Reference: Chapter 6 of Thomas Caldwell s Film Analysis Handbook.

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1 The Hong Kong Institute of Education Department of English ENG 5219 Introduction to Film Studies (PDES 09-10) Week 2 Narrative structure Reference: Chapter 6 of Thomas Caldwell s Film Analysis Handbook. The narrative structure of a film is the framework, template or formula that the filmmakers use to unfold the narrative. If a film had no narrative structure then its events would occur randomly, there would be no character development and the film would have no meaning (really?). The most common narrative structure is generally identified as the classical Hollywood narrative structure, although in essence this is the narrative structure of all films and every other narrative-based art form. Some arthouse films deviate from the characteristics of classical Hollywood narrative structure, but essentially they are still grounded in the same basic principles. The cause-effect relationship Characters are the most common elements involved in cause-effect relationships. One character has a goal; they have no act in a certain way to achieve their goal and their actions affect the other characters. (protagonists and antagonists) Other elements that may be involved in a cause-effect relationship include historical forces, political situations, economics, nature or supernatural occurrences. For example, an eruption volcano could be a causal element, the effects of which include the actions of the characters trying to escape. The cause-effect relationship is what makes the audiences engaged and interested in a narrative. At each moment, audiences contemplate what happened previously to cause the present situation, and then wonder about what effect that moment will have on later events. Characters In a classical Hollywood film the narrative is centered on the actions of the characters. 1

2 Usually there is one character that drives the narrative (really?). This character is known as the protagonist. Characters are complex elements of a film. They are made up of various desires, emotions, psychological profiles, attitudes, beliefs and experiences. The protagonist acts in a certain way; they way characters are then influenced by those actions and react to them accordingly. In a classical Hollywood film the characters are active their actions directly generate the chain of narrative events. Motivation The actions of protagonist, which drive the classical Hollywood narrative, are generated by the protagonist s motivation. The protagonist acts according to what they desire or need. In particular, the protagonist may be motivated to travel to another place, or perhaps to find a precious or significant object or achieve something in a specific time. They can also be motivated by the pursuit of love, happiness, wealth, knowledge, power, fame, revenge, experience or simply the preservation of their own loves. Traditionally, the motivation of the characters in a classical Hollywood narrative is obvious and well explained. Conflict Dramatic tension in the classical Hollywood narrative is generated by the presence of an obstacle that prevents the protagonist from attaining their goal. Conflict ensues as the protagonist struggles to overcome such an obstacle. Conflict may be created if more than one character is motivated by a goal that can only be achieved or obtained by one character. Possessing the ring in Peter Jackson s Lords of the Ring films is an example of such a goal. Change The classical Hollywood narrative is developed through the protagonist changing an aspect of their lives or the world around them in order to overcome conflict and remove obstacles. The protagonist may change their location if their goal is a physical place and the obstacle facing them is the audience to this goal. S/he may change how character B feels about them if his/her goal is to win the love of B. The protagonist 2

3 may change the way they view the world if their goal is to be successful and the conflict they must overcome is the fact that they are filled with doubt and insecurities. Resolution Classical Hollywood narratives usually do not contain any loose ends, so that by the time the film finishes the audience will know (1) whether or not the protagonist achieves the goal that motivated them; (2) if the protagonist overcomes the obstacles facing them and what the outcome of any conflict is, and (3) how the change initiated by the protagonist impacts on the other characters and non-character elements in the film. Subverting the cause-effect relationship Sometimes filmmakers break the cause-effect relationship in order to surprise, shock, challenge or deliberately confuse the audience through the following ways: 1. A filmmaker may present a situation where something is changed (the cause) but not show the effect of that change. 2. Alternatively, they might reveal that something has happened (effect) without showing or explaining what caused the event (e.g. Gus Van Sant s Elephant). 3. In the case of pure surrealist cinema, there may be absolute no cause-effect relationship whatsoever. Such a film would be comprised of random, unrelated images and events. One of the characteristics of arthouse cinema is that the cause-effect relationship is often partially absent or obscure in order to make character motivation ambiguous, leave questions unanswered and make the overall narrative more challenging for the viewer. Cause and effect reversed Some narratives reverse the order in which cause and effect are shown. This essentially creates a mystery for the viewer, so this technique generates the narrative structure for any mystery film. In a detective film the effect (the murder) occurs at the start of the film, prompting a detective to attempt to discover its cause (that is, the identity of the murderer and the nature of the events leading up to the murder). The cause-effect relationship has to be reversed otherwise there would be no mystery (e.g. Christopher Nolan s Memento). 3

4 Open-ended conclusions Some films end without showing all the effects of the causes or the outcomes of the changes. This is known as an open-ended question because the film does not create the sense of closure that occurs when everything is explained and accounted for. Although uncommon in classical Hollywood films, open-ended conclusions can be a powerful way of encouraging debate, allowing the opportunity for a sequel to be made, suggesting that convenient happy endings are impossible, prompting the audience to think for themselves about what might occur, or implying that the story of the film continues after the plot of the film has finished (e.g. Ridley Scott s Thelma and Louise). Twists A dramatic moment in the narrative that occurs without the audience expecting it is referred to as a twist. A successful twist will be something that the audience does not anticipate but nevertheless finds to be a convincing narrative development. Some twists demand that the audience rethinks the entire film. The revelation at the end of M. Night Shyamalan s The Sixth Sense that the lead character, Malcolm Crowe, is dead, is one such twist, since it forces the audience to reflect on all the film s events and reconcile them with this fact. The audience may even choose to rewatch the film to look for the subtle clues that anticipate this twist, such as the fact that throughout the film Malcolm only communicates with the boy Cole Sear who can see dead people. Character point of view The way that characters experience the events of a film strongly influence how the narrative presents these events to the audience. A key aspect of the film s narration is the degree to which it shows events from the point of view of specific characters, or leaves some characters points of views unknowable. For the majority of most films the audience only has an objective view of the characters, whereby the audience sees the characters external actions and behavior but does not share their perceptions of the events and world surrounding them. An objective view means that audience is somewhat detached from the characters, only observing the character s outward reaction to events rather than being given insight into their inner feelings. If a character is said then an objective view would demonstrate their sadness by simply showing them crying of discussing their grief. 4

5 Objective views are conventional in classical Hollywood films as they allow the audience to experience the film as an external spectator. This means that the audience is not required to enter the inner world of a character s thoughts and feelings, which would break down the illusion of realism. If the audience experiences an event in a film from the sensory point of view of a character, then the audience has a perceptually subjective view of that event. The audience sees and hears only what the character would at that moment. Point-of-view shots are commonly used to convey perceptual subjectivity because the camera is filming as if it is the eyes of the character. In point-of-view shots the audience only sees what the particular character would see. However, perceptual subjectivity can also be achieved by only allowing the audience to hear what a character hears. Some films show not only when and what a character sees and hears, but also how they experience the world around them. A mentally subjective view allows the audience to completely experience the world from the point of view of a character. Dream sequences, characters imagining events that have not happened, or characters incorrectly remembering the past, are examples of mental subjectivity. More extreme examples of mental subjectivity include scenes of actual events in the world of the film that are experienced by a character who sees the world in a unique way. (e.g. Sam Mendes s American Beauty) 5