrolevel. 81. Materials for an Exploratory Theory of the Network Society 588 Manuel Castelb Castells sketches an oudine of a theory of network sodety, arguing that it constitutes the fundamental sodal structure of the information age, shaping and transforming production, consumption, power relations, individual experience and interpersonal relationships, and culture. 82. Mobile Sociology 599 John Urry Responding to the daim made by Margaret Thatcher that "there is no such thing as sodety," Urry points to the fact that sodologists too offen view the notion of sodety as unproblematic. Critidzing that perspective, he argues that sodology today must pay greater attention to the complex mobilities that are characteristic of contemporary sodal life, which is increasingly shaped by the varied processes of globalization