SECTION EIGHT THROUGH TWELVE

Transcription

1 SECTION EIGHT THROUGH TWELVE Rhetorical devices -You should have four to five sections on the most important rhetorical devices, with examples of each (three to four quotations for each device and a clear analysis of each device and how it relates to the author s purpose). This is the key element of analysis. The essence of analysis is telling the reader how a device is used and why an author chose that device. How: To answer how, you need to understand how a device in general works. The glossary includes an explanation of how each device works. Some generic how questions to get you thinking: How does this device work in general? How does it work here? What effect does it have on the audience? How does it develop the thesis and purpose? Possible devices Tone Does the tone shift through the book? Tone Is the language casual or formal? Does the author use academic or colloquial everyday language? Why? Does the author use facts and figures to make his/her point? What effect does that have? Does he/she use anecdote in the piece? Where? Why did he/she use it there? What about quotes or dialogue? Is there personal narrative? How does this writer convince you to listen to him what strategies does he use to build credibility? How do these elements fit the author s main purpose? Do they help the audience more clearly understand what the author is trying to convey? How? Find and refer to specific elements of figurative language. Does the tone shift through the book. Diction Diction Low or informal (e.g., dialect, slang, or jargon) Elevated or formal language Abstract and concrete diction Denotation and connotation What effect is the author trying to achieve through the use of a specific type of diction? What does the author s use of diction suggest about his or hear attitude toward the subject, event, or character? What are the connotations of a given word used in a particular context? From Jim Burke s Style Analysis handout. Types. Slang. Colloquial. Jargon. Dialect. Concrete. Abstract. Denotation. Connotation. Which of the following categories best describes the diction in the passage or text? o Low or informal (e.g., dialect, slang, or jargon) o Elevated or formal language o Abstract and concrete diction o Denotation and connotation. What effect is the author trying to achieve through the use of a specific type of diction?. What does the author s use of diction suggest about his or hear attitude toward the subject, event, or character?

2 . What are the connotations of a given word used in a particular context? (To begin, you might ask if the word(s) have a positive or negative connotation, then consider them in the specific context.). What words would best describe the diction in a specific passage or the text in general? event? Syntax. Sentence structure. Sentence patterns. Declarative. Imperative. Interrogative. Exclamatory. Simple. Compound. Complex. Comp-Complex. Loose/Cumulative. Periodic. Balanced. Inversion. Interruption. Juxtaposition. Parallelism. Repetition. Punctuation: How does the author punctuate the sentence and to what extent does the punctuation affect the meaning?. Structure: How are words and phrases arranged within the sentence? What is the author trying to accomplish through this arrangement?. How would you characterize the author s syntax in this text?. Changes: Are there places where the syntax clearly changes? If so, where, how, and why?. Sentence length: How many words are in the different sentences? Do you notice any pattern (e.g., a cluster of short sentences of a particular type)?. Devices: How would you describe the author s use of the following: o Independent and dependent clauses o Coordinating, subordinating, or correlative conjunctions o Repetition o Parallelism o Fragments o Comparisons. Sentence beginnings: How does the author begin his or her sentences? (Does the author, for example, consistently begin with introductory phrases or clauses?. Language: What use does the author make of figurative language or colloquial expression and why? What is the importance and meaning of this change?. What words best describe the different use of these elements? For example, how would you describe the point of view and the effect it has on the meaning of the text Imagery

3 Anything that can be related to with one of the five senses. If you can smell it, touch it, taste it, see it, or hear it, it s an image. Image connects a reader to an idea because it is a physical thing. It can be used to create emotion in a reader as well. What sensory information do I find in the language: color, scents, sounds, tastes, or textures? What is the author trying to convey or achieve by using this imagery? Are these images part of a larger pattern or structure within the text (e.g., does it connect to one of the major themes)? What figures of speech metaphors, similes, analogies, personification does the writer use? How do they affect the meaning of the text? What is the author trying to accomplish by using them? Irony There are three common types of irony in literature: A. Verbal irony occurs when people say the opposite of what they mean. This is perhaps the most common type of irony. The reader knows that a statement is ironic because of familiarity with the situation or a description of voice, facial, or bodily expressions which show the discrepancy. There are two kinds of verbal irony : o Understatement occurs when one minimizes the nature of something. o Overstatement occurs when one exaggerates the nature of something. Irony is often more emphatic that a point-blank statement of the truth. The opposite is shown as a point of comparison. Verbal irony in its most bitter and destructive form becomes sarcasm. Someone is condemned by a speaker pretending to praise him or her. B. In situational irony, the situation is different from what common sense indicates it is, will be, or ought to be. Situational irony is often used to expose hypocrisy and injustice. C. Dramatic irony occurs when a character states something that they believe to be true but that the reader knows is not true. The key to dramatic irony is the reader's foreknowledge of coming events. Second readings of stories often increases dramatic irony because of knowledge that was not present in the first reading. Questions about irony I. There are two general areas of questioning: A. What are the most obvious ironies in the work? B. What are their implications? II. Verbal Irony:

4 If characters constantly use verbal irony, why? What do we learn about their attitudes toward the world? Does their verbal irony usually take the form of sarcasm? Are they, then, bitter, disappointed people or simply realistic? Does their disappointment stem from selfishness or altruistic idealism? II. Situational Irony: Do the situational ironies result from fate or human actions? Are the characters aware of the situational ironies? At what point do they become aware of them? What is the author trying to illustrate by pointing out the irony? Should the characters be blamed for creating the situational ironies or not understanding them? Are the readers supposed to do something about the ironic situations - to reform society and ourselves? III. Dramatic Irony: What do the readers know about coming events or past events that the characters do not know? When and what do they say that creates the disparity? What does the author want us to think of them when they say these things? Are the readers supposed to sympathize with them, or blame them for not being farsighted? Are the ironies funny, painful, or serious? EXTENDED METAPHOR: (Rhetorical Device): A metaphor that is extended and used throughout an essay. You return to it multiple times and use it to develop your thesis. This can work like analogy to teach, or it can create humor, sarcasm, or tone. FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE: These devices deviate from the standard meaning of words in order to create a special effect. Metaphor, simile, and personification are the most common forms. See metaphor, simile, personification. (Rhetorical Device): A metaphor that is extended and used throughout an

5 essay. You return to it multiple times and use it to develop your thesis. This can work like analogy to teach, or it can create humor, sarcasm, or tone. FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE: These devices deviate from the standard meaning of words in order to create a special effect. Metaphor, simile, and personification are the most common forms. See metaphor, simile, personification. POINT OF VIEW & VIEWPOINT: In narratives, you choose 1st (I, we), 2nd (you) or 3rd (he, she, it, they) for your point of view. You also choose a viewpoint character. Who is telling this narrative? Point of View can be used to sympathize with one side, to create distance, or to create closeness. GLOSSARY OF RHETORICAL DEVICES ACTION & DIALOGUE: (Rhetorical Devices): Action shows us something as it s happening. Dialogue is a conversation between two people in your narrative. These are used to create scenes in a narrative; they take a reader into a specific moment. ALLUSION: (Rhetorical Device): A reference to a person, event, or place in history, religious texts, or literature. For example: The Garden of Eden is an allusion to the place in Genesis and often symbolizes perfection. It is used to connect ideas to literary or historical ideas, often to emphasize the validity of the idea.

6 ANALOGY (Rhetorical Device): Uses comparison to develop an idea. Unlike metaphor and simile, it looks for like things to compare. It is used to illustrate or develop simile, it looks for like things to compare. It is used to illustrate or develop something hard to describe. ANAPHORA: (Rhetorical Device): The repetition of the first few words in a series of sentences. Martin Luther King Jr. s speech I Have a Dream is an example of this. It creates emphasis and rhythm for a piece of writing. ANEDCOTE: (Rhetorical Device): A very short story (usually a paragraph) used to illustrate a point. Usually contains action & dialogue and is longer than an example. Often used in expository essays to develop an idea. Used in persuasive essays as one method of developing pathos. It can also be used as a hook to draw a reader into a story. CLICHÉ: A dead metaphor. For example: Love is like a rose. It can be used ironically, but is typically avoided by good writers. CONNOTATION: The implied or contextual meaning of a word. (See denotation.) DEDUCTIVE REASONING: In persuasion, this is a logical reasoning process that starts with general claims and then moves to specific instances to prove those claims. For example: Drag

7 racing is harmful; last week a police officer was killed by drag racers. (See inductive reasoning.) This is used to argue logically. DENOTATION: The dictionary definition of a word. (See connotation.) DICTION: (Rhetorical Device): Word choice. Choice of words is one way in which to establish ethos in persuasion. Diction develops tone and style. DIRECT QUOTATION: (Rhetorical Device): In Research: Directly copying someone else s words and then citing it. (See paraphrase.) If the person quoted is an expert this can be used to validate a point or idea. It is often used in persuasion. ESTABLISH COMMON GROUND: (Rhetorical Device created through other devices): In persuasion, this is used to establish commonality with the opposing side. This is not a stand alone device because it s created through the use of other devices. You might offer facts or statements that help create this. This is important in helping convince your opponent to listen to your side. ETHOS: This is one corner of the rhetorical triangle. In persuasion, this is the ethical appeal. It is created through devices (such as quotes from experts, personal credentials, establishment of common ground, avoidance of logical fallacies) to create this ethical appeal. A writer aims to make a reader trust him/her by creating ethos.(see logos and pathos.)

8 EXAMPLE: (Rhetorical Device): An example proves or develops your thesis. In expository essays it helps us understand a concept. In persuasion, it s used as evidence to prove a point. Example is typically shorter than an anecdote one or to sentences as opposed to a paragraph (it also doesn t contain any scene material such as action or dialogue). This can create interest or emotion in a reader. EXTENDED METAPHOR: (Rhetorical Device): A metaphor that is extended and used throughout an essay. You return to it multiple times and use it to develop your thesis. This can work like analogy to teach, or it can create humor, sarcasm, or tone. FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE: These devices deviate from the standard meaning of words in order to create a special effect. Metaphor, simile, and personification are the most common forms. See metaphor, simile, personification. HOOK: (Rhetorical Device created through other devices): This device is created through the use of other devices such as anecdotes, quotes, startling fact, shocking statement, etc. Used to draw a reader into your essay. IMAGE: (Rhetorical Device): Anything that can be related to with one of the five senses. If you can smell it, touch it, taste it, see it, or hear it, it s an image. Image connects a reader to an idea because it is a physical thing. It can be used to

9 create emotion in a reader as well. INDUCTIVE REASONING: In persuasion, this is a logical reasoning process that uses specific facts to arrive at general principals. For example: If drag racing drivers end up in accidents, then drag racing is harmful. (See deductive reasoning.) This is used to argue logically. KEY EVENTS: In a narrative, these are the events you use to create scenes. These events directly develop the thesis. directly develop the thesis. LOGICAL FALLCIES: Problems in logical argument. Include: hasty generalizations, non sequiturs, false analogies, either or fallacies, bandwagon appeals, etc. An author may use these to try and unfairly convince a reader of something. LOGOS: This is one corner of the rhetorical triangle. In persuasion, this is the logicall appeal. It is created through devices (such as facts, statistics, quotes from experts, refutation, and deductive and inductive reasoning) to create this logical appeal. (See pathos and ethos.) This creates a logical argument. METAPHOR: (Rhetorical Device): The comparison of two or more unlike things. This is a direct comparison and creates a transformation. For example: She is an aspen, slim in the wind. The tenor is she or the woman being described, and the vehicle is the aspen the image used to describe the tenor. Metaphor aims

10 to change our understanding of something by comparing it to something unexpected. You can transform an idea or thing with a comparison. For example, if I said he is black ice then I am suggesting he is dangerous and you may not see him coming. Metaphor is stronger than simile. PATHOS: This is one corner of the rhetorical triangle. In persuasion, this is the emotional appeal. It is created through devices (such as anecdote and image) to create this emotional appeal. (See logos and ethos.) This creates an emotional argument. PERSONIFICATION: (Rhetorical Device): The act of giving human attributes to inanimate objects. For example: The rock wept for weeks following the storm. This is used to help a reader identify with an inanimate object. POINT OF VIEW & VIEWPOINT: In narratives, you choose 1st (I, we), 2nd (you) or 3rd (he, she, it, they) for your point of view. You also choose a viewpoint character. Who is telling this narrative? Point of View can be used to sympathize with one side, to create distance, or to create closeness. PRIMARY SOURCE: In Research: This is taking information from someone directly involved. For example, interviewing someone at the scene of an accident who saw it happen, or who was in the accident. (See secondary source.) This can be used to

11 develop an idea or argument. REFUTING THE OPPONENT: (Rhetorical Device created through other devices): In Persuasion: This directly addresses arguments for the other side, and then refutes, or proves them wrong, inadequate, etc. This is created through the use of facts, quotes from experts, examples, etc. This is used to logically argue. REPETITION: (Rhetorical Device): The repeated use of a word. Used for emphasis or rhythm. RHETORICAL MODE: A method of organization for an essay: Narration, Description, Cause and Effect, Example and Illustration, Process Analysis, Definition, Comparison and Contrast, Classification and Division, Persuasion. An author chooses his/her mode to develop his/her purpose. SARCASM: (Rhetorical Device): Sarcasm ridicules a person or idea. It is used to make a strong point. SCENE: (Rhetorical device created with action and dialogue): Scenes show what happened rather than summarize what happened. They use dialogue and/or action. A scene takes a reader into the situation so he/she can see or understand it better. Can be used in persuasion as an emotional device. SIMILE: (Rhetorical Device): A comparison of two or more unlike things using a comparative word such as like or as. For example: She is as slim as an

12 aspen tree. Simile aims to change our understanding of something by comparing it to something unexpected. You can create new qualities for an idea or thing with a comparison. For example, if I said he is slick as black ice then I am suggesting he is dangerous and you may not see him coming. I have created new qualities for him. SYMBOL: (Rhetorical Device): An image that represents a large or abstract idea. For example, the World Trade Center Towers symbolize America s vulnerability. Symbol is used to develop and represent an idea using an image. SYNECHDOCHE: (Rhetorical Device): A part that represents the whole. For example, he is all mouth for he is a person who talks all the time. This can be used for humor or sarcasm. TONE: The writer s position toward the subject matter. For example, if I were arguing against oil drilling, my tone would reflect my position on the matter. Tone is typically created through diction, but image or figurative language can create tone too. Tone helps us understand the writer s stance on an issue. VERBAL IRONY: A statement which express the opposite meaning from what is literally stated. For example: This is a nice day! spoken during a hail storm. This is used to create sarcasm or humor.