Qualitative strategies of inquiry in five music education journals: recent use and future directions

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1 Qualitative strategies of inquiry in five music education journals: recent use and future directions D Joubert Thesis submitted for the degree Doctor Philosophiae in Music at the Potchefstroom Campus of the North-West University Promoter : Prof L van der Merwe Co-promoter : Dr A Odendaal Assistant promoter : Dr C van Rhyn May 2017

2 PREFACE I would like to acknowledge the following people for their support throughout this study: My parents, Piet and Esther van Nieuwenhuizen, for always believing in me; My daughter, Hanri, for her love and inspiration; Eddy for his encouragement and motivation; Sonja for her initiative behind this thesis; Prof. Hetta Potgieter for her care and advice; Prof. Edwin Hees for the language editing; Mart-Mari, Sonja and Hannes for the technical editing; Dr Albi Odendaal and Dr Chris van Rhyn for their academic supervision; Dr Liesl van der Merwe for her guidance and mentoring that has gone far beyond the academic input she has given to this thesis. Wysheid begin by liefde vir die Here (Spreuke 8:13, Die Boodskap) i

3 ABSTRACT The purpose of this comparative case study is to explore the recent use of qualitative strategies of inquiry in music education articles published in five selected Thomson Reuters Web of Science listed journals between 2012 and 2015 in order to recommend the future directions for the application of strategies of inquiry in various music education research contexts. The five music education journals are: The British Journal of Music Education, Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education, International Journal of Music Education, Journal of Research in Music Education, and Music Education Research. The main research question is: How have qualitative strategies of inquiry been used in five accredited music education journals between 2012 and 2015, and what future directions does this analysis suggest? A pragmatic philosophical worldview and a qualitative research design informed this research. The selected strategy of inquiry was a comparative case study, and a constant comparative method was chosen to analyse 480 articles in five selected music education journals. A heuristic model was developed to identify and classify 233 qualitative articles into ten types of strategies of inquiry: basic qualitative study, case study, phenomenology, ethnography, narrative inquiry, action research, historical study, grounded theory, arts-based research, and conceptual study. Findings revealed that qualitative research is well developed and established in music education, with case study research as the most preferred strategy of inquiry by music education researchers, followed by basic qualitative research, phenomenology and narrative inquiry. Although the growth of qualitative work in music education could be seen as a strength, concerns over the quality and proper use of music education research procedures led to the construction of a model for future directions for qualitative music research. This model accounts for the ideal continuum of setting, crossing and pushing of boundaries. The need for boundaries was set with elements such as rigorous and systematically methodological procedures, computer-assisted qualitative data analysis software, and scientific integrity. Once these criteria have been met, boundaries can be crossed with interdisciplinary collaboration and creative partnerships, and ultimately boundaries can be pushed by adding concepts such as creativity, communities of practice, creative and transdisciplinary collaborative research, methodological innovation and creative research methodologies into music education research. To enact positive change towards future directions in music education research, a combination of small-scale changes and large-scale changes can create the perfect opportunity for transformation in music education research. ii

4 Keywords: Qualitative research, research methodology, research procedures, strategies of inquiry, music education journals and future directions. iii

5 OPSOMMING Die doel van hierdie vergelykende gevallestudie is om die onlangse gebruik van kwalitatiewe navorsingstrategieë te ondersoek in artikels oor musiekopvoeding, wat tussen 2012 en 2015 in vyf gekose Thomson Reuters Web of Science-gelyste vaktydskrifte gepubliseer is, ten einde toekomstige navorsingsrigtings aan te beveel vir die toepassing van navorsingstrategieë in verskeie navorsingskontekste binne musiekopvoeding. Die vyf musiekopvoedingvaktydskrifte is die volgende: The British Journal of Music Education; Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education; International Journal of Music Education; Journal of Research in Music Education; en Music Education Research. Die hoofnavorsingsvraag is die volgende: Op watter manier is kwalitatiewe navorsingstrategieë in vyf geakkrediteerde musiekopvoedingvaktydskrifte tussen 2012 en 2015 gebruik, en watter toekomstige navorsingsrigtings word deur hierdie analise gesuggereer? In hierdie studie het n pragmatiese filosofiese wêreldbeskouing en n kwalitatiewe navorsingsontwerp die raamwerk vir die navorsing gevorm. Die gekose navorsingstrategie was n vergelykende gevallestudie en n konstante vergelykende metode is gekies om 480 artikels in vyf gekose musiekopvoedingvaktydskrifte te analiseer. n Heuristiese model is ontwikkel om 233 kwalitatiewe artikels in tien tipes navorsingstrategieë te identifiseer en te klassifiseer: basiese kwalitatiewe studies, gevallestudies, fenomenologie, etnografie, narratiewe studies, aksienavorsing, historiese studies, gegronde teorie, kunsgebaseerde navorsing en konseptuele studies. Bevindinge het aan die lig gebring dat kwalitatiewe navorsing goed ontwikkel en gevestig is in musiekopvoeding, met gevallestudienavorsing as hoofsaaklik die voorkeurnavorsingstrategie van musiekopvoedingnavorsers, gevolg deur basiese kwalitatiewe navorsing, fenomenologie en narratiewe studies. Alhoewel die ontwikkeling van kwalitatiewe navorsingswerk in musiekopvoeding as n sterkpunt beskou kan word, het verskeie kwessies in verband met die gehalte en behoorlike gebruik van musiekopvoedingnavorsingsprosedures tot die samestelling van n model vir toekomstige navorsingsrigtings gelei. Hierdie model bied die ideale kontinuum vir die stel, oorsteek en uitdaag van grense. Die behoefte na grense is gestel met behulp van elemente soos streng en stelselmatige metodologiese prosedures, rekenaargesteunde kwalitatiewe dataontledingsagteware en wetenskaplike integriteit. Wanneer daar aan hierdie kriteria voldoen is, kan grense met behulp van interdissiplinêre medewerking en kreatiewe vennootskappe oorgesteek word. Laastens kan grense uitgedaag word deur konsepte soos kreatiwiteit, praktykgemeenskappe, kreatiewe en medewerkende navorsing, metodologiese vernuwing en kreatiewe navorsingsmetodologieë by musiekopvoedingnavorsing te voeg. iv

6 Om positiewe verandering vir toekomstige navorsingsrigtings in musiekopvoedingnavorsing te weeg te bring, kan n kombinasie van kleinskaalse veranderinge en grootskaalse veranderinge die perfekte geleentheid skep vir transformasie in musiekopvoedingnavorsing. Sleutelwoorde: Kwalitatiewe navorsing, navorsingsmetodologie, navorsingsprosedures, navorsingstrategieë, musiekopvoedingvaktydskrifte en toekomstige navorsingsrigtings. v

7 TABLE OF CONTENTS PREFACE... I ABSTRACT... II OPSOMMING... IV LIST OF TABLES... XXI LIST OF FIGURES... XXIII GLOSSARY... XXVII CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY... 1 Introduction... 1 Timeline... 5 Terminology... 5 Purpose of the study... 6 Research questions... 6 Research procedures... 7 Trustworthiness vi

8 Ethics Delimitation of the study Narrative structure of the thesis CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW Introduction Methodological elements and processes of qualitative research Qualitative research methodology in music education research Reviews of research methodology studies in music education Content analysis Dissertation analysis Citation analysis Qualitative strategies of inquiry in the social sciences Qualitative strategies of inquiry in music education vii

9 CHAPTER 3 RESEARCH PROCEDURES Introduction Philosophical assumptions Philosophical worldview: Pragmatism Research design: Qualitative research Qualitative strategy of inquiry: Comparative case study Historical development of the case study as a strategy of inquiry Basic qualitative case study designs Aims and objectives of case study research Strengths and limitations of case study research Procedures for conducting a comparative case study viii

10 Purposeful sampling Journal ranking Journal of Research in Music Education (JRME) Music Education Research (MER) International Journal of Music Education (IJME) British Journal of Music Education (BJME) Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education (BCRME) Definition Historical development of constant comparison inquiry Characteristics of the constant comparison method Within-case and cross-case analysis ATLAS.ti Role of the researcher Trustworthiness Ethics Delimitation of the study CHAPTER 4 FINDINGS Introduction Heuristic model of qualitative research procedures ix

11 Research designs Qualitative strategies of inquiry across five selected journals: withincase analysis The use of qualitative strategies of inquiry in five selected journals: cross-case analysis Case study Teaching and learning strategies Student and professional identity construction and development Curriculum evaluation and transformation Elementary and secondary school music practices Online education Adult music education x

12 Collaborative community projects Higher music education Music teacher education Assessment practices Disability-specific education Music education for marginalised populations Ensembles Choral music Other fields of interest Unit of analysis Research questions Sampling strategies Sampling size Coding techniques Basic qualitative research xi

13 Teaching and learning strategies Professional development Curriculum development Early childhood Music teacher education Teacher support and collaboration Research question Sampling strategies Sampling size Coding techniques Phenomenology xii

14 Teaching and learning strategies Multi-cultural education Teacher and learner role identities Other fields of interests Research question Sampling strategies Sampling size Coding techniques Ethnography xiii

15 The identity of communities in music education Multi-cultural education Early childhood education Other fields of interest Research question Sampling strategies Sampling size Coding techniques Narrative inquiry xiv

16 Student and professional identity construction Visual expression Other fields of interest Research question Sampling strategies Sampling size Coding techniques Action research Learning and teaching practices Educational transformation xv

17 Research question Sampling strategies Sampling size Coding techniques Historical research Musical institutions and associations Music contests and festivals Curriculum developments Research question Sampling strategies xvi

18 Sampling size Coding techniques Grounded theory Student and professional identity Learning and teaching strategies Research question Sampling strategies Sampling size Coding techniques xvii

19 Arts-based research Teaching and learning strategies Collaborative learning Research question Sampling strategies Sampling size Coding techniques Conceptual studies xviii

20 Research question Sampling strategies Sampling size Coding techniques Conclusion CHAPTER 5 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION Introduction Discussion Introduction Strategies of inquiry xix

21 Combined strategies of inquiry Philosophical worldview Fields of interest Strategies of data analysis Research participants Sampling strategies Validation strategies Ethical procedures Conclusion Introduction Setting boundaries Crossing boundaries Pushing boundaries Limitations Implications Conclusion BIBLIOGRAPHY ADDENDUM A: THE DATA FROM THE FIVE SELECTED JOURNALS THAT WERE ANALYSED IN THIS STUDY ADDENDUM B: COMPACT DISK xx

22 LIST OF TABLES Table 2 1: Literature overview of related music education research methodology Table 2 2: Table 3 1: Table 3 2: Table 4 1: Table 4 2: Table 4 3: Table 4 4: Table 4 5: Table 4 6: Table 4 7: Classification of qualitative strategies of inquiry in the social sciences (adapted and revised from Creswell (2013:8 10) Philosophical assumptions and worldviews (Creswell, 2013:21; Creswell & Plano Clark, 2011:42; Denzin & Lincoln, 2013a:28; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016:12; Mertens, 2010:11) SCImago Journal Rank for the five selected journals as measured in Application of research designs by music education researchers in the five selected journals The use of qualitative strategies of inquiry in the IJME from 2012 to The use of qualitative strategies of inquiry in the MER from 2012 to The use of qualitative strategies of inquiry in the BJME from 2012 to The use of qualitative strategies of inquiry in the JRME from 2012 to The use of qualitative strategies of inquiry in the BCRME from 2012 to The total use of qualitative strategies of inquiry in the five selected journals from 2012 to Table 4 8: The use of qualitative strategies of inquiry in music education Table 4 9: The distribution of case study research in five selected journals Table 4 10: Case study articles in five selected journals Table 4 11: The distribution of basic qualitative research in five selected journals xxi

23 Table 4 12: Basic qualitative research in five selected journals Table 4 13: The distribution of phenomenological studies in five selected journals Table 4 14: Phenomenology articles in five selected journals Table 4 15: The distribution of ethnography in five selected journals Table 4 16: Ethnography articles in five selected journals Table 4 17: The distribution of narrative inquiry in five selected journals Table 4 18: Narrative inquiry articles in five selected journals Table 4 19: The distribution of action research in five selected journals Table 4 20: Action research articles in five selected journals Table 4 21: The distribution of historical research in five selected journals Table 4 22: Historical research in five selected journals Table 4 23: The distribution of grounded theory in five selected journals Table 4 24: Grounded theory articles in five selected journals Table 4 25: The distribution of arts-based research in five selected journals Table 4 26: Practice-based research articles in five selected journals Table 4 27: The distribution of conceptual studies in five selected journals Table 4 28: Concept analysis articles in five selected journals Table 5 1: Proportional comparison of the growth in qualitative research in music education xxii

24 LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1 1: Location of this study on the qualitative-quantitative continuum Figure 1 2: Combined inductive, deductive and abductive approaches to data analysis Figure 2 1: Outline of Chapter Figure 2 2: Figure 2 3: Figure 2 4: Bridge between philosophical frameworks and strategies of inquiry and research methods adapted from Hesse-Biber and Leavy (2011:7) Qualitative research process, adapted from Creswell (2013:17) and Denzin and Lincoln (2013a:25) The most common qualitative strategies of inquiry in music education research Figure 2 5: Qualitative strategy of inquiry: case study Figure 2 6: Qualitative strategy of inquiry: phenomenology Figure 2 7: Qualitative strategy of inquiry: ethnography Figure 2 8: Qualitative strategy of inquiry: narrative inquiry Figure 2 9: Qualitative strategy of inquiry: action research Figure 2 10: Qualitative strategy of inquiry: historical studies Figure 2 11: Qualitative strategy of inquiry: grounded theory Figure 2 12: Qualitative strategy of inquiry: arts-based inquiry Figure 2 13: Qualitative strategy of inquiry: conceptual studies Figure 3 1: Qualitative research process adapted from Creswell (2013:17) Figure 3 2: The subjective-objective dimension adapted from Burrell and Morgan (1979:3) Figure 3 3: Basic types of case study designs (Yin, 2014:50) xxiii

25 Figure 3 4: Figure 3 5: Holistic comparative case study, adapted from Rule and Vaughn (2011:18) Procedures for a comparative case study adapted from Creswell (2013: ) and Stake (2005: ) Figure 3 6: SCImago Journal Rank for the JRME (SJR, 2016) Figure 3 7: SCImago Journal Rank for the MER (SJR, 2016) Figure 3 8: SCImago Journal Rank for the IJME (SRJ, 2016) Figure 3 9: SCImago Journal Rank for the BJME (SJR, 2016) Figure 3 10: SCImago Journal Rank for the BCRME (SJR, 2016) Figure 3 11: Coding of a comparative case study, adapted from Creswell (2013:209) and Merriam and Tisdell (2016:234) Figure 4 1: Figure 4 2: Figure 4 3: Figure 4 4: The ten emergent qualitative strategies of inquiry in five selected music education journals Application of research designs by music education researchers in five selected journals The use of qualitative strategies of inquiry across the five selected journals The use of qualitative strategies of inquiry in music education in the five selected journals Figure 4 5: Case study types identified in five selected journals Figure 4 6: Total number of case study types and combinations identified in five selected journals Figure 4 7: The total use of case study research in five selected journals Figure 4 8: The total use of basic qualitative research in five selected journals Figure 4 9: Phenomenology types identified in five selected journals Figure 4 10: Total number of phenomenological types and combinations identified in five selected journals xxiv

26 Figure 4 11: The total use of phenomenology in five selected journals Figure 4 12: Ethnographic types identified in five selected journals Figure 4 13: Total number of ethnographic types and combinations identified in five selected journals Figure 4 14: The total use of ethnography in five selected journals Figure 4 15: Narrative inquiry types identified in five selected journals Figure 4 16: Total number of narrative inquiry studies identified in five selected journals Figure 4 17: The total use of narrative inquiry in five selected journals Figure 4 18: Action research types identified in five selected journals Figure 4 19: Total number of action research types identified in five selected journals Figure 4 20: The total use of action research in five selected journals Figure 4 21: Historical research types identified in five selected journals Figure 4 22: Total number of historical types and combinations identified in five selected journals Figure 4 23: The total use of historical research in five selected journals Figure 4 24: Grounded theory types identified in five selected journals Figure 4 25: Total number of grounded theory types identified in five selected journals Figure 4 26: The total use of grounded theory in five selected journals Figure 4 27: Arts-based research types identified in five selected journals Figure 4 28: Total number of arts-based research types and combinations identified in five selected journals Figure 4 29: The total use of arts-based research in five selected journals Figure 4 30: Conceptual studies types identified in five selected journals xxv

27 Figure 4 31: Total number of conceptual studies identified in five selected journals Figure 4 32: The total use of conceptual studies in five selected journals Figure 5 1: Three discussion points that emerged from the findings Figure 5 2: Future directions model Figure 5 3: Figure 5 4: Relationship between philosophy and methodology in social science and educational research (Niglas, 2006:14) Positive change in music education research as adapted from Kratus (2015:345) and Randles (2015:334) xxvi

28 GLOSSARY Research methodology Research methodology is the study of research designs and a body of practices, procedures, rules, concepts and principles followed to conduct research. Research methodology consists of the study of philosophical worldviews, research designs, strategies of inquiry and methods. Research procedures Research steps and processes taken in conducting research, related to the research design, strategies of inquiry, research methods such as participant selection, data collection, data analysis, role of the researcher, validation strategies and ethics. Research design The overall approach to the research process, including qualitative, quantitative and mixed method designs. Strategies of inquiry (approaches / traditions / varieties) The classification of types of qualitative studies such as basic qualitative studies, case study, phenomenology, ethnography, narrative and grounded theory. These approaches consists of the plans and procedures for research that cover the steps from formulating broad assumptions to detailed methods of data collected, analysis and interpretation. Research methods (strategies of data analysis / methods of data collection / techniques) Specific procedures used to gather data, such as interviews, observations, documents and audiovisual material. Research methods also include strategies for data analysis such as thematic analysis, notice-collect-think (NCT) model, constant comparative analysis, content analysis, narrative analysis, conversation analysis and discourse analysis. Philosophical worldview (philosophical assumptions / theoretical paradigms and perspectives / paradigms) A basic set of beliefs, values and ideas that inform research, such as interpretivism, social constructivism, postpositivism, transformative frameworks and pragmatism. Theory Saldaña (2015:145) described a theory (as it is traditionally conceived in research) as a generalisable statement with an accompanying explanatory narrative that: predicts and controls action through an if/then logic, explains how and/or why something happens by stating its cause(s), and provides insights and guidance for improving social life. Literature review A comprehensive synthesis of the literature that is relevant to the research topic. xxvii

29 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY Introduction The aim of this comparative case study is to contribute to the body of knowledge on qualitative research in music education by providing a review of the recent use of qualitative strategies of inquiry in music education research. After exploring the application of qualitative research procedures in five selected accredited music education journals from 2012 to 2015, this study makes some recommendations for the future direction of music education research in various contexts. The following five journals were chosen: 1. British Journal of Music Education (BJME) 2. Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education (BCRME) 3. International Journal of Music Education (IJME) 4. Journal of Research in Music Education (JRME) 5. Music Education Research (MER). These five journals were selected because each has music education in its title and each is acknowledged by the South African Department of Higher Education and Training (DHET) as accredited for the purposes of research subsidy payments to South African researchers as listed in the Thomas Reuters Web of Science: Arts and Humanities Citation Index and Social Sciences Index. Some music education researchers have expressed the need for a broad investigation of research methodology in music education (Göktaș et al., 2012:455; Zelenak, 2015:236). Wright and Watson (2014) analysed five music education journals 1 and discovered either a lack of, or incomplete, methodological description and an account of the relevant procedures used in most articles. In preparing for this study I undertook an overview of the use of strategies of inquiry in South African music education journals articles 2 and found the same deficiencies as noted by Wright and Watson (2014), as most articles did not mention strategies of inquiry, or used vague 1 British Journal of Music Education; International Journal of Music Education; Journal of Research in Music Education; Music Perception and Psychology of Music. 2 An overview of music education articles from 2010 to 2015 in Journal of the Musical Arts in Africa, Tydskrif vir Geesteswetenskappe, Musicus and Muziki Journal of Music Research in Africa. 1

30 or generic terminology such as thick description method, archival study, field study, evaluative research and qualitative method. Because of the emergent nature of qualitative inquiry, the assumption cannot be drawn from these reviews that all qualitative strategies of inquiry in music education research are undisclosed, vague or generic. Therefore, a thorough investigation into the qualitative strategies of inquiry was needed to determine the application of these research strategies in order to enhance the quality of music education research. Conway (2003a:91) and Lane (2011:65) both asserted the need for the examination and analysis of research procedures applied in the music education profession, since such an examination will enable music educators to gain a better perception of the usage and role of qualitative inquiry in music education. To date no comprehensive investigation specifically aimed at identifying and classifying qualitative strategies of inquiry in music education research has been conducted. A systematic analysis of the use of qualitative strategies of inquiry in music education research can only be undertaken by reviewing the existing literature and re-analysing primary studies in order to understand and appreciate the value of different research procedures, to identify their strengths and weaknesses, and to explain how research in music education relates to the broader scope of research methodology in general. Denzin and Lincoln (2013b:5 7) divided the development of qualitative inquiry into eight historical moments, starting from the traditional phase ( ), the modernist or golden age ( ), blurred genres ( ), crisis of representation ( ), experimental postmodern phase ( ), post-experimental inquiry ( ), methodologically contested phase ( ) to the fractured future (2010 ). Different philosophical worldviews dominate each phase, such as positivism during the traditional period, and a postpositivist worldview in the modernist and blurred genres moments, whereas interpretive, hermeneutical, constructivist and critical qualitative worldviews also emerged in the blurred genres phase. During the crisis of representation phase, reflexive researchers interrogated issues of race, gender and class, and the blending of strategies of inquiry arose as the separation of text and context became less emphatic. Throughout the experimental postmodern and postexperimental inquiry phases, foundational criteria were replaced by evaluative criteria, and the experimentation with burgeoning arts-informed strategies of inquiry such as poetic inquiry, collage inquiry, photographic inquiry and performative inquiry dominated the methodologically contested phase. The current phase, the fractured future moment, is concerned with moral discourse and evidence-based research (Butler-Kisber, 2010:3 4; Denzin & Lincoln, 2013b:5 6). It is essential that music researchers are kept abreast of existing and emerging strategies of inquiry in qualitative research, and therefore this study is necessary as it explores the current use of qualitative strategies of inquiry in music education research. 2

31 The increase in qualitative strategies of inquiry since the 1980s has raised the question of the appropriateness, validity and application of appropriate research approaches (Bresler & Stake, 2006; Forrester, 2010:3; Lane, 2011:66), and I examined these concerns in this comparative case study as the recent use of qualitative strategies of inquiry is explored in order to recommend future directions for research. Kantorski and Stegman (2006:64) questioned the standard, value and usefulness of music education research as a result of the growing interest in qualitative research in the field of music education. In turn, Burnard (2006:143) investigated the criticisms expressed by music researchers regarding the obscuring of epistemology, theoretical perspectives, research procedures and methodological pluralism in the reporting of research. Although qualitative research is well established and recognised within the field of music education research, sufficient knowledge of qualitative strategies of inquiry in music education is necessary to ensure that a creative qualitative approach fulfils the unique needs of music education research (Folkestad, 2004:84). Music education researchers should examine the detailed evaluations and reviews of strategies of qualitative inquiry and the characteristics of their applications in music research, which should include information related to participants, contexts and procedures used in data collection and analysis (Lane, 2011:75). Fung (2008:42 43) emphasises the importance of producing the highest quality research using the best research procedures meticulously designed to address the distinctive nature of each research context. Conway (2003a:91) proposes that music educators should learn about the varying approaches to qualitative inquiry and they must continue the professional conversation on the appropriate use of research terminology. Smith (2008:323) argues that the choice of a strategy of inquiry needs to be determined after a research question has been identified, rather than allowing the research to be driven by a certain strategy of inquiry. This contention is supported by Sims (2012:683), who questions why researchers start from the strategy of inquiry rather than the research questions, declaring their chosen strategy of inquiry the only worthy one. Fung (2008:43) states that even if a researcher can identify an important research question, the findings may not contribute anything to the profession if the research design is weak. Researchers must first consider what research questions the profession needs to be answered and then choose their strategy of inquiry accordingly (Draves et al., 2008:29; Maxwell, 2013:100). Amongst research questions asked in music education, Jorgensen (2008:331) proposes several juxtaposed descriptive and normative questions for music education researchers to investigate such as the dimensions, status, trends, interests, attributes, relevance and focus of music education research. Sims (2012: ) claims that research in music education is relatively new compared to research in the fields of education and psychology. Because the music education research community is young and emergent, some researchers still engage in methodology wars. But no 3

32 matter whether quantitative research, qualitative research or mixed method research is applied, each methodology makes possible a different form of understanding, based on different assumptions and research procedures. Sims (2012:683) concludes that it is unnecessary for music researchers to define or defend themselves according to the types of research procedures they choose to implement. Music education researchers should all respect, value and understand the different research procedures chosen by each researcher. Futile debates on which procedure is preferable are unnecessary, since educational researchers have a choice of which strategy of inquiry, or combination of strategies of inquiry best suit each proposed research task (Asif, 2013:14 15; Cady, 1969:10; Gorard et al., 2004:371; Howe, 1985:10 13; Putney et al., 1999:370). Previous studies conducted on research methodology in the field of music examined qualitative, quantitative and mixed method approaches, and areas within and outside of music education such as musicology, music therapy, history of music and ethnomusicology were covered (Chiengchana, 2010; Göktaș et al., 2012; Parker, 2001; Paxinos, 1985). Most studies were a computation of certain variables such as the frequency and eminence of journals, university degrees, choice of topic and participants, theoretical framework and a list of research strategies of inquiry and methods used. In studies limited to music education, only a few focused exclusively on key issues in qualitative research methodology in music education research, and the use of qualitative strategies of inquiry to understand research problems and topics in music teaching and learning (Bresler & Stake, 2006; Roulston, 2006), which will be discussed in more detail in Chapter 2. The first influential study on research methodology in music education was conducted by Schneider and Cady (1965) and was entitled Evaluation and Synthesis of Research Studies Relating to Music Education: They identified a strategy of inquiry system that divided research inquiry types into four broad categories, namely descriptive research, historical research, experimental research and philosophical research. The most thorough and eminent content analyses in music education were two studies conducted by Yarbrough (1984, 1996) on articles published in the Journal of Research in Music Education. The second study (1996) had an added category for qualitative research, as the first study (1984) contained no qualitative categories because of a lack of qualitative research articles. In the second study Yarbrough (1996:192) identified only eight out of 258 studies as being qualitative in design. Yarbrough (1984, 1996) examined articles with specific attention to editorial policies, content analysis, organisation of research topics, frequencies and percentages of articles, research methodology and theoretical frameworks, and articles based on dissertations and theses. The aim of Yarborough s studies (1984: ; 1996:191) were not to assess the value and quality of the research procedures or the importance of the research published, but to examine what researchers accomplished in 4

33 order to proceed positively and effectively toward the expanding of knowledge in teaching and learning of music. Other studies by music education researchers were directed at examining specific elements of the research process, such as citations (Sample, 1992; Schmidt & Zdzinski, 1993), participants (Ebie, 2002; Kratus, 1992), research topics (Stabler, 1986; Weimer, 1980), journal eminence (Hamann & Lucas, 1998), and research methodology (Kantorski & Stegman, 2006; Lane, 2011). Although these researchers each revealed valuable and significant information, there is a need for a broad and comprehensive investigation of research procedures in music education (Zelenak, 2015:236). By exploring the recent use of qualitative strategies of inquiry in music education, I attempted to gain an understanding of how music education researchers viewed and implemented qualitative research. Contextualising qualitative inquiry through exploring and explaining scholarly research in music education will advance understanding of the recent use and indicate future directions of qualitative strategies of inquiry in music education. The findings of this study will serve to provide music educators, lecturers of music education research methodology courses, music researchers, music journal editors and research committees with an overview of the recent applications and future directions of strategies of qualitative inquiry in music education research. Timeline Since the publication of the seminal research project headed by Henry L. Cady (Schneider & Cady, 1965) entitled Evaluation and Synthesis of Research Studies Relating to Music Education, uninterrupted research has been conducted on, amongst other things, research methodology frequencies or patterns in music education. In the literature review studies between 1930 and 2012 were investigated, and therefore this study commences with music education articles published from 2012 to 2015 to ensure continuity in the analysis of research procedures in music education research. The main emphasis is on qualitative strategies of inquiry published in the five accredited music education journals mentioned in 1.1. Terminology My use of the term strategies of inquiry is derived from Strategies of qualitative inquiry by Denzin and Lincoln (1998, 2003, 2008, 2013b), the introductory chapter by Denzin and Lincoln in The SAGE Handbook of Qualitative Research (1994a, 2000, 2005, 2011b) and Research design: qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches by John Creswell (2003, 2009). Strategies of inquiry are also known as varieties (Tesch, 1990), traditions (Creswell, 1998; Jacob, 1987), research methodologies (Mertens, 1998), approaches (Creswell, 2007, 2013; Saldaña, 2013), research types (Merriam, 2009), inquiries (Butler-Kisber, 2010), research methods (Hesse- 5

34 Biber & Leavy, 2010a; Morse & Richards, 2002; Patton, 1980; Yin, 2014) and research designs (Creswell, 2014; Maree, 2007; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Strategies of inquiry are described by Creswell (2014:3) as the plans and the procedures for research that span the steps from broad assumptions to detailed methods of data collected, analysis, and interpretation. Denzin and Lincoln (2011a:14) define a strategy of inquiry as follows: A strategy of inquiry refers to a bundle of skills, assumptions, and practices that researchers employ as they move from their paradigm to the empirical world. Strategies of inquiry put paradigms of interpretation into motion. At the same time, strategies of inquiry also connect the researcher to specific methods of collecting and analyzing empirical materials. Purpose of the study The purpose of this comparative case study is to explore the recent use of qualitative strategies of inquiry in articles published in five journals listed in Thomson Reuters Web of Science 3 between 2012 and 2015 in order to recommend a future directions for the application of strategies of inquiry in various music education research contexts. Research questions The main research question is: How have qualitative strategies of inquiry been used in five selected accredited music education journals between 2012 and 2015, and what future directions does this analysis suggest? This main research question gives rise to the following sub-questions: 1. What strategies of inquiry have been used by music education researchers who publish in these five accredited music education journals? 2. How has each qualitative strategy of inquiry been applied by music education researchers who publish in these five accredited music education journals? 3. How does the use of qualitative strategies of inquiry in five music education journals compare to the classifications of research methodologists in the social sciences and what does such a comparison suggest for future directions in qualitative music education research? 3 The British Journal of Music Education, Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education, International Journal of Music Education, Journal of Research in Music Education, and Music Education Research. 6

35 Research procedures Pragmatism is a philosophical worldview which focuses on the situations and outcome of the research and use all approaches available to understand the research problem (Creswell, 2013:28). For a researcher with an interpretive framework based on pragmatism, research starts with the research problem and the research question in order to generate knowledge and understanding, with the purpose of making suitable decisions for appropriate and meaningful changes that will inform future practice (Saunders et al., 2016:143). Biesta (2010:97) describes pragmatism as a set of philosophical tools that can be used to address problems, and Saunders et al. (2016:143) views pragmatism as a worldview with many different ways of interpreting the world and undertaking research, with the implications that no single point of view can ever give the entire picture and that there may be multiple realities. Pragmatists conduct research within a specific context and select the most applicable research procedures that work best at the time in order to concentrate on the practical outcomes of the research (Creswell, 2013:28) This philosophical worldview is relevant to this study, as the study describes the use of qualitative strategies of enquiry from a variety of perspectives, with a view to suggesting future directions. This comparative case study employed a pragmatic approach to guide the research process, which generated knowledge and drew inferences from emergent themes in the context of the existing literature on qualitative strategies of inquiry in music education. It is acceptable in a pragmatic qualitative multiple case study to use both qualitative and quantitative data, and the integration of numbers and percentages when identifying patterns during within-case analysis and cross-case analysis can be an integral part of the analytical process (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016:174), as it is in this qualitative study. The numbers and percentages were used to increase accuracy by adding a valid and essential value to the qualitative data, and therefore this study cannot be considered a mixed method study (Marshall & Rossman, 2016:2 4). Within the pragmatist worldview, this study attempted to suggest new perspectives, meaningful changes, and future directions for music education practice. Several researchers argue that instead of a dichotomy between qualitative and quantitative research, the range of methodological options should rather be considered a continuum. (Bergman, 2008:14; Niglas, 2006). Ercikan and Roth (2006:14 15) further argue that the rigid polarisation of research into distinct qualitative and quantitative research designs is not meaningful or constructive for educational research, as findings in qualitative research related to occurrences and classifications would be incomplete and unsubstantiated without numerical 7

36 features. For this reason this study is not located at the extremes of the qualitative-quantitative continuum, but rather situated between the two poles, as quantitative data is integrated in the qualitative research design to broaden the context and enhance validity. According to Ercikan and Roth (2006:14), the nature of the research questions determine the placing of the research study on the qualitative-quantitative continuum. The main research question of this study is: How have qualitative strategies of inquiry been used in five selected accredited music education journals between 2012 and 2015, and what future directions does this analysis suggest? This question could be addressed using either a bibliometric analysis, or by following a more qualitative approach that considers meaning as it arises from the research articles under consideration. This study is situated between these poles, drawing on both bibliometrics and meaning to address the main research question, as illustrated in Figure 1-1. Bibliometrics Meaning Figure 1 1: Location of this study on the qualitative-quantitative continuum. The goal of bibliometrics is to obtain a more comprehensive understanding of the status of research by using numbers and percentages through counting (Pendlebury, 2008). In this study a deeper understanding of the use of qualitative strategies of inquiry in the five selected journals was obtained by supporting the qualitative data with quantitative data. By counting the number of qualitative articles adopting each qualitative strategy of inquiry, and comparing different components by using numbers and percentages, the knowledge and meaning of both the qualitative data and the quantitative data were presented in as transparent and truthful a manner as possible. Bergman (2008:14) argues that researchers must not consider qualitative and quantitative research processes as separate differentiations, but rather as combined strengths embedded within a selected research design. This study drew on the scholarly literature as qualitative data, which were inductively analysed to develop a heuristic model (Chapter 2). After that the quantitative data were deductively analysed from the five selected journals (Chapter 4), and lastly 8

37 a discussion were abductively constructed from all the analysed material to construct a model of future directions (Chapter 5). Figure 1 2 illustrates the combined inductive, deductive and abductive approaches to data analysis. Inductive Heuristic model derived from the scholarly literature Chapter 2 Deductive Counting the prevalence of the heuristic model components in the five journals Chapter 4 Abductive Future directions model Chapter 5 Figure 1 2: Combined inductive, deductive and abductive approaches to data analysis. Creswell (2013:44) describes qualitative research as a process which begins with philosophical assumptions and the use of pragmatic or theoretical frameworks informing the procedures that follow, including the selection and use of the qualitative approaches in order to gain a deep understanding of a central phenomenon. As a qualitative researcher, I attempted in this study to obtain a better understanding of how researchers implemented qualitative strategies of inquiry in music education. A qualitative approach was implemented by examining and describing the recent use of qualitative strategies of inquiry in music education, and interpreting themes within the context of the existing literature on music education research (Creswell, 2013:24 25). As the focus is on knowledge and understanding, the research questions needed to be comprehensive enough to include all significant dimensions of the subject under inquiry, but also specific enough to define what the study and the context are about (Butler-Kisber, 2010:27). In this study, with a comparative case study as the selected strategy of inquiry, the extracting of the data from each individual case was guided by the research questions to provide sufficient knowledge and understanding of the use of qualitative strategies of inquiry in music education research. 9

38 The strategy of inquiry used for this study is a comparative case study which is an in-depth and systematic examination of a particular problem or situation in its context in order to generate knowledge (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016:37). Case study research focuses on the comprehensive investigation from various perspectives to offer a thick description of a complex phenomenon (Njie & Asimiran, 2014:36; Simons, 2009:21). The main purpose of conducting a case study is to explore the particularity, the uniqueness of a case, and to understand the distinctiveness of the individual case (Simons, 2009:3). In this comparative case study, each of the individual five music education journals is a separate and complex entity situated in its own context (Stake, 2006:12). The intention of this comparative case study is to obtain a better understanding of the use of qualitative strategies of inquiry in music education research and, consequently, the research questions were selected to guide the research towards gaining the understanding and insight to uncover and interpret the use of qualitative strategies of inquiries in music education journals (Stake, 2006:14). The role of the researcher in a case study is to examine, understand, interpret and describe the specific case (Creswell, 2013:45; Merriam, 2009:219; Rule & Vaughn, 2011:11). I have been involved with supervision of Honours and Master s students in music education at the University of Pretoria since By guiding the students, I realised that there is a need for a codified system of qualitative strategies of inquiries in music education research. My experience in assisting students in connecting the research problem, research purpose and research question to the selected strategy of inquiry enhanced my interest in the use of qualitative strategies of inquiry in research studies. My role as researcher in this comparative case study is to collect, analyse and understand the data in its context, which in turn contributes to the in-depth interpretation of the findings (Creswell, 2013:66). As I am responsible for all the research procedures during the research study, it is necessary to adhere strictly to the validation strategies as described by Charmaz (2005: ) regarding trustworthiness, originality, resonance, usefulness and the transparent nature of the writing. Throughout the research process I attempted to conduct my research in as systematic and rigorous a way as possible to allow for the study to be trustworthy and reliable (Graneheim & Lundman, 2004:109). Research articles in the field of music education published between 2012 and 2015 in five accredited music education journals were selected, analysed and coded. Published music 10

39 education research articles contribute to the knowledge base in the field of music education, provide information on the fields of interest and the use of research methodology, and provide insights into current research findings and suggestions for future research directions (Zelenak, 2015:235). The following five accredited journals were selected and accessed electronically: 1. British Journal of Music Education (BJME) 2. Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education (BCRME) 3. International Journal of Music Education (IJME) 4. Journal of Research in Music Education (JRME) 5. Music Education Research (MER). Since case study research is the basis of a large amount of comparative research, the analytical constructs of the constant comparative method support comparative case studies (Collier, 1993: ). This research method is defined by Butler-Kisber (2010:47) as a thematic form of qualitative work that uses categorising, or the comparing and contrasting of units and categories of field texts, to produce conceptual understandings of experiences and/or phenomena that are ultimately constructed into larger themes. To examine the use of qualitative strategies of inquiry in music education articles to investigate similarities and differences, both within-case and cross-case analysis were conducted, and new knowledge is consequently gained through accumulated information and understanding from each individual music education journal in order to compare and contrast the different music education journals (Yin, 2014:238). Analysing data entailed exploring all content systematically and then examining and comparing explicit and subtle relevant data, while key words, terms, meanings and themes were discovered, integrated, analysed and categorised. Altheide et al. (2010:136,148) state that a disciplined and systematic logic needs to be followed when analysing documents. In this comparative case study the in-depth examination of music education articles published in the five music education journals was based on within-case and cross-case analysis as proposed by Creswell (2013:209). The analytical coding process was conducted in two phases, with the first phase approached both inductively and deductively. In this study the inductive approach to data analysis was used to gather qualitative data from the scholarly literature to develop a heuristic model (Chapter 2). After that quantitative data from the five selected analysed journals were deductively analysed (Chapter 4), and lastly qualitative data were abductively constructed from all the analysed material to construct a model for future directions (Chapter 5). Open coding (see ) was used during the preliminary review of previous studies of research methodology in music education, and provisional codes were developed from these anticipated categories (Saldaña, 2013:100,144). Pattern coding (see ) was used for the second coding cycle to develop a thematic and 11

40 conceptual categorisation of the first-cycle codification (Saldaña, 2013:210). These coded words and phrases were directly related to the research questions and were identified and analysed accordingly. Some themes were analysed and compared pertaining to their content as well as the number of occurrence within and across cases. By adding numbers to qualitative data, the consistency and number of times certain themes appeared in the data supported and verified the interpretive findings derived from the data (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016:174; Miles et al., 2014: ). Morgan (1993: ) states that the qualitative use of counting data patterns that were revealed by the coding process adds new meaning and understanding to the context by summarising and recontextualising the data. Qualitative counting seeks to answers questions about why and how the patterns in question came to be (Morgan, 1993:116) as it is a both a descriptive and an interpretive step in the analysis process. Counting and comparing these patterns provide a conceptual explanation and understanding of the context being studied (Butler-Kisber, 2010:47). Data analysis was conducted with ATLAS.ti 7, computer-assisted qualitative data analysis software (CAQDAS), to manage the data (Creswell, 2014:196; Friese, 2014:1). The program is designed to support and organise the qualitative data analysis process by assisting the researcher to systematically identify, compare, code, analyse and categorise the data obtained from journal articles. It also provides analytical and visualisation settings to present various interpretive views of the processed and analysed material. Trustworthiness A trustworthy study entails a systematic and transparent research process with a clear statement of the researcher s assumptions (Butler-Kisber, 2010:14; Elo et al., 2014:2; Graneheim & Lundman, 2004:109). As a subjective analyst of qualitative documents, I employed both personal and epistemological reflexivity during all the phases of the research process to reduce bias, ensure trustworthiness and attempt to make the analysis process in this study as disciplined, rigorous and transparent as possible (Butler-Kisber, 2010:19; Mauthner & Doucet, 2003:415; Willig, 2013:10). By applying personal reflexivity I reflected upon the manner in which my personal values, knowledge and experiences shaped the research, while epistemological reflexivity involved reflection upon the generation of knowledge and interpretation of findings by selecting the proper research methodological procedures to answer the research questions (Butler-Kisber, 2010:19; Mauthner & Doucet, 2003:415). Silverman (2006:48, 2013b:52) states that the use of simple counting techniques and tabulated categories in a qualitative study locate the findings in a broader context, and the adding of quantitative tabulations in this study supported the qualitative data by enhancing transparency and validity (2006:52). 12

41 The validation strategy used in this comparative case study was based on the five criteria proposed by Charmaz (2005: ; 2006: ) for judging constant comparative inquiry: credibility, originality, resonance, usefulness and the nature of the writing. I attempted to make systematic and conceptual comparisons between and across categories to ensure credibility and originality; resonance was ensured by disclosing research procedures for analysing, understanding and interpreting the research problem; the findings are useful as it suggests future directions for music education research methodology; and the writing process is reflexive, interpretive and transparent to ensure trustworthiness (Butler-Kisber, 2010:46 47; Charmaz, 2006: ). Ethics Creswell (2009:88 91) argues that ethical procedures have to be followed and specified in all qualitative approaches and in all phases of the research process, including the problem statement, research questions, data collection, analysis and interpretation, as well as in the publication and dissemination of qualitative reports. This study is a secondary analysis of data as the purpose for examining existing qualitative data published in music education research analysis is to present knowledge, interpretations, and findings supplementary from those presented in the original research reports (Hakim, 1982:1). Only authentic research articles published in the selected journals were analysed and the interpretation of findings was based on data reported in the original studies. All the research documents are in the public domain, accessible through various databases and the internet, and may therefore be consulted without the authors or publishers consent. The ownership of the original data is acknowledged and therefore a complete list of all the secondary documents used for this comparative case study is included. No personal information about the participants in the studies or the settings described in the articles was disclosed in this comparative case study (Tripathy, 2013:1478). I attempted to adhere to the appropriate ethical norms by promoting the aims of research in the representation of knowledge, truth and academic impartiality, and by avoiding the falsifying or misrepresenting of the research data (Bresler, 1995a:31). Delimitation of the study In this study the researcher examined and analysed research articles in the field of music education limited to articles published from 2012 to 2015 in five accredited journals with music education as part of the title of the journal. Only the first two published issues of 2015 of The Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education have been included in this study, as the last two issues were not yet available electronically, while all the 2015 issues of the remaining four music education journals were examined. Although related music education research articles may be published in journals other than the selected five journals, this study s main emphasis is 13

42 on the use of qualitative strategies of inquiry in the five selected accredited music education journals. Narrative structure of the thesis Chapter 1 introduced the field of study to the reader and provided an overview of the layout and content of the research. The purpose of the research, the research questions, the research problem, the philosophical worldview, the research design, the strategy of inquiry and research method were explained. The second chapter is a review of music education research methodology as explained in the scholarly literature, and the third chapter is a description of the qualitative strategies of inquiry necessary to investigate the research questions. The within-case and cross-case analyses of the five accredited music education journals are undertaken and discussed in Chapter 4, where the counting and comparison of the applications of each strategy of inquiry in data are explained. This chapter also introduces a heuristic model for qualitative research procedures and a classification of qualitative strategies of inquiry in music education. The final chapter relates the findings of this study with the literature review in Chapter 2, discusses future directions for qualitative strategies of inquiry in music education research, and proposes opportunities for further research. 14

43 CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW This chapter presents a synthesis of research on qualitative strategies of inquiry in music education. To contextualise qualitative strategies of inquiry in music education, the chapter is situated within the wider field of qualitative inquiry and methodological processes, and compared to qualitative strategies of inquiry in other academic disciplines. Chapter 2 is divided into four sections. The first section offers a perspective on strategies of inquiry in qualitative research in general as well as in the field of music education research. The second part reviews content analytical studies related to research methodology in music education from 1930 to The third section discusses various classifications of qualitative strategies of inquiry in the social sciences, and the last section classifies and explains the most common qualitative strategies of inquiry in music education. The outline of Chapter 2 is presented in Figure 2 1. LITERATURE SYNTHESIS Qualitative research methodology Qualitative research in general Qualitative research in music education Reviews of research methodology studies Content analysis Dissertation analysis Citation analysis Strategies of inquiry: social sciences Tesch, Wolcott, Miles and Huberman, Moustakas, Patton, Maree, Butler-Kisber, Saldaña, Yin, Creswell, Denzin and Lincoln, Merriam and Tisdell, Gretchen and Rossman Strategies of inquiry: music education Basic qualitative study, case study, phenomenology, ethnography, narrative inquiry, action research, historical studies, grounded theory, arts-based research, conceptual studies Figure 2 1: Outline of Chapter 2. 15

44 Introduction In order to provide a comprehensive overview of qualitative strategies of inquiry in music education, it is necessary to situate these strategies within the broader context of qualitative research. The methodological procedures of qualitative inquiry will be discussed in relation to both qualitative research and music education research. Methodological elements and processes of qualitative research The roots of qualitative research methodology are grounded in ethnology, anthropology and sociology, and entail a mosaic of theoretical paradigms, philosophical perspectives and methodological choices (Bresler & Stake, 2006:274; Flinders & Richardson, 2006:328; Miller, 2008:531). Burrell and Morgan (1979:1,23) state that all theories of organization are based upon a philosophy of science and a theory of society and define a paradigm as a unity of perspective bound together by the work of a group theorists and intellectuals who approach social theory within the limits of the same concerns. According to Creswell (2007:19), qualitative research is situated within four paradigms, each with its own set of philosophical assumptions that inform the qualitative strategies of inquiry. These four paradigms are: postpositivism, interpretivism or social constructivism, advocacy or participatory research, and pragmatism. Within the discipline of music education, theoretical paradigms and perspectives inform the choice of a variety of different strategies of inquiry. The main underlying philosophical worldview of qualitative music education research is the interpretivist or social constructivist paradigm, which emphasises the importance of meaning and understanding, and interpreting people's multiple perspectives of a situation or phenomenon they encounter in a particular context (Thanh & Thanh, 2015:25 26). This paradigm is based on a relativist ontology with multiple realities, a subjectivist epistemology with understanding and interpretations both from the researcher and participants, an axiology with value-laden inquiry, and a naturalistic set of methodological procedures for collecting and analysing data in a natural setting (Bartel, 2006:358; Cooper & White, 2011:128; Creswell, 2007:17; Denzin & Lincoln, 2011b:32). Qualitative research is a holistic approach as it integrates ontology, epistemology, theoretical assumptions, strategies of inquiry and research methods to connect all the research processes into research as a whole (Hesse-Biber & Leavy, 2011: 6). The ontological assumptions about the nature of social reality represent the researcher s perspective regarding the formulation of the research question and strategies of inquiry for conducting the research. The researcher s epistemological assumptions about the nature of knowledge influence the topic, method and participant selection (Hesse-Biber & Leavy, 2011:4 5). Hesse-Biber and Leavy (2011:6 8) 16

45 explain that theoretical paradigms and perspectives are the bridge that connects the researcher s philosophical assumptions with the strategies of inquiry and research methods, as indicated in Figure 2 2. Methodology (Theoretical perspective) Philosophical framework (ontology, epistemology, axiology, methodology) Strategy of enquiry Research methods Figure 2 2: Bridge between philosophical frameworks and strategies of inquiry and research methods adapted from Hesse-Biber and Leavy (2011:7). Theoretical and philosophical paradigms inform the aims of the research, and Patton (2015: ) emphasises the importance of identifying the precise purpose in a research process. Different aims inform different ways of conceptualising the research problem, research design, strategies of inquiry and research methods, as well as influencing different ways of disseminating the research findings. The purpose of the research and research questions determine and influence the selection of the research design (Cohen et al., 2007:78; Ritchie & Lewis, 2003:34). Hesse-Biber and Leavy (2011:10) define three primary research purposes, namely exploratory, descriptive and explanatory research. Exploratory research investigates an under-researched area, descriptive research seeks to describe the subject under inquiry, and explanatory research attempts to explain social phenomena. Within these primary research purposes, the choice of a research design determines a flexible set of guidelines that connect theoretical paradigms, first, to the strategies of inquiry and, second, to research strategies of data collection and analysis (Denzin & Lincoln, 2011a:14; Maxwell, 2013:4 6). 17

46 The framework for designing a qualitative study is based on a process of research which flows from philosophical assumptions to the theoretical research paradigm to the strategies of inquiry and research methods to enhance the inquiry (Putney et al., 1999:368). The qualitative research process is defined by three interconnected concepts, which are divided into five steps. The three concepts are the framework (ontology), which specifies a set of research questions (epistemology) that are investigated in specific ways (methodology), and the five steps are the researcher, major paradigms; research strategies; data collection and analysis methods; and the art of interpretation (Denzin & Lincoln, 2011a:11). The following standard steps in a structured research design as proposed by qualitative methodologists such as Denzin and Lincoln (2013a:25) and Creswell (2013:17) are indicated in Figure

47 RESEARCH PROCESS THE RESEARCHER AS A MULTICULTURAL SUBJECT Research ethics Research history and tradition Conception of self and others THEORETICAL PARADIGMS AND PERSPECTIVES Postpositivism Interpretivism Transformative Pragmatism STRATEGIES OF INQUIRY Basic qualitative study Case study Phenomenology Grounded theory Narrative inquiry Arts-based inquiry Ethnography Historical studies Conceptual studies Action research RESEARCH METHODS Interviews Document analysis Observations Thematic analysis INTERPRETATION Meaning Understanding Thick description Interpretive lens Figure 2 3: Qualitative research process, adapted from Creswell (2013:17) and Denzin and Lincoln (2013a:25). Denzin and Lincoln (2013:23) explain that researchers who employ a selected qualitative strategy of inquiry locate philosophical assumptions and theoretical paradigms in the research procedures by connecting them with strategies of data collection and analysis. The research question determines the qualitative approach in music education research, as the relationship between the music education discipline, the theoretical paradigm and the strategies of inquiry follows from the research question posed and appropriate data collection and analysis required to answer the question and interpret the findings (Putney et al., 1999:375). All qualitative strategies of inquiry 19

48 under the qualitative umbrella are characterised by a search for meaning and understanding, whereas each strategy of inquiry has different ways of generating meaning from the data gathered (Cooper & White, 2011:19). Each strategy of inquiry has unique characteristics and follows a systematic and specified design that can effectively address important and well-focused research questions. Qualitative research methodology in music education research Music education research has drawn from disciplines such as education, psychology, sociology, anthropology and ethnomusicology, since strategies of inquiry and analytical constructs in these disciplines were applied to the study of music teaching and learning (Flinders & Richardson, 2006:328). The first studies within the formal boundaries of music education to draw on qualitative procedures were the Pillsbury Foundation Studies (Moorhead & Pond, 1941, 1942, 1944, 1951), which employed methods of observation, interviewing and the use of archival material (Bresler & Stake, 2006:281). The Pillsbury Studies set a new direction for qualitative inquiry in music education research as qualitative studies emerged in the late 1970s and 1980s, independently conducted from different academic institutions. Qualitative research has been conducted in the field of education since the 1960s with publications such as Glaser and Strauss s Discovery of Grounded Theory (1967) and Wolcott s The Man in the Principal s Office: an ethnography (1973). These studies contributed to the use of qualitative strategies of inquiry such as grounded theory and ethnography in music education (Eisner, 1993:52; Flinders & Richardson, 2006:313). Eisner (1993:53 54) welcomed the emphasis on qualitative research methodologies as they relate well to the values of researchers who work in the arts. Values such as the importance of context, outcomes, relationships, subjectivity, perceptions, thick description, critics and connoisseurship are salient in both arts research and qualitative inquiry. Since the late 1980s qualitative strategies of inquiry have thrived in scholarly studies, and also within music education research, after the publication of several eminent books and journals that focused on qualitative research such as the International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education in 1986, Qualitative evaluation and research methods by Patton (1980) and Denzin and Lincoln s (1994a) Handbook of Qualitative Research (Bresler & Stake, 2006:286; Flinders & Richardson, 2006:321). New avenues were generated for qualitative research in music education with the Qualitative Research Conferences held in 1994 and 1996 at the University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign. The publication of the keynote addresses and selected papers from this conference in the Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education (1994, 1996) was the first focused presence of qualitative research in a music education research journal (Bresler & Stake, 2006:286). Since then the use of qualitative strategies of inquiry have increased significantly with new emerging research journals such as The Quarterly Journal of Music 20

49 Teaching and Learning in 1990, Research Studies in Music Education in 1993, and Music Education Research in 1999 (Miller, 2008:535). Emerging strategies of inquiry, such as performative, creative and combined strategies of inquiry, have advanced music education research as new strategies of inquiry and research methods emerged in response to historical, social and political changes, as well as to the growth of epistemological innovations and developments (Hesse-Biber & Leavy, 2010b:7 8). As new technological, sociological and artistic innovations are being explored, emergent strategies of inquiry enrich research practices in traditional qualitative research (Hesse-Biber & Leavy, 2010a:v). Hesse-Biber and Leavy (2010c:2) note that there is a growing need for emergent strategies of inquiry as the social world and our understanding of it have progressed, so too has our repertoire of social research methods. They encourage researchers in each discipline to create accounts of emergent practices as this will lead to further innovations in each discipline and across disciplines (Hesse-Biber & Leavy, 2010a:vi). New research questions are being posed or re-examined and the traditional research frameworks were transformed to include combined strategies of inquiry, methods and techniques such as performative ethnodrama and virtual ethnography, which is grounded in ethnography. The research problems being explored and the research questions being asked in music education guide the selected research designs with their own research strategies of inquiry and research methods (Kantorski & Stegman, 2006:63; Putney et al., 1999:375). If the research process is not conducive to answering the research question and interpreting the meaning correctly, another suitable strategy of inquiry must be considered. The choice of appropriate strategies of inquiry is essential to the contributions of each research study for expanding the boundaries of knowledge in music education research (Bresler, 1995b:15). Yin (2011:16) argues that the specialised guidance found in research methodology books provides sufficient direction and variation to ensure systematic research processes. Given the range of literature on existing and emerging strategies of inquiries in many books, journal articles and conference proceedings, music researchers have many sources and a great deal of knowledge at their disposal to contribute further to the growing body of literature by conducting rigorous and scientific research in music education. It is therefore important that music researchers equip themselves with the required knowledge on strategies of inquiry to conduct scientific research. Understanding the dimensions and limitations of each research approach in relation to the research topic and questions enables music researchers to enhance their knowledge of qualitative strategies of inquiry. To ensure sustained systematic and meaningful research in music education the research process need to be followed with integrity. 21

50 Reviews of research methodology studies in music education The evaluation and analysis of previous research in music education enables researchers to identify, generate and develop theoretical perspectives, classify topics and strategies of inquiry, and define key findings and emergent patterns and trends (Trafford & Leshem, 2008:78 84). By synthesising the available research data in music education, researchers can recognise underdeveloped as well as over-exposed themes and this broader vision enables future researchers to incorporate emerging research perspectives and methodology to propel music education research in new directions (Draves, 2012; Preston & Humphreys, 2007; Randles et al., 2010). It is necessary to review, examine and reflect on previous research in order to gain sufficient knowledge of, and perspectives on, the field of music education. Examining, analysing and interpreting of the proliferating body of literature in music education make a valuable contribution to the influence of the music education profession and the guidance it can provide (Göktaș et al., 2012:455). As the music profession develops, it becomes necessary to periodically evaluate the contributions of research authors and content that have formed the body of knowledge. Such an analysis provides an overview of the most significant and influential patterns and trends in the field of music education as well as indicating suggestions for future directions of research (Kratus, 1993:21). Yarbrough (1984:213) argues that it is necessary to reflect on previous research accomplishments in the field of music education to acquire perspective and establish objectives for the future. Such perspective is needed for the development and improvement of guidelines for research in music education. Humphreys et al. (1996:122) recommend that more analysis and synthesis are needed in music education research, as this contributes significant information to the body of knowledge in the field of music education. Weimer (1980:1 2) argues that music educators are responsible for equipping and empowering themselves with knowledge based on previous research in order to pursue investigations into areas that are not frequently examined. He concluded that in order to ensure that research procedures and results have a positive effect on the practice of music education, priority must be given to disseminating research procedures and results to the research community. Schmidt and Zdzinski (1993:5) acknowledge that since research productivity is a principal indicator of intellectual wellbeing and academic status in the field of music education, the quantity and quality of music education research and the effective dissemination of these research results illustrate that research in the music education discipline is expanding. 22

51 A number of researchers have contributed to the body of knowledge in the field of music education by conducting content-analytical studies to identify and classify trends and patterns in music education. Patterns in research methodology in music education have been classified according to different codification systems. Researchers differentiated between the research strategy of inquiry, the research problem or subject under investigation, a fusion of method and subject, the research method techniques, or the subject matter of the various disciplines (Sidnell, 1972:18 27). The first study to systematically identify, analyse, categorise and classify music education research was conducted by Schneider and Cady (1965) and represented a valuable contribution to the body of literature as it became a standard reference work for music researchers and served as a foundation for future related studies and codifications (Weimer, 1980; Yarbrough, 1984). A summary of the most prominent focus areas and findings related to research methodology in music education research is shown in Table 2 1 to gain a better understanding of the existing literature since references to earlier studies are necessary to provide a context for the later studies. The information is chronologically listed according to the type of analysis, namely content analysis, dissertation analysis and citation analysis, and arranged according to the author, research periods, research focus and methodological findings. In the content analysis section, both general content and specific content are included. General content is related to various research procedures such as research designs, strategies of inquiry or research methods, and specific content focuses on a specific research aspect such as theoretical frameworks, research topics or research participants. Dissertation analysis is limited to the analysis of theses and dissertations, and in citation analysis the focus is on citation rankings. A discussion of each research study follows in the narrative after the table, in a chronological order according to the type of analysis. References to the research focus and methodological findings of similar studies are made within and across analysis types to compare corresponding research methodological characteristics and procedures. 23

52 Table 2 1: Literature overview of related music education research methodology. CONTENT ANALYSIS AUTHOR Schneider & Cady 1965 RESEARCH PERIOD FOCUS OF STUDY Research inquiry types Research topics SELECTED METHODOLOGICAL FINDINGS: RESEARCH DESIGNS, STRATEGIES OF INQUIRY AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORKS Research inquiry types Descriptive Historical Experimental Philosophical SELECTED METHODOLOGICAL FINDINGS: RESEARCH TOPICS AND RESEARCH PARTICIPANTS Research topics The teacher Personal factors: abilities, attitudes, characteristics, cognitive abilities, emotional traits, interests, musicality, personality, values, Social factors: class and status, professional social behaviour, nonprofessional social behaviour Education: programmes and processes, teacher selection, curricula, administrative structure, knowledges, performance skills, teaching techniques Professional competencies: programmes and processes, inservice education, teaching load, administration organisation, knowledges, performance skills, teaching techniques The student Personal factors: general abilities, attitudes, characteristics, cognitive abilities, emotional traits, interests, motivation, musicality, abilities, discriminations, performance, personality, values Social factors: school activities, social status Education: school experience, achievement, participation, nonschool experience Post-high school The teaching-learning process Transition of culture: history, literature, theory Acculturation of the individual: perceptual skills, listening, reading, expressive skills, composing, playing, singing Aesthetic sensitivity: musical creativity, taste Undifferentiated concepts: general music, programmes and curricula Constraining elements Administration and supervision: administrative organisation, administrative practice, faculty schedules, supervision, scheduling Community influence Contests and festivals Philosophy Teaching aids 24

53 CONTENT ANALYSIS AUTHOR Sidnell 1972 RESEARCH PERIOD FOCUS OF STUDY Research inquiry types Research discipline Method of inquiry Central variable SELECTED METHODOLOGICAL FINDINGS: RESEARCH DESIGNS, STRATEGIES OF INQUIRY AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORKS Research inquiry types Historical Documentary, artefacts Descriptive Survey studies, interrelation studies, developmental studies, Experimental Philosophical Analysis, criticism, speculation SELECTED METHODOLOGICAL FINDINGS: RESEARCH TOPICS AND RESEARCH PARTICIPANTS Programmes in music education Status and practice: total music programme, elementary school music, secondary school music, general Analysis of curricula: elementary school music, secondary school music, general Evaluation of programmes General and not relevant Acoustics, atypical children, biographies, church music, college music students, college music instruction, community music, effects of music, folk music, instrumental performance practices, music therapy, music analysis, music criticism, pre-school subjects, private schools, professional music and musicians, psychology of music, speech, studio teaching, television, test development, voice technique Three dimensional matrix Dimension I: Central variable The teacher The learner The interaction of the teacher and learner The content of instruction The environment of instruction Dimension II: Method of inquiry Historical Descriptive Experimental Philosophical Dimension III: Ordering by discipline Education Musicology Psychology Philosophy Sociology Anthropology History 25

54 CONTENT ANALYSIS AUTHOR Yarbrough 1984 RESEARCH PERIOD FOCUS OF STUDY Research inquiry types Research topics Research participants SELECTED METHODOLOGICAL FINDINGS: RESEARCH DESIGNS, STRATEGIES OF INQUIRY AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORKS Research inquiry types Historical Philosophical Experimental Behavioural Descriptive SELECTED METHODOLOGICAL FINDINGS: RESEARCH TOPICS AND RESEARCH PARTICIPANTS Research topics and participants Historical research History, biography Philosophical research Analytical, speculative, criticism Experimental research College/university: teacher techniques and approaches, teacher training, expectancy effects, affect, preference attitude, perception, discrimination, identification, memory, performance, physiological responses High school: preferences, aesthetic sensitivity, listening skills, achievement, performance Middle school/junior high: teacher techniques and approaches, preferences, listening skills, rhythm perception and musical expression, performance Elementary school: teacher techniques and approaches, preferences, perception, performance, creativity, effect of music on non-music behaviour Pre-school/kindergarten: teacher techniques and approaches, musical development, influence of peer imitation, preferences, perception, discrimination, performance Various ages: focused instruction, simulation, pitch perception, tempo accuracy Professional musicians: Performance, tempo discrimination Descriptive research College/university: perception, discrimination, identification, performance, computer-assisted and programmed instruction, student teaching Junior high/senior high: preference, attitudes, values, perception, discrimination, identification, performance, growth and development Pre-school/elementary school: preferences, attitudes, perception, discrimination, identification Various ages: preference, attitudes, favouritism, perception, discrimination, identification, performance Music teachers: college/university, K 12 Administration/supervision: curriculum, supervision 26

55 CONTENT ANALYSIS AUTHOR Stabler 1986 Kratus 1992 RESEARCH PERIOD FOCUS OF STUDY Research inquiry types Research topics Research participants Research participants SELECTED METHODOLOGICAL FINDINGS: RESEARCH DESIGNS, STRATEGIES OF INQUIRY AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORKS Research inquiry types Analytical Historical, Policy studies Descriptive Evaluation Experimental Musical analysis Observational Case study, content analysis, ethnographic Philosophical Survey Unclassifiable SELECTED METHODOLOGICAL FINDINGS: RESEARCH TOPICS AND RESEARCH PARTICIPANTS Research topics Administration in music education, aesthetic education, aesthetics, biographies, choral-vocal music, church music, continuing education, ethnomusicology, evaluation in music education, general music, higher education, history of music education, instruction, instructional technology, instrumental music, jazz, keyboard, methods of research, music tests and measurements, musical achievement, musical structure and style, philosophy of music education, programme development, psychology of music, special education, supervision in music education, teacher education Research participants Birth-K, Primary, Intermediate, Junior High, Senior High, College undergraduate, College graduate, Professional/Adult Grashel & Lowe 1995 Yarbrough 1996 Hall Research inquiry types School music educators Research inquiry types Research authors Research topics Research participants Research inquiry types Research topics Research inquiry types Experimental Descriptive Historical Research inquiry types Historical Philosophical Experimental Descriptive Qualitative Research inquiry types Historical Philosophical Descriptive Experimental 27 Research topics Historical research History, biography Experimental research Teaching techniques, teaching approaches, teacher training, perception and discrimination, preferences, instrumental and vocal performance, special education Descriptive research Teaching techniques, preferences, tests and measurements Research participants College, junior high, high school, elementary school, preschool, adult, music teachers, all ages Research topics Philosophy Aesthetics, musical literacy, curriculum development

56 CONTENT ANALYSIS AUTHOR Mc Carthy 1999 Ebie 2002 RESEARCH PERIOD FOCUS OF STUDY SELECTED METHODOLOGICAL FINDINGS: RESEARCH DESIGNS, STRATEGIES OF INQUIRY AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORKS SELECTED METHODOLOGICAL FINDINGS: RESEARCH TOPICS AND RESEARCH PARTICIPANTS Instrumental music Beginning instrumentalists, middle years, intonation, competition, college, Early childhood Listening, movement, symbolic notation Inclusion Curriculum Programmed instruction History Vocal and choral music Assessment Teacher education Perception Preference Personality Rhythm World music Piano Verbal description of music Research topics Research topics categories Music education development, biography, curriculum methods and materials, historiography, research reviews and sources, analysis of Research participants primary sources Research participants Elementary level, secondary level, college and university level, grade in school, major in college and university, public school personnel, public school administrators, college and university personnel, various agegroups, professional musicians, private studio teachers, private studio students, parents Yarbrough Research inquiry types Research inquiry types Historical Philosophical Experimental Descriptive Behavioural Qualitative 28

57 CONTENT ANALYSIS AUTHOR Draves et al Farmer 2008 RESEARCH PERIOD FOCUS OF STUDY Research participants Research designs Research authors SELECTED METHODOLOGICAL FINDINGS: RESEARCH DESIGNS, STRATEGIES OF INQUIRY AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORKS Research designs Quantitative Qualitative Mixed method research SELECTED METHODOLOGICAL FINDINGS: RESEARCH TOPICS AND RESEARCH PARTICIPANTS Research participants Birth-K, Primary, Intermediate, Junior High, Senior High, College undergraduate, College graduate, Professional and adult Kruse et al Lane 2011 Tirovolas & Levitin Research topics Research participants Qualitative strategies of inquiry Research authors Foundational sources Research topics Research participants Qualitative strategies of inquiry Ethnography, case study, collective case study, grounded theory, action research, phenomenology, programme evaluations, not specified 29 Research topics Singing, performing on an instrument, improvising, composing and arranging, reading and notating, listening and analysing, evaluating, relationships to other disciplines, relations to history and culture Research participants Grade level K-4, grade level 5-8, grade level 9-12 Research topics Pitch perception studies, temporal perception studies, melody perception studies, timbre perception studies, musical memory studies, aesthetics studies, performance studies, emotion studies, development studies, measurement studies, music and language studies, crosscultural studies, neural/brain studies Research participants Musicians 1 5 years training, 5 10 years training, 10+ years training, unstated Children 0 5 years training, 5 10 years training, years training, years training Non-musicians Adults Special populations

58 CONTENT ANALYSIS AUTHOR Miksza & Johnson 2012 RESEARCH PERIOD FOCUS OF STUDY Theoretical frameworks Fields of knowledge Research participants SELECTED METHODOLOGICAL FINDINGS: RESEARCH DESIGNS, STRATEGIES OF INQUIRY AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORKS Theoretical frameworks Interactive theory of musical preference (LeBlanc, 1982), genetic epistemology (Piaget, 1954), attribution theory (Weiner 1974), model of direct instruction (Yarbrough & Price, 1989), theory of acquisition of expertise (Ericsson, 1997), social constructivism (Vygotsky, 1978), mastery learning (Bloom, 1968), gender theory (McClary, 1991), transfer theory (Gick & Holyoak, 1987), musical cognition (Meyer, 1956), creativity (Guilford, 1967), Jung theory of personality (Myers & McCaulley, 1985), theory of multiple intelligences (Gardner, 1983), theory of aesthetic appreciation (Berlyne, 1974), social learning theory (Bandura, 1986), music learning theory (Gordon, 1984), model of musical creativity (Webster, 1987), model of memory consolidation (Walker & Stickgold 2004), inverted-u theory of aesthetic preference (Sluckin, Hargreaves, & Colman, 1983), information processing theory (Miller, 1956), field-dependence and field-independence (Witkin et al., 1977), competency-based teacher education (Hall & Jones, 1976), varied theories of musical memory (Dowling, 1978), theory of performance anxiety (LeBlanc, 1994), theory of enculturation (Herskovits, 1948), theory of artistic tension on dance (Sheets, 1966), structure of intellect (Guilford & Hoepfner, 1971), trait-state anxiety theory (Spielberger, 1966), self-regulated learning theory (Zimmerman & Schunk, 2001), personal investment theory (Maehr, 1983), theory of achievement motivation (Atkinson & Raynor, 1974), model of tempo perception (Kuhn & Gates, 1975), model of musical cognition (Swanwick, 1988), model of festival rating success (Bergee & McWhirter, 2005), model of compositional processes (Wallas, 1926), learning styles (Dunn & Dunn, 1993), information integration theory SELECTED METHODOLOGICAL FINDINGS: RESEARCH TOPICS AND RESEARCH PARTICIPANTS Fields of knowledge Psychology Genetic epistemology Music education Interactive theory of musical preference General education Competency-based teacher education Philosophy Theories of musical perception Sociology Gender theory, neuroscience, brain hemisphericity Music theory Ethnomusicology Dance Black studies Business Counselling Musicology Evolutionary biology Foreign language education Linguistics Music composition Research participants Elementary-general, secondary-general, instrumental, choral and vocal, higher education, teacher education 30

59 CONTENT ANALYSIS AUTHOR Randles 2012 Killian et al Nichols 2013a RESEARCH PERIOD FOCUS OF STUDY Phenomenology Strategy of inquiry Phenomenology Research inquiry types Research authors Research topics Research inquiry types Research topics SELECTED METHODOLOGICAL FINDINGS: RESEARCH DESIGNS, STRATEGIES OF INQUIRY AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORKS (Anderson, 1981), Froebelian theory (Froebel, 1878), developmentally appropriate practice (Bredekamp, 1987), brain hemisphericity (Bradshaw & Nettleton, 1981) Research inquiry types Quantitative Qualitative Historical Philosophical Research inquiry types Historical History of an event, history of music education and music teacher education Conceptual Critical, speculative Applied and professional development Applied, action research 31 SELECTED METHODOLOGICAL FINDINGS: RESEARCH TOPICS AND RESEARCH PARTICIPANTS Areas of interest Creativity, identity, composition, improvisation, curriculum development, popular music Research topics Curriculum Courses, programmes, course materials, service learning, partnerships Teaching techniques Effective teaching, self-evaluation, socialization, assessment Professional development Professional development, professional organizations Diversity Diversity, international, special education Recruitment and retention Recruitment, retention, mentoring Policy Certification, scheduling, standards, policy Student teaching Field experience, student teaching Teacher educators Research techniques Technology Philosophical Historical Non-music majors Learning theories Research topics Student teaching, teacher preparation and curriculum, collaborative, cooperative and cross-disciplinary learning, specific teaching methods, techniques, approaches and standards, professional matters, assessment of K 12school students, assessment of preservice or inservice teachers, teacher reflection and self-evaluation, beginning teacher issues, cross-cultural, multiculturalism, cultural diversity, classroom management, music repertoire, special learners

60 CONTENT ANALYSIS AUTHOR Conway 2014a Diaz & Silveira 2014 Jorgensen & Ward- Steinman 2015 RESEARCH PERIOD FOCUS OF STUDY Qualitative case studies Research inquiry types Research topics Research participants Research inquiry types Research topics Integrative levels of analysis SELECTED METHODOLOGICAL FINDINGS: RESEARCH DESIGNS, STRATEGIES OF INQUIRY AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORKS Research reports Experimental and behavioural studies Qualitative studies: ethnographic, case study, combination Descriptive studies Strategy of inquiry Qualitative case study Research inquiry types Experimental Descriptive Theoretical Case study Historical Heuristic model Research methods Historical Descriptive Experimental Philosophical Facets of music education The Teacher The Learner The interaction of the Teacher / Learner The Content of Instruction The Environment of Instruction Integrative levels of analysis Physiological Institutional SELECTED METHODOLOGICAL FINDINGS: RESEARCH TOPICS AND RESEARCH PARTICIPANTS Research procedure areas Appropriateness of design choice, clarity of case study definition, unit of analysis, theoretical framework, discussion of sampling, depth of data sets, description of analysis, trustworthiness or validity Research topic areas Major topics: preference, affective perceptions, expression, affective response, physiological studies, neurological studies, tension studies, meaning studies, functional, expectancy violations. Participant tasks: listening, performance, survey, listening and viewing, analysis, composing, Special topics: multicultural, gender, psychological, body movement, age, special populations, sociocultural, race and ethnicity, socioeconomic, flow Musical styles: classical, jazz, folk, world music, pop, mixed. Research participants Public, college, elementary school, secondary school, professional, infants, faculty, K 12 teachers 32

61 CONTENT ANALYSIS AUTHOR Zelenak 2015 Stambaugh & Dyson 2016 RESEARCH PERIOD FOCUS OF STUDY Research designs Research inquiry types SELECTED METHODOLOGICAL FINDINGS: RESEARCH DESIGNS, STRATEGIES OF INQUIRY AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORKS Socio-cultural Historical Research designs Quantitative Qualitative Research inquiry types Lived experience Cognitive psychology, phenomenology Society and culture Action research, ethnology Language and communication Narrative inquiry, hermeneutics, semiotics Historical Experimental Non-experimental SELECTED METHODOLOGICAL FINDINGS: RESEARCH TOPICS AND RESEARCH PARTICIPANTS Research topics Research topics Advocacy, aesthetics, biography, history, creativity, curriculum, exceptional learners, fieldwork, general music, interdisciplinary, interview, multiple perspectives, music and culture, performance, phenomenology, philosophy to school, marginalization, praxial philosophy, research and critical inquiry, social justice, spirituality, teacher preparation, technology 33

62 DISSERTATION ANALYSIS AUTHOR RESEARCH PERIOD FOCUS OF STUDY SELECTED METHODOLOGICAL FINDINGS: RESEARCH DESIGNS AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORKS SELECTED METHODOLOGICAL FINDINGS: RESEARCH TOPICS AND RESEARCH PARTICIPANTS Weimer Research inquiry types Research topics Statistical techniques Research inquiry types Philosophical method Analytical, Speculative, Critical Historical Chronological, Biographical Descriptive method Questionnaire, Interview, Observational Schemes, Sociometry, Q Methodology, Semantic Differential, Objective Test and Scales, Projective Techniques, Content Analysis, Correlations, Causal-Comparative Delphi Technique, Case Study, Critical Incidents, Trend Study Musical Structure and Style Experimental method Pre-experimental design, Quasi-experimental design, True Experimental experimental design Curriculum Development method Construction of Evaluative Tools method Musical Studies method Research topics History of music education, philosophy of music education, programme development, instruction, supervision, administration, evaluation, psychology, musical structure and style, comparative music education, aesthetic education, sociology, anthropology, instructional technology, related arts, adult education, music therapy and special education, sacred music, physiology Kantorski 1995 Humphreys et al Quesada & Volk Research topics Research topics Curriculum designs and instructional strategies, methods, string class, techniques and skills, etudes, exercises, and excerpts; performance practice, teacher education, string programmes, information resources Research Research topics authors Biography, college, university and teacher education, K-12 music Academic education, community and church music, professional organisations institutions Research topics Research inquiry types Research topics Research inquiry types Philosophical Historical Experimental Descriptive Methodological Research topics African-American, Hispanic, Asian, multiple music cultures, instrumental music, analytical evaluations, curricular development, music teacher preparation 34

63 DISSERTATION ANALYSIS AUTHOR RESEARCH PERIOD FOCUS OF STUDY SELECTED METHODOLOGICAL FINDINGS: RESEARCH DESIGNS AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORKS SELECTED METHODOLOGICAL FINDINGS: RESEARCH TOPICS AND RESEARCH PARTICIPANTS Parker 2001 Kantorski &Stegman 2006 Preston & Humphreys Research authors Academic institutions Research topics Qualitative strategies of inquiry Research topics Research authors Academic institutions Research topics Strategies of inquiry Case study, ethnography, participant observation, focus group research, phenomenological, grounded theory, collaborative, naturalistic, action research, historiography, narrative study, artifact analysis, educational criticism, interview, symbolic interaction Research topics Teaching and Learning, vocal teaching, instrumental teaching, ensembles Research topics Administration, adults, assessment, biography, composing and improvising, creativity, curriculum integration, ensembles, instructional strategies, learning process, listening, multicultural, music programmes, multiple intelligences, music selection process, music therapy and health, private lessons and practicing, professional development, professional organisations, rap and other popular music, solo performing, special learners, state and national standards, teacher education and teaching, teaching process, technology, professional development, solo performing Research topics Biography, college, university and teacher education, K-12 music education, community and church music, professional organisations CITATION ANALYSIS AUTHOR RESEARCH PERIODS FOCUS OF STUDY SELECTED METHODOLOGICAL FINDINGS: RESEARCH DESIGNS AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORKS SELECTED METHODOLOGICAL FINDINGS: RESEARCH TOPICS, PARTICIPANTS AND EMINENT JOURNALS Standley Research authors Music departments Academic institutions 35

64 CITATION ANALYSIS AUTHOR RESEARCH PERIODS FOCUS OF STUDY SELECTED METHODOLOGICAL FINDINGS: RESEARCH DESIGNS AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORKS SELECTED METHODOLOGICAL FINDINGS: RESEARCH TOPICS, PARTICIPANTS AND EMINENT JOURNALS Sample 1992 Kratus 1993 Schmidt & Zdzinski 1993 Brittin & Standley Research authors Research topics 1992 Research authors Bibliographic sources Dissertations Research authors Research topics Research participants Research authors Academic institutions Research topics Research topics Tempo, rhythm, intonation, preference, on-task behavior, listening, auditory perception, attitude, conservation Eminent journals Journal of Research in Music Education, A Philosophy of Music Education Research topics Musical performance, music preference, student on-task and off-task behaviour, perception and performance of tempo, vocal performance, pitch accuracy and intonation, melodic or rhythmic perception, teacher behaviour, student attitudes, evaluation of teaching and instruction, musical stimulus characteristics, instructional methods, participant characteristics Research participants Preschool, elementary, junior high and middle school, senior high, college level, professional musicians, music teachers, music therapists Research topics Teacher, adulthood, college training, students, discrimination, student, education, history, attitudes, school-age children, partially hearing impaired, perception, clinical methods, behaviour, auditory, pre-school age Hamann & Lucas 1998 Price et al Music education journals Music education journals Research authors Eminent journals Journal of Research in Music Education, The Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education, Psychology of Music Eminent journals Journal of Research in Music Education 36

65 CITATION ANALYSIS AUTHOR RESEARCH PERIODS FOCUS OF STUDY SELECTED METHODOLOGICAL FINDINGS: RESEARCH DESIGNS AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORKS SELECTED METHODOLOGICAL FINDINGS: RESEARCH TOPICS, PARTICIPANTS AND EMINENT JOURNALS Randles et al Music education journals Dissertations Research authors Eminent journals Journal of Research in Music Education, The Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education 37

66 Content analysis The body of research in music education is composed of various scholarly contributions including research articles in music education journals, papers presented at conferences and symposia, theses and doctoral dissertations, academic books and other scholarly sources. By conducting research on research, music education researchers contribute to the body of knowledge in the field of music education by evaluating previous and current research trends and are able to determine future directions. Published reviews of music education research establish the status of music education research by identifying the eminence, quality and influence of research articles. This is achieved through analysing the frequencies and patterns of music education research methodology, and considering the significant contributions made by researchers, published journals and academic institutions. The variety of research aims and objectives in these content analyses have led to additional categorisations regarding research approaches, designs, topics of interest and research participants. The range and scope of interest in music education research is complex and diverse, and the examination of patterns within the literature assists music educators in identifying central research focus areas and refining future research questions (Kantorski, 1995:288; Schmidt & Zdzinski, 1993:6). The earliest review of music education research was conducted in order to evaluate, synthesise and disseminate completed research in music education in order to establish whether the music education profession could reach and maintain the status of an academic discipline (Cady, 1964:12). Schneider and Cady (1965) were concerned that research done in music education is unknown to most music scholars and educators, and consequently needed to be collected and synthesised to form an organised and systematic body of knowledge. They identified three elements to ensure the continued growth and development of the music education profession. The three elements were: the evaluation and synthesis of existing research findings related to research problems in music education to identify current practices and potential research areas; the dissemination of knowledge related to the accomplishments and findings gained from research; and scholarly research on specific problems in music education (Schneider & Cady, 1965:3). In the quantitative study by Schneider and Cady (1965) entitled Evaluation and Synthesis of Research Studies Relating to Music Education, published in 1965, they examined master's theses, doctoral dissertations, and published and unpublished research in music education. Their intent was to identify and synthesise research studies related to basic problem areas in music education in a large body of literature and to disseminate these findings to the research community. The project started in 1962 as a compilation of bibliographic citations for theses, dissertations, and articles written between 1930 and 1962 on research studies of which they selected 9150 possible titles related to music education. They found 1818 studies to be 38

67 directly related to music education and 273 remaining studies were identified to be examined and analysed, as they were considered both competent and relevant to music education research. Schneider and Cady (1965) selected 1930 as the beginning date for their study as scholarly leaders in the music education profession expressed the need from that time onwards to establish a representative council to integrate and centralise research studies and relevant information in music education (Earhart, 1936:283; Schneider & Cady, 1965:6). Schneider and Cady (1965:70; 1967) noted that a thorough categorisation of research types and basic research procedures had never been systematically identified and developed, and they were concerned about the numerous terms and descriptions of research types and the inconsistency in the application of these research procedures. They developed a classification system that divided research inquiry types into four broad categories, namely descriptive research, historical research, experimental research and philosophical research, and their findings showed that descriptive studies represented the majority of the research studies. They organised the research problem or theme being investigated into major subject categories such as the teacher, the student, interaction between teacher and learner, the teaching-learning process, constraining elements and programmes in music education with various subcategories in each main category. While working on the project, Cady (1964:12) questioned the eminence and competence of music education research, as it mainly represented philosophical opinions and theories with little verified data presented in the form of scientific reports and findings relevant to the learning and teaching of music. With this research project Schneider and Cady (1965) hoped that their findings would lead to an increase in scholarly research related to the problems of music education and also encourage music educators and researchers to pursue an intensification of systematic and competent research in the field of music education. The monumental study by Schneider and Cady (1965) served its purpose as it led to several in-depth examinations of the research literature on music education, with diverse objectives and purposes focused on different aspects in the content of music education research literature. Their research study was the beginning of an organised body of research related to music education. In response to Cady s (1969:16) concern about the variety and inconsistency of research types and procedures, Sidnell (1972:26) reviewed several classifications and developed a threedimensional matrix for the classification of research studies in music education in his book The Dimensions of Research in Music Education. Sidnell (1972) conducted a quantitative content analysis. The aim of this three-dimensional matrix was not to impose a rigid classification but to assist music education researchers in identifying and classifying research problems. In the first dimension of the matrix Sidnell (1972) categorised music education research into four types of inquiry, namely historical research, descriptive research, experimental research and philosophical research. Similar to the classification of Cady and Schneider (1965), Sidnell (1972) classified the 39

68 areas of interest in the second dimension as the learner, the teacher, the interaction between learner and teacher, the content material for instruction and an environmental instructional setting. Music education is dependent on other academic disciplines, which added an essential dimension to the classification of research studies in music education. These disciplines were divided in the third dimension into areas of education, musicology, psychology, philosophy, sociology, anthropology and history. In the quantitative content analysis by Yarbrough (1984) entitled A Content Analysis of the "Journal of Research in Music Education", , 658 research articles published from in the JRME were reviewed. Particular analytical attention was given to research methodology, research topics, participant characteristics and specific research method techniques. Research methodological classifications were based on those developed previously by Schneider and Cady (1965), Sidnell (1972) and Weimer (1980) and identified research inquiry types as historical, philosophical, experimental, descriptive and behavioural. The highest percentage of research articles were classified as descriptive research, which corresponds with the findings of Schneider and Cady (1965) and Weimer (1980), while the participant group most used was college and university students as research amongst college and university students comprised half of the experimental and behavioural articles. The purpose of Yarbrough s study was not to evaluate and classify the significance and quality of research approaches, but to examine what has been accomplished in the field of music education research in order to proceed positively and efficiently toward an increased understanding of the teaching and learning of music (Yarbrough, 1984: ). Yarbrough (1996) updated her previous study (1984) with a quantitative content analysis entitled The Future of Scholarly Inquiry in Music Education. This study examined articles published from in the Journal of Research in Music Education and is based on the same criteria as the previous study. Qualitative strategies of inquiry did not feature in the previous content analysis as no qualitative research was classified, while in 1996 Yarbrough identified eight out of 258 (3.10%) qualitative studies published since Unlike the findings from the previous study where descriptive research dominated the examination, the most frequently used research design identified in the 1996 study was experimental research, similar to the findings of Grashel and Lowe (1995), and college-age students were the most preferred participation group, as in her previous study (1984). In her quantitative content analysis, The First 50 Years of the "Journal of Research in Music Education": A Content Analysis, Yarbrough (2002) updated both her previous content analysis studies (1984, 1996) to include frequency counts of articles which were based on theses and dissertations as well as analyses of articles related to research methodology published from 1996 to 2002 in the Journal of Research in Music Education. Research results showed that notwithstanding the continuing dominance of quantitative research with descriptive 40

69 research as the preferred design, an increase of qualitative studies was identified by Yarbrough (2002): 3.85% compared to 3.10% in the previous study (Yarbrough, 1996). A similar quantitative content analysis was conducted by Stabler (1986) in A content analysis of the "Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education," in which he reviewed and categorized the combined frequency and percentage of occurrence of articles related to research inquiry types and topics. Stabler (1986) used Weimer's (1980) thesis on doctoral dissertations as a model for his examination and classification of 964 articles published from in the Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education. Findings showed that descriptive research was the research inquiry type most frequently used, corresponding with the findings of Schneider and Cady (1965), Weimer (1980), and Yarbrough (1984, 2002). The content analytical studies conducted by Yarbrough (1996, 2002) showed that qualitative studies in the field of music education research increased since Through comprehensive examination of qualitative contributions in music education, music educators are able to gain a better perspective on the status, usage and role of qualitative inquiry in music education, and to determine how qualitative inquiry in music education compares to qualitative research in general. The first study to exclusively examine and analyse the status of qualitative inquiry in music education, was a quantitative description analysis conducted by Lane (2011). He stated that the most effective way to examine the usage, focus and nature of qualitative research in music education is through a systematic review and analysis of the literature. In his study, entitled A Descriptive Analysis of Qualitative Research Published in Two Eminent Music Education Research Journals, Lane (2011) examined a total of 65 qualitative studies published between 1983 and 2008 in the Journal of Research of Music Education and the Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education to identify frequently used qualitative research procedures, authors and cited foundational sources. The reason for including the most used foundational sources most common employed in music education research is to gain a better understanding of which qualitative classifications, terminology and procedures inform qualitative research practice in music education. Lane (2011:73) explained that the purpose of this research was not to evaluate the eminence or determine the classification of qualitative research, but to determine the focus of qualitative inquiry in music education. Findings revealed a noticeable increase in the proportion of qualitative studies among all studies conducted, namely 1% during , 2% during and 16% during with an average of 6% (65 out of 1006) during Ethnography and case study were the two strategies of inquiry most often selected, which is similar to the findings of Kantorski and Stegman (2006). Other qualitative strategies of inquiry included collective case study, grounded theory, action research, phenomenology, programme evaluations, and a category for research strategies that were not specified. Ethnography and case study covered 41

70 half of the studies, while 12 out of 65 studies did not disclose a specific strategy of inquiry other than the generic description of 'qualitative'. The two most influential foundational sources were identified as the Handbook of Qualitative Research (Denzin & Lincoln, 2005) and Qualitative Research and Evaluation Methods (Patton, 2002). It is evident from the results that qualitative research represented a small percentage of the total content published in the years before 2000, but similar to Yarbrough s (2002) findings, the number of qualitative studies has risen significantly since the beginning of the millennium (Lane, 2011:65). Findings revealed that, although quantitative studies dominate the existing literature, qualitative inquiry is firmly rooted in music education research. Lane (2011) proposed future research into qualitative content in other eminent music education journals, as this will provide insight and understanding of the usage and focus of qualitative inquiry in music education and will encourage the further development and advancement of qualitative inquiry in music education (Lane, 2011:74 75). Another investigation, conducted by Tirovolas and Levitin (2011), was the study of 384 empirical articles published from 1983 to 2010 in the journal Music Perception entitled Music Perception and Cognition Research from 1983 to 2010: A Categorical and Bibliometric Analysis of Empirical Articles in Music Perception. The aim of this quantitative bibliometric analysis was to systematically review and analyse empirical articles according to topic, participants, stimuli, materials, outcome measures and musical styles in order to provide a guided and objective perspective on research trends in the field over 26 years. Findings revealed that theoretical articles about music perception mostly originated from music departments, while empirical articles originated most frequently from psychology departments (Tirovolas & Levitin, 2011:35). Two content analytical studies (Killian et al., 2012; Nichols, 2013a) were conducted on articles published between 1991 and 2011 in the Journal of Music Teacher Education. The purpose of the first study, a quantitative descriptive analysis conducted by Killian et al. (2012) entitled The Journal of Music Teacher Education: A Content Analysis of Articles , was to examine possible changes occurring in the 282 articles according to type of article, researcher, areas of interest, and research procedures across 5-year increments. They categorised the research articles as quantitative, qualitative or historical, and concluded that qualitative inquiry had earned a rightful and valuable place in music education research. Killian et al. (2012) found that methodological preference was not a determining factor related to specific research topics selected. There were minor differences in topic selection between quantitative and qualitative research, with curriculum studies and teaching techniques the two most discussed research topics in both methodological approaches. The disclosure of qualitative methodological designs, data collection and analysis processes became more specified, and findings showed that 41% of qualitative studies specified methodological procedures which improved the credibility and quality of the research articles (Killian et al., 2012:96 97). Compared to the proportion of qualitative 42

71 inquiry of 6% from as identified by Lane (2011), Killian et al. (2012) identified a proportion of 15.8% qualitative studies from which showed that qualitative methodologies have become well developed and established in the field of music education and play a significant role in approaching research problems within music education. The second study conducted on articles published in the Journal of Music Teacher Education from 1991 to 2011, was a quantitative exploratory analysis by Nichols (2013a). He investigated the frequencies of research inquiry types and topics appearing in this journal from 1991 to 2011 in his study The First 20 Years: A Content Analysis of the Journal of Music Teacher Education, Nichols (2013a) based his study on the existing typology used by Yarbrough (1984), with some minor terminology changes such as conceptual studies replacing philosophical studies. Several broad categories were used to classify articles such as conceptual, historical and applied research, while research reports were further classified into three broad subcategories, namely descriptive, qualitative, and experimental or behavioral research. Research results showed that descriptive research, congruent with the studies from Schneider and Cady (1965), Weimer (1980), Yarbrough (1984, 2002) and Stabler (1986) dominated this category. The reason he cites for this dominance is that qualitative research was introduced in this journal for the first time in Qualitative research included mainly ethnographic techniques and case studies, which corresponds with the findings of Kantorski and Stegman (2006) and Lane (2011). The study showed a tendency for using particular topics with certain research types, which implied that certain research inquiry types were preferred in answering specific research questions. The most frequent topics, namely teacher preparation and the curriculum, were identified in historical, conceptual and applied research types. Diaz and Silveira (2014) conducted a quantitative content and bibliometric analysis to determine how trends and patterns in the study of music have developed throughout the period between 1990 and 2009 in their publication Music and Affective Phenomena: A 20-Year Content and Bibliometric Analysis of Research in Three Eminent Journals. They examined 286 articles published in three eminent music research journals related to research inquiry types and research procedures. The categories used in this study were based on the studies of Schmidt and Zdzinski (1993), Tirovolas and Levitin (2011) and Yarbrough (1984, 1996). Congruent with the findings of Grashel and Lowe (1995) and Yarbrough (1996), the results revealed that experimental research was the most used research design. Diaz and Silveira (2014:75) also found an increase of descriptive research studies as shown in previous studies (Nichols, 2013a; Schneider & Cady, 1965; Stabler, 1986; Weimer, 1980; Yarbrough, 1984, 2002), with a decline in the number of philosophical and historical publications throughout the last 20 years. Findings showed that areas of interest related to expression, physiological and neurological issues, folk, jazz, and world musics were the most popular, and college-age participants were the most selected participant 43

72 group, which is congruent with the findings of Yarbrough (1984, 1996), Kratus (1992), Draves et al. (2008) and Ebie (2002). To determine paradigms shifts in music education research, Jorgensen and Ward-Steinman (2015) conducted a quantitative content analysis and examined 499 articled published in the Journal of Research in Music Education during the period 1953 to Their study is based on a heuristic model which draws on the interdisciplinary model developed by Sidnell (1972). Their findings reflected a clear paradigm shift from the philosophical and historical approaches with the focus on the humanities towards psychologically motivated experimental research with a scientific focus. A paradigm shift related to the facets of music education showed the focus moved away from the environment of instruction towards the content of instruction, and from a broad and general level of analysis to a more specific level of analysis. Similar to the findings of previous studies (Nichols, 2013a; Schneider & Cady, 1965; Stabler, 1986; Weimer, 1980; Yarbrough, 1984, 2002), they show that the most used research inquiry type was descriptive research, the most popular topic being studied was the content of instruction. Interestingly enough, the interaction between teacher and student was the least studied topic (Jorgensen & Ward- Steinman, 2015:277). Jorgensen and Ward-Steinman (2015) concluded that more systematical reasoning is needed in music education research, but they questioned the defining of a universal classification model, since music education is complex and pluralistic in nature. They added that although paradigm shifts are necessary in any research discipline. Research should be undertaken across the complete spectrum of research interests in the field of music education to be reflective of all the research perspectives in music education (Jorgensen & Ward-Steinman, 2015:278) In his quantitative content analysis, Zelenak (2015: ) examined qualitative and quantitative methodological trends related to research designs, strategies of inquiry and methods employed in research articles from the Journal of Research in Music Education, the Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education and Psychology of Music in two-year periods over ten years increments, and which included the periods from , and The qualitative research design was identified on the basis of research traditions, namely lived experience, society and culture, language and communication and historical research. Both the Journal of Research in Music Education and Psychology of Music contained a minority of qualitative research with 15.60% and 21.33% respectively, while qualitative articles dominated the Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education with 51.02%. A total of 88 out of 314 (28.03%) research articles employed qualitative procedures, and when compared proportionally to the findings of 6% by Lane (2011) and 15.8% by Killian et al. (2012), showed the significant role of qualitative research in music education. Although the number of qualitative studies increased between 1988 and 2009, the ratio of qualitative to quantitative studies remained 44

73 consistent during these years (Zelenak, 2015:248). Zelenak (2015) concluded that music researchers are able to view qualitative research as a significant contributor to the growth and development of research in music education. The notable increase in the use of systematic qualitative inquiry indicates that this approach has reached new levels of significance, credibility and prominence in music education research. Two studies (Conway, 2014a; Randles, 2012) focused on a specific qualitative strategy of inquiry. In his qualitative study entitled Phenomenology: A Review of the Literature, Randles (2012) reviewed the literature on the use of phenomenology as a strategy of inquiry in education research, with a focus on music education research. Topics such as creativity, identity, composition, improvisation, curriculum development and popular music were the most popular. Randles (2012) concluded that phenomenology as a strategy of inquiry linked to practice has a lot to offer music education research in the future. Following the analysis model of Lane (2011), Conway (2014a) examined nine qualitative case studies, published in the Journal of Research in Music Education and the Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education from 2007 to In her study, entitled Case study research in Music Education, Conway (2014a) examined only case studies that the authors explicitly termed a case study and analysed them according to the following aspects: appropriateness of design choice, clarity of case study definition, unit of analysis, theoretical framework, discussion of sampling, depth of data sets, description of analysis, and trustworthiness or validity. Conway (2014a) recommended that qualitative case study researchers should identify what type of case study design is conducted, define the unit of analysis that was used for the study, provide a theoretical framework in the literature section, include a discussion of the sampling procedures used to select participants, gather multiple forms of data, describe the analysis approach and strategies, and provide strategies for confirming credibility and trustworthiness. In conducting research with blended strategies of inquiry, researchers should define which procedures of each strategy of inquiry were followed. Some content analytical studies were examined which focused on certain research fields in music education. An analysis of selected areas of interest or participant groups revealed valuable information related to the status of inquiry and nature of the research questions being asked. When one of these research areas was disproportionately investigated, it was evident that the research community considers research within a certain interest area or participant group to be more valuable than others. Music education research covers a wide spectrum of areas of interest, and to determine the variety and relevance of specific topics in music education, relevant research topics should be periodically examined. Hall (1998) reviewed 150 journal articles published in Contributions to Music Education from according to research topics. He provided a classification of each topic and discussed the research findings according to each topic individually. As in Sidnell 45

74 (1972), the topics were classified into four research types, namely historical, philosophical, descriptive and experimental research. Marie Mc Carthy (1999) categorized the content of 117 articles in the first twenty volumes of The Bulletin of Historical Research in Music Education according to the focus of study of each and provided a classified index of all the articles in her study entitled The Bulletin of Historical Research in Music Education: A Content Analysis of Articles in the First Twenty Volume. Categorisation of articles was problematic as some articles did not fit easily into a specific category while others could be placed in more than one category (McCarthy, 1999:181). The purpose of the quantitative study by Stambaugh and Dyson (2016), A Comparative Content Analysis of Music Educators Journal and Philosophy of Music Education Review ( ), was to explore the areas of interest of music teachers and university faculty in five-year increments as reflected in the research topics of 889 articles in Music Educators Journal and Philosophy of Music Education Review from 1993 to Findings revealed that topics published in Music Education Review such as performance and social justice increased while creativity and technology gradually appeared less frequently, and in Philosophy of Music Education Review articles on marginalisation decreased, while areas of interest focusing on creativity, research, critical inquiry and performance increased. Stambaugh and Dyson (2016:251) concluded that the research topics in these two journals represent the interests, more than the needs of the music education profession. To determine the frequency of involvement of participants of various ages and musical backgrounds in music education research, Kratus (1992) analysed 775 articles in Subjects in Music Education Research, from three eminent music education journals from 1961 to This quantitative content analysis showed that students in elementary school were used as participants more frequently than college-age students in articles during , while after 1980 the majority of participants were in the college-undergraduate category, where they were classified as musically select, indicating that they were music majors, ensemble members or applied music students. Kratus (1992:54) was concerned about the uneven selection of higher education students because they were readily accessible to music education researchers who produced the greatest amount of research in music education. He advised researchers against the comfortable approach of selecting accessible participants as the main factor in the choice of research participants and the research question. It is therefore important that researchers must first consider what questions in the music education profession need to be examined and answered and then choose their participants accordingly. More research was needed among participation groups other than college and university students, since the findings revealed, in correspondence with Yarbrough s (1984) results, that these two groups were the most frequently studied participants in music education research. 46

75 The purpose of the quantitative content analysis by Ebie (2002), Characteristics of 50 Years of Research Samples Found in the "Journal of Research in Music Education", , was to examine and identify definite features and frequencies of participants published in 819 articles in the Journal of Research in Music Education from 1953 to Some articles in the earlier issues were excluded because of insufficient details on sampling strategies. As noted in the studies of Yarbrough (1984), Kratus (1992), and Draves et al. (2008), the largest research participation group was drawn from college and university students, because they were conveniently accessible to the professors who were conducting research studies to be published in research journals (Ebie, 2002:289). Research findings showed a need for research related to participants involved in vocal and choral music, and string and orchestral ensembles and non-performance music classes, at both the elementary and secondary levels. Draves et al. (2008) replicated the research done by Kratus in 1992 in their quantitative content analysis entitled Subjects in Music Education Research: by determining the participant group most studied within music education research from They analysed 119 of the 724 articles selected in three music education journals by examining the frequency with which researchers study participants of various ages and musical backgrounds to determine changes with regard to the participants involved in music education research. Kratus (1992) and Draves et al. (2008) were both concerned about certain emerging participation groups as the population of convenience (Draves et al., 2008:28), such as college undergraduates, because they were readily accessible to lecturers and professors who publish most of the research on music education and cautioned researchers to ensure that accessibility of participants must not be a primary factor when selecting research subjects. Their study results showed that the selection of participants participating in music education research remained mostly similar to what the results of Kratus (1992) revealed, as researchers still preferred to select participation groups according to the greatest convenience. The purpose of the quantitative descriptive analysis by Grashel and Lowe (1995) was to determine the focus and status of research conducted by school music educators. Grashel and Lowe (1995) listed the research contributions of 27 school music educators working in school music programmes that were published in the JRME from 1953 to 1993 in a study entitled Contributions of School Music Educators to the Research Literature as Published in the Journal of Research in Music Education, They identified the research inquiry types as experimental, descriptive and historical, with experimental research as the most prominent type, which is similar to the findings of Yarbrough (1996). They suggested that philosophical and qualitative methodologies were possible research inquiry types that could be more frequently employed by school music practitioners in their research studies. Grashel and Lowe (1995) emphasised the importance of the dissemination of research results and the encouragement and 47

76 assistance of the research community to music educators to publish their research in music education journals. Farmer (2008) conducted a quantitative analysis, Authorship and methodology patterns in Music Education research, , to evaluate patterns in gender-orientated studies and research designs in music education research published in seven journals from 1984 to The findings revealed that although qualitative researchers continued to publish an increasing number of research articles, the majority of published research in music education journals was based on quantitative methodologies. Farmer (2008) warned journal editorial board members not to favour a quantitative methodology, as authors will then find a way to build their research studies around quantitative methodologies in order for their research to be selected for publication. Farmer (2008) recommend that music education journals need to provide additional space for qualitative research in order to expose it to a wider spectrum of music education researchers, which will contribute towards a better understanding and recognition of qualitative methodologies (2008:37 39). Farmer (2008) concluded that when music education researchers are more exposed to multiple methodologies, they may consider types of research questions that are best guided by qualitative research. In their quantitative analysis, The Influence of the "National Standards" on Research Trends in Music Education, Kruse et al. (2008) investigated the influence of the American national research standards for music education in classrooms on research trends in music education. The authors determined publication frequency in a number of research articles exploring topics associated with the National Standards for Music Education before and after the publication of these standards. They analysed empirically-based qualitative and quantitative articles from three peerreviewed journals published between and concerning the percentage of studies related to each National Standard grade level and discovered that the implementation of the National Standards for Music Education did not produce an increase in published research studies in the field of music education (Kruse et al., 2008:57). A large number of theoretical frameworks generated within various academic fields of knowledge have influenced music education research. Music education research is not only dependent on employing existing theoretical frameworks to guide the research process in defining the research purpose and research questions, but also on generating new theories that have emerged from research. Music education is a diverse discipline with a broad spectrum of interest areas, and therefore it is important to keep abreast of dominant theoretical frameworks in music education research (Miksza & Johnson, 2012:17). In their quantitative content analysis, Theoretical Frameworks Applied in Music Education Research: A Content Analysis of the Journal of Research in Music Education, 1979 to 2009, Miksza and Johnson (2012) examined articles published in this journal between 1979 and 2009 to establish which theoretical frameworks were employed in 48

77 music education research. They determined which academic fields of knowledge had an influence on music education research by establishing whether each article employed a theoretical framework related to the research problem, what the area of emphasis and the participants of each study, and the academic field of knowledge outside music education in which the theory was generated (Miksza & Johnson, 2012:7). Research findings indicated that although a total of 144 different theoretical frameworks were identified, research articles employing a theoretical framework were in the minority as only one third of all research studies cited a theoretical framework related to the respective research problem. The three most cited theoretical frameworks were interactive theory of music preference (LeBlanc, 1982), genetic epistemology (Piaget, 1954) and attribution theory (Weiner, 1974). Psychology was the field of knowledge most cited, but other fields included music education, general education, philosophy and sociology. Miksza and Johnson (2012) noted that the most cited theoretical framework, namely the interactive theory of music preference, was derived from the field of music education. This is congruent with the assertion by Jorgensen (2009:408) that context-specific theoretical frameworks are valuable to music education research and practice Dissertation analysis Doctoral studies are a significant source of information available to the music education profession as they provide an overview of the focus and status of music education research. In order to have a positive impact on the practice of music education, it is important to examine the research procedures employed in doctoral studies. Weimer (1980) examined and analysed 1,760 doctoral dissertations in music education produced between 1963 and 1978 with the focus on research topics and research methods entitled Trends in topics, methods of research, and statistical techniques employed in dissertations completed for doctor's degrees in music education, The quantitative content analysis is based on the classification of Schneider and Cady (1965) with additional categories and subcategories. Most results are in line with the work of Schneider and Cady (1965), which is the only comparable investigation, such as the descriptive type of inquiry which remained the preferred choice of research approach (Weimer, 1980:121). Weimer also revealed that research topics relating to education and instruction became more prominent than historical research topics. The purpose of the quantitative content analysis by Kantorski (1995) entitled A content analysis of doctoral research in string education, in the Journal of Research in Music Education was to analyse the contents of doctoral research studies related to string education written between 1936 and He categorised and analysed 197 available abstracts for the year of completion, type of degree, string instrument and nine topic areas: curriculum designs and instructional strategies; methods; string class; techniques and skills; etudes; exercises and 49

78 excerpts; performance practice; teacher education; string programmes; and information resources. Results showed that the three topic areas most often used in string education dissertations were techniques and skills, performance practice, and information resources. In Doctoral dissertations on the history of music education and music therapy, Humphreys et al. (1996) conducted a quantitative content analysis and examined authorship, topics and selected demographic variables related to dissertations on the history of music education from 1923 to They used the same categories as Kratus (1992) and analysed selected characteristics and trends in 629 doctoral dissertations in historical research in music education and music therapy. The quality of the dissertations was not evaluated, but results revealed which regions, academic institutions and authors made significant contributions to the knowledge base of music education research (Humphreys et al., 1996:121). In line with the findings of Kratus (1992) and Yarborough (1984), the college-age participant groups were the preferred choice of participants (Humphreys et al., 1996:120). Contrary to the findings of Standley (1984) and Brittin and Standley (1997) on prominence in music institution publications, the findings in Humphreys et al. (1996) correlate only partially because both dissertations and articles were included in their respective studies as a criteria for faculty productivity. To establish the state of intercultural musical instruction and evaluate the changes in music education in a pluralistic society, Quesada and Volk (1997) reviewed doctoral studies in World Musics and Music Education: A Review of Research, They examined the teaching of world musics from 1973 to 1993 and categorised the data according to research topics. Findings from their quantitative content analysis revealed a need for teacher training both in world musics and in specific music cultures. In the article, Recent South African postgraduate research in music, Parker (2001) analysed 291 masters and doctoral theses in music at South African universities from 1990 to Parker (2001:39) noted in her quantitative content analysis that the number of theses dealing with music education rose from 20% to 37% during this period and stated that, although the research illuminates some trends in the body of dissertations, she was unable to evaluate certain aspects such as the contextualisation of the subject matter in contemporary educational discourse, the relevance of the theoretical and philosophical frameworks, the quality of the methodologies and the overall contribution of a thesis to music research. She advised music researchers to give sufficient attention to the development of new frameworks and strategies of inquiry in order to contribute in a meaningful way to the body of existing literature in music education (Parker, 2001:44). The quantitative content analysis by Kantorski and Stegman (2006) A Content Analysis of Qualitative Research Dissertations in Music Education, , was the first study of the kind 50

79 to examine only qualitative research methodology. They analysed the abstracts of 148 music education dissertations written from 1998 to 2002 to determine the degree type, year and country in which the dissertation was written, strategy of inquiry, area of interest and research method selected. Although some researchers defined their dissertation only as "qualitative, most specified the strategy of inquiry and method employed. In line with the findings of the study by Lane (2011), which focused only on qualitative methodology, case study was the strategy of inquiry most frequently used, followed by ethnography. Other qualitative strategies of inquiry identified were phenomenology and grounded theory. Some case studies were described as collective, comparative, group, historical, intrinsic, longitudinal, multiple, multi-site, and naturalistic, while other researchers selected case study and ethnographic research as a generic term for various types of qualitative research. A broad spectrum of diverse research topics was identified, and the topics most often used were multiculturalism, music programmes and teacher education, followed by curriculum integration, instructional strategies and ensemble work. Kantorski and Stegman (2006) suggested possible areas for future research such as exemplary teachers and conductors, the development of undergraduate music education students, teaching music to enhance student understanding, school enrichment and entertainment programmes, and technology and musical learning. Preston and Humphreys (2007) extended the earlier study by Humphreys, Bess and Bergee (1996) by examining a list of dissertations on the history of music education and music therapy produced from 1990 to 1999 in their study entitled Historical Research on Music Education and Music Therapy: Doctoral Dissertations of the Twentieth Century. Findings from their quantitative content analysis revealed that the frequency and percentage for each category did not reflect major changes when compared proportionately with the period before Preston and Humphreys (2007) explained that no information on content and methodology is included in the study, and recommended that future studies examine and synthesise methodological trends in dissertation writing (2007:68) Citation analysis Excellence in research scholarship is important to the music profession and can be evaluated by conducting a citation analysis to determine the level of quality, frequency, productivity and eminence of music education researchers. The many criteria for determining eminence are difficult to define and each citation analysis is based on different focus points, guidelines and basic elements (Schmidt & Zdzinski, 1993:17). Frequently cited scholarly work is valuable to other scholars as it influences the broader research community and contributes to the field of music education. It is necessary to review journal citations on a regular basis as research trends and developments in music education influence levels of eminence, frequency and productivity. 51

80 The study by Standley (1984), Productivity and Eminence in Music Research, was the first of its kind to determine the level of productivity and prominence related to music education scholars. A quantitative content analysis of three specified journals was conducted to rank the eminence of music researchers, music programmes and affiliated academic institutions based on frequency of publication and citation. Findings revealed a correlation between the most influential music researchers and the top ranked universities. The purpose of the quantitative content analysis by Sample (1992), Frequently cited studies as indicators of Music Education research interests, , was to examine 27 research studies published between 1963 and 1989 that relate to music teaching and learning, and that were cited frequently in three selected music education research journals. The articles were categorized according to the research inquiry type, topic and content, identifying prominent areas of music education as well as categories of music education less frequently cited. Sample (1992) was not concerned with the quality of the research as frequency of citation was used as the criterion for identifying certain studies as influential and eminent. The most popular research topics were identified as tempo, intonation and preference, whereas topics such as creativity, composition, improvisation, teacher education, teacher personality and curriculum were not found. The reason for experimental research as the most frequently used research inquiry type, was the convenience of relating the inquiry type to the strategies of data analysis (Sample, 1992: ). In his quantitative content analysis, Eminence in Music Education Research as Measured in the Handbook of Research on Music Teaching and Learning, Kratus (1993) examined which music education scholars, journals, authored monographs, edited books or proceedings, and dissertations were the most eminent, as measured by 4,596 citations in the Handbook of Research on Music Teaching (Colwell, 1992). Kratus (1993:31) clearly stated that eminence rankings were based on frequency of citations intended to identify the most influential scholarship and was not to be equated with excellence or quality of the eminent contributions. The most frequently cited scholars were E. E. Gordon and R. Colwell, and the most eminent bibliographic sources were the two journals Journal of Research in Music Education and A Philosophy of Music Education, and the Handbook of Research on Teaching and Learning (Colwell, 1992). Schmidt and Zdzinski (1993) constructed their quantitative content analysis entitled Cited Quantitative Research Articles in Music Education Research Journals, : A Content Analysis of Selected Studies differently from Yarbrough (1984), Kratus (1993), and Ebie (2002) in that they examined selected quantitative studies that were valuable, influential and seminal to subsequent research. They examined the 26 most cited and influential articles published in six selected music education journals between 1975 and 1990 in order to reveal prominent streams of music education research, and identified central themes, namely music perception and performance, student and teacher behaviour, affective response, and evaluation of teaching. 52

81 Research results revealed that perception, affective response, performance, and teachers' methods and behaviours were the most prominent research themes. Because of the overlap of research articles in Schmidt and Zdzinski (1993) and in Yarbrough (1984), some similarities related to research topics were found. Schmidt and Zdzinski s (1993) study was based upon the participant categories defined by Sidnell (1972), and they found that college-age students were most frequently represented in music education research, which corresponded with the findings of previous studies (Kratus, 1992; Yarbrough, 1984). Brittin and Standley (1997) contributed to the continuing evaluation of achievement, productivity and eminence of music education researchers by updating the database established by Standley (1984) with citation analysis from three peer-reviewed journals from in a quantitative content analysis entitled Researchers in Music Education/Therapy: Analysis of Publications, Citations, and Retrievability of Work. They identified the most cited and productive music researchers and academic departments contributing to the research literature. Compared to the study by Schmidt and Zdzinski (1993), the cross-comparisons verified that the citation listing for productivity and eminence in music education research remained relatively constant over time (Brittin & Standley, 1997:152). The quantitative content analysis by Hamann and Lucas (1998), Establishing Journal Eminence in Music Education Research, was conducted to determine journal eminence in music education by using citation analysis in six music education research journals from The results of their study were valuable to music education researchers as the status and eminence of a journal in which scholars publish is a defining factor in granting academic tenure and support by academic institutions, which influences the music education research community (Hamann & Lucas, 1998:406). Although research findings revealed the two most eminent journals were Journal of Research in Music Education and the Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education, there was an even citation rate among all the music education journals. Researchers regularly attend national and international music education seminars and conferences as part of their professional development and for the purpose of dissemination of their research (Price et al., 2010:91). The conferences proceedings, reports and foci are rarely examined and an empirical basis is needed for understanding researchers output, feedback and research results concerning these activities. In a quantitative content analysis by Price et al. (2010), Examination of the International Scope of Papers Presented at the International Society for Music Education Research Commission Seminars, , the authors examined 2,250 citations from 238 papers presented at ten International Society for Music Education (ISME) biennial International Research Commission Seminars from published in 407 journals following the same criteria adopted by Kratus (1993). Price et al. (2010) concluded that the Journal of Research in Music Education was the most cited music education journal. 53

82 Randles et al. (2010) conducted a quantitative content analysis to examine data from 7,426 citations to identify eminence trends in music education research in their study Eminence in Music Education Research as Measured in the New Handbook of Research on Music Teaching and Learning. They measured the most frequently cited scholars and most eminent bibliographical sources in the New Handbook of Research on Music Teaching and Learning (Colwell & Richardson, 2002) and compared their results to those found by Kratus (1993) in his review of the Handbook of Research on Music Teaching and Learning Handbook edited by Colwell (1992). The most frequently cited journals were found to be the Journal of Research in Music Education and the Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education which corresponds with the findings of Kratus (1993), Hamann and Lucas (1998) and Price et al. (2010). Similar to the findings of Hamann and Lucas (1998), but different from the study by Kratus (1993), this study showed a more equal representation of the top two journals than the study by Kratus (1993). The impact of these scholars and sources on the field of music education research was determined by identifying scholars, journals, authored monographs, edited books or proceedings and dissertations that were the most eminent. The frequency of citations offered a greater understanding of the eminent scholars and sources influencing music education, but it does not measure the quality of the scholarly writing and research (Randles et al., 2010:76). As seen in the various studies on research in the field of music education, establishing patterns through content analytical studies within the body of literature in music education provides insight into the diverse areas of concern for current practices and future research directions, determines prominence in music education research, and assesses the extent to which research in music education is truly comprehensive. Sample (1992:153) argues that the status of research in the field of music education, as revealed in selected music education journals, assisted researchers in identifying important research themes and determining less significant research areas under investigation. Many researchers have reviewed and analysed various aspects, themes and research procedures of the body of research literature in music education, and many of these reviews have overlapping timelines, citations, and articles. Although the foci of research areas and methods have changed over the years, subtle differences in findings emerged, which is evidence of consistent, systematic and rigorous research (Kantorski & Stegman, 2006; Kratus, 1993; Weimer, 1980; Yarbrough, 1984). Kantorski (1995) argues that by determining and analysing the patterns and trends in music education research, the music education profession benefits through an expanding body of knowledge that evaluates previous scholarly areas of interest when formulating future research questions. He states that leading music education journals function as historical records of a variety of lines of research 54

83 (Kantorski, 1995:288) and are informative sources for studying trends in music education research and assist in recommending areas of research that may be useful to pursue. The evaluation and analyses of patterns and trends within the literature served to identify central research problem areas and key topics and laid the foundation for current and future practices in music education research (Preston & Humphreys, 2007:72). The research community in music education benefits from continual reviews of eminence in music education scholarship, as this assists in determining the centre and focus of research areas, identifies significant journals and authors, and structures the focus of research to contribute in a coherent way to the growing body of scholarship (Randles et al., 2010:75 76). Although the significant amount of qualitative work in music education could be seen as a strength, there are also concerns over the quality and appropriateness of music education research (Bresler & Stake, 2006:286; Burnard, 2006:143; Flinders & Richardson, 2006:312; Higgs et al., 2009:8; Reimer, 2006:6). The underlying theoretical and philosophical assumptions and methodological research processes were not always explained and disclosed, and therefore the trustworthiness and rigour of the research could not be evaluated (Burnard, 2006:144). Some music education researchers did not define the nature of their studies and were consequently classified by analysts as other, while others did discuss their procedures, but only in broad and vague or incorrect terms (Schneider & Cady, 1967; Weimer, 1980; Yarbrough, 1984). There are concerns about researchers using the broad term qualitative research, but the research question and problem statement are often vague or absent, and the conclusions, implications and recommendations are not always clearly defined, or about researchers selecting the general term descriptive research to cover various distinctive forms of qualitative inquiry (Flinders & Richardson, 2006:312,329; Sandelowski, 2000: ). Bresler and Stake (2006:271) note that qualitative approaches are given various vague names and descriptions such as field study, or naturalistic, interpretive or descriptive research. They refer to qualitative research as a general term to include several strategies of inquiry that share certain qualitative characteristics. Flinders and Richardson (2006:330) comment that music researchers have difficulty in keeping abreast of methodological developments in qualitative inquiry regardless of a proliferation of knowledge on new research procedures and processes, and new forms of representation and dissemination. It is evident from the above reviews and analyses that various methodological concerns have emerged repeatedly in music education research and are still continuing (Flinders & Richardson, 2006:330; Reimer, 2006:6). Research approaches being classified in broad and general terms because of unclear or omitted accounts of research processes and methods remain a problem with qualitative researchers. Analysts have difficulty in distinguishing what strategies of inquiry 55

84 direct the choice and use of certain methods, as these research processes are not made explicit by the authors. Burnard (2006: ) acknowledges certain challenges in music education concerning the explicitness of the research process and the need to advance new methodological approaches, while Colwell and Richardson (2002:vii) are concerned with the lack of appreciation of rigorous research in music education. The appropriate use of research terminology is important in music education research to ensure the highest quality research based on rigorous designs (Conway, 2003a:90 91; Fung, 2008:42). Burnard (2006: ) questions why researchers disagree on terms such as methodology and methods of research, and why the research processes of inquiry are not made explicit. She argues that the way in which music education researchers define, disclose and justify their methodological decisions and processes is significant in establishing the credibility and methodological appropriateness of their research (Burnard, 2006:150). To ensure trustworthiness, researchers need to explain and account for their choice of strategies of inquiry, as this provides a contextual foundation for a rigorous research process. Colwell et al. (1996:104) suggest that journal editors should clearly differentiate between scientific and non-scientific published research studies by insisting that scientific researchers should indicate a research design stating a problem statement, ask specific research questions, describe the systematic collection of data, give an interpretation of data that is free of bias and offer conclusions based on intellectual rigour. They note that music education research tends to be organised around a combination of different research types or procedures such as interpretive, descriptive, comparative and longitudinal rather than by specific systematic strategies of inquiry (Flinders & Richardson, 2006:330; Reimer, 2006:5; Roulston, 2006:155; Yin, 2011:7) The importance of identifying and formulating clear research questions and strategies of inquiry to support those questions will ensure that the research is conducted in a systematic, adequate and insightful way (Colwell et al., 1996:105). There are concerns that research conducted in the field of music education does not find the appropriate questions to ask and is not focused enough to answer questions that are truly helpful and meaningful to music practitioners (Colwell et al., 1996). Colwell et al. (1996: ) notice the lack of focus amongst music education researchers in responding to seminal concerns in music education. They comment that although each individual researcher is free to investigate any prominent research question, the body of music education scholars has an obligation to identify and support the broad needs of the music education profession (Brand, 2006:84; Colwell et al., 1996:105). Farmer (2008:39) states that if researchers had more knowledge and experience of multiple research procedures, they might consider research questions in music education that are best addressed through qualitative research. Jorgensen (2008: ) proposes several juxtaposed descriptive and normative questions which will ensure systematic 56

85 investigation by music education researchers. Some of these questions are: What are and should be the specifically educational dimensions of music education? ; What are and should be the musical interests of music education? ; What is the present status of music education and what should it be? and How relevant is and should music education research be to practice? (Jorgensen, 2008:331). By providing a conceptual map of all of the important matters in music education, a comprehensive and systematic understanding is offered across the entire field of music education research (Jorgensen, 2008:331). Key pedagogical questions should be identified and agreed upon to enable music researchers to direct their research priorities to serve the music education community. Research in music education will be more valuable to practising music educators if the research questions and findings matters to them directly (Brand, 2006:80). Fung (2008:42 43) recommends further studies to be conducted which focus on identifying important research questions from the perspectives of music education practitioners to narrow the gap between research and practice. A survey conducted among music education students revealed that they had difficulty determining the practical utility of research for music teaching, or its potential impact on and benefit to music education. They also felt that music education research must be more selective in its pursuits or it will not reach its destination (Brand, 2006:83). Through a greater understanding and knowledge of prominent concerns in music education, teaching and learning in music education can be enhanced and students can learn more. Music education research which is trustworthy and relevant will be valued and pursued when it contributes to and enhance the quality of teaching and learning of music (Brand, 2006:86; Fung, 2008:42). Reimer (2006:10) suggests that rigorous and scientific research in music education leads to more valuable, competent and relevant teaching and learning of music. More attention has to be paid to philosophical concerns related to the various research methodologies as there is no continued in-depth dialogue in the music education research literature on what music educators need to know in order to improve research within music education (Reimer, 2006:6). According to Reimer (2006:6), music education researchers need to determine whether each type of research will contribute toward meaningful knowledge by identifying what the qualities of significant research topics are and whether the different research types are relevant to and sufficient for gathering data on these topics. He warns that music researchers assume wrongly that as long as various types of research are being undertaken, responsible and meaningful research has been conducted. Researchers also need to justify proper methodological choices in qualitative research in relation to research questions as these questions guide the research process (Burnard, 2006:149; Sims, 2012:683). Gorard et al. (2004:384) warn against the dangers of mono-method identities and advised researchers not to be method-driven as the choice of method can only be determined 57

86 after a research question has been identified. The creation of methodological identities (Gorard et al., 2004:383) limits the researcher s search for the most suitable research design to answer the research question. Sims s (2012:683) concern with researchers starting with the methodology rather than the research problem or question stems from some researchers considering certain chosen methods the only worthy methods regardless of the research question. Fung (2008:40) explains that even if the research question is well defined, the findings may not contribute to the profession if a weak research design was chosen. Music educators need to educate themselves on the varying and emerging approaches to qualitative inquiry, as one approach may be more suitable for a particular group of research questions than another (Conway, 2003a:90 91). Sims (2012:683) notes that research in music education is relatively new compared to research in the fields of education and psychology. Whether quantitative research, qualitative research or mixed method research is conducted, each method makes different forms of understanding, assumptions and methodology possible. Ineffective debates on which method is preferable are unnecessary, since educational researchers have a choice regarding which method, or combination of methods, best suits each proposed research project (Asif, 2013:24; Gorard et al., 2004:371; Howe, 1985:17; Putney et al., 1999:370). Sims (2012: ) advises researchers to respect and value the choices other researchers make regarding research methods and perspectives and to identify their strengths and weaknesses as each researcher engages in different types of research. There is a need for music education researchers to use diverse and advanced research methodologies rather than to repeat the same types of methodologies. Fung (2008:36 40) warns that although research methodology in music education research must not fall behind methodologies in the social sciences, a unique approach in methodology is needed to fulfil the creative and diverse requirements of music education research. Qualitative strategies of inquiry in the social sciences Since qualitative research is a diverse and multidimensional field of inquiry, characterized by different perspectives, ideologies and methodologies, the classification of qualitative strategies of inquiry is guided by different views and principles (Yin, 2011:3). Although some research methodologists agree on conducting a generalised form of qualitative research, other methodologists view qualitative research methodology as a systematic and predetermined typology to be strictly adhered to (Creswell, 2013:7). Athough there is no specified classification of qualitative strategies of inquiry in qualitative research, appropriate literature on acknowledged models and variations of classification is available to guide and inform qualitative inquiry. Each 58

87 researcher, academic institution, or qualitative research journal has different methodological preferences and requirements, and therefore the research orientation of each study differs accordingly. There is no formal typology of types of qualitative research as a number of qualitative methodological classification systems were developed in the social sciences based on a diversity of domains, focus points and rationales. Research methodologists construct classifications based on various elements, such as theoretical frameworks, discipline perspectives, research domain, the research approach, research design, strategies of inquiry, research methods or techniques, the research problem or areas of interest, research participant focus groups, academic or subject discipline perspectives, researcher interest or a combination of various research elements (Crabtree & Miller, 1992; Creswell, 1998; Denzin & Lincoln, 1994b; Jacob, 1988; Lancy, 1993; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016; Patton, 1980; Tesch, 1990; Wolcott, 1990). Although an understanding of these classification principles is essential for conducting qualitative research, complying with a certain classification model is optional. Some researchers prefer to conduct a generalised form of qualitative research by identifying their research studies with a generic, descriptive term without being restricted to a documented typology, while other researchers who present generalised qualitative research adhere to the broader general characteristics of qualitative inquiry without reference to any particular strategy of inquiry. Generalised qualitative study is not grounded in the distinctive research processes of a specific strategy and therefore does not follow a rigorous methodology (Yin, 2011:17 18). To ensure trustworthiness and credibility in qualitative research, however, describing and documenting a systematic set of research procedures contribute to accurate and transparent inquiry (Yin, 2011:19 21). In order to determine the use of qualitative strategies of inquiry in music education research, it is necessary to review methodological categories of similar academic disciplines, and a summary of classifications of qualitative strategies of inquiry, representative of a continuum of various research perspectives by eminent research methodologists in the social sciences, is presented below. The selection of classifications provided is relevant to qualitative research methodologies within the field of music education in particular and they are frequently cited by music education researchers. Tesch (1990:71) classifies the main research interests of qualitative methodology into four main groups, namely the characteristics of language, the discovery of regularities, the comprehension of the meaning of text or action, and reflection, which are divided into 28 types of qualitative 59

88 research. Tesch (1990:3) states that there are no set boundaries between the types of qualitative research, as the diverse research approaches of different disciplines in the social sciences allow for different views and procedures. Wolcott (1992:22) classifies research approaches into a tree diagram, based on strategies for data collection such as observation, interviews and documentation. According to Miles and Huberman (1994:5), comprehensive typologies such as those compiled by Tesch (1990:71) are insufficient and outdated because of the intricate criteria employed to define and distinguish the various qualitative strands. Miles and Huberman (1994:8 9) construct their typology on the analytical differences between interpretivism, social anthropology and collaborative social research. Moustakas (1994:1) develops a classification system built on a phenomenological approach apart from existing qualitative classification systems. His intent with this classification is to guide researchers in conducting research grounded in phenomenology related to human experience, behaviour and relationships. Patton (2002:40 41) classifies qualitative inquiry into three basic categories, namely design strategies, data collection and fieldwork strategies, and analysis strategies. These three categories are organised into twelve primary strategic themes of qualitative inquiry to illuminate the different strands of qualitative research. The classification by Maree (2007:70 71) is built on the six types of qualitative strategies of inquiry often discussed in the literature on research methodology, namely conceptual studies, historical research, action research, case study research, ethnography and grounded theory. The classification represents broad research design categories, and the clustered research designs may overlap and blend with, and even borrow from, each other. Butler-Kisber (2010:8 9) proposes a new typology which subdivides qualitative inquiry into three basic types of inquiry, namely thematic, narrative and arts-informed inquiry. She focuses on inquiry as a holistic process and explains that thematic inquiry uses categorisation as an approach for the interpretation of themes; a number of connecting and contextualised approaches inform narrative inquiry; and arts-informed inquiry uses various forms of art and practice to interpret the particular study. Butler- Kisber (2010:8) advises researchers to use their knowledge of different ontological and epistemological perspectives to guide their choice of qualitative strategies of inquiry. Saldaña (2011:3 30) compiles a classification of major genres based on the most frequently used qualitative strategies of inquiry and methods that appear across multiple disciplines in the social sciences, such as ethnography, grounded theory, phenomenology, case study, narrative inquiry, content analysis, poetic inquiry, arts-based research, evaluation research, action research, investigative journalism and clinical inquiry. Yin (2011:16 17) lists ten strategies of inquiry, named variations, and acknowledged optional strategies of inquiry such as auto-ethnography, conversation analysis, discourse analysis, performance ethnography and symbolic interactionism. His typology is not grouped into any systematic categories and therefore an 60

89 adaptation or combination of the variations is accepted such as conducting action research employing the analytical constructs of grounded theory. Creswell (2013:7 11) examines several classifications and concluded that qualitative inquiry allows a wide variety of choices regarding methodological approaches. He chooses only five qualitative strategies of inquiry which are popular in diverse disciplines in the social sciences: 1. narrative research 2. phenomenology 3. grounded theory 4. ethnography 5. case study. Similar to Denzin and Lincoln (2013b:29), Creswell recommends the appropriate selection of a qualitative strategy of inquiry as this is guided by the research question which determine subsequent systematic processes, but he differs from other methodologists such as Yin (2011), Tesch (1990) and Marshall and Rossman (2016) in his classification of feminist theories, critical theory, and critical race theory as transformative frameworks rather than strategies of inquiry (Creswell, 2013:29 34). Denzin and Lincoln (2013b:25) classify fourteen major strategies of inquiry which may be included in a systematic research process. The selection of a strategy of inquiry is significant in guiding the research question and purpose of the study, anchoring the complexity of the researcher s interpretive framework and theoretical paradigms to the research study, and connect the researcher to the appropriate research methods of collecting and analysing data. Denzin and Lincoln (2013b:29) argue that without employing the specific methodological procedures and practices of a certain strategy of inquiry, the researcher is unable to move from a theoretical paradigm to the empirical word. Merriam and Tisdell (2016:41 42) select six qualitative strategies of inquiry based on the fact that they appear frequently in the social sciences and applied fields of practice. The basic qualitative study has the fundamental characteristics of qualitative inquiry, and each of the remaining five strategies of inquiry has a unique added dimension: 1. basic qualitative research 2. qualitative case study 3. narrative analysis 4. ethnography 5. phenomenology 6. grounded theory. 61

90 The purpose of the classification by Marshall and Rossman (2016:xviii) is to provide advice and guidance in dealing with the complexities of the various genres of qualitative research methodology, and the controversies associated with them. They acknowledge the emergent technological developments in qualitative inquiry, and based their knowledge on the methodological experiences of researchers who systematically documented their designs and research processes. The intention of this classification is to situate each qualitative study within one or a combination of these research genres (Marshall & Rossman, 2016:10). Table 2 2 illustrates the various classifications by eminent research methodologists in the social sciences from 1990 to Table 2 2: Classification of qualitative strategies of inquiry in the social sciences (adapted and revised from Creswell (2013:8 10). Author Qualitative strategies of inquiry Social Sciences Discipline Tesch 1990 The characteristics of language - Content analysis - Discourse analysis - Ethnography of communication - Ethnoscience - Structural ethnography - Symbolic interactionism - Ethnomethodology The discovery of regularities - Transcendental realism - Ethnographic content analysis - Event structure analysis - Ecological psychology - Grounded theory - Phenomenography - Qualitative evaluation - Action research - Collaborative research - Critical research - Emancipatory research - Holistic ethnography - Educational ethnography - Naturalistic inquiry The comprehension of the meaning of text or meaning - Phenomenology - existential-phenomenological psychology - empirical phenomenology - dialogal phenomenology - experiential phenomenology - imaginal phenomenology 62 Sociology, Psychology, Education

91 Author Qualitative strategies of inquiry Social Sciences Discipline Wolcott 1992 Miles & Huberman Case study - Life history - Hermeneutical research Reflection - Educational connoisseurship - Reflective phenomenology - Heuristic research Ethnography - Ethnology - Community study - Anthropological life history - Micro-ethnography - Ethnography of communication Field study - Conversation analysis - Ethno-methodology - Phenomenology - Poststructuralism Participant observation strategies - Connoisseurship - Observer study - Human ethology Non-participant observation strategies - Nonreactive/unobtrusive research Interviews strategies - Biography - Investigative journalism - Oral history Archival strategies - History - Literacy criticism - Philosophy - Content analysis Approaches to qualitative data analysis: - Interpretivism phenomenology social interactionism semiotic studies deconstructionism ethnomethodology hermeneutics - Social anthropology ethnography life history grounded theory ecological psychology narrative studies case study applied studies (education, health, family, programme evaluation) 63 Social Sciences Social Sciences

92 Author Qualitative strategies of inquiry Social Sciences Discipline Moustakas 1994 Patton 2002 Maree Collaborative social research action research collaborative action research critical ethnography action science Ethnography Grounded theory Hermeneutics Empirical phenomenological research Heuristic research Transcendental phenomenology Design strategies - Naturalistic inquiry - Emergent design flexibility - Purposeful sampling Data collection and fieldwork strategies - Qualitative data - Personal experience and engagement - Empathic neutrality and mindfulness - Dynamic systems Analysis strategies - Unique case orientation - Inductive analysis and creative synthesis - Holistic perspective - Context sensitivity - Voice, perspective and reflexivity Conceptual studies - Concept analysis - Conceptual analytical studies - Conceptual cartography - Document analysis study - Critical hermeneutics - Critical theory studies - Fourth-generation evaluation studies - Grounded theory design/building Historical research - Historical research - Comparative research studies - Life history - Discourse analysis - Feminist studies - Narrative design Action research - Classical action research - Participatory action research Case study research - Case studies - Developmental case study - Phenomenological 64 Psychology Education, Psychology, Social Sciences Education, Psychology

93 Author Qualitative strategies of inquiry Social Sciences Discipline Butler-Kisber 2010 Saldaña 2011 Yin 2011 Creswell 2013 Denzin & Lincoln 2013b - Clinical study - Evaluation research Ethnography - Classical ethnography - Auto-ethnography - Ethno-methodology - Biographies Grounded theory - Classical grounded theory - Symbolic interactionism Constant comparison inquiry Phenomenological inquiry Narrative inquiry Empirical phenomenological research Heuristic research Transcendental phenomenology Ethnography Grounded theory Phenomenology Case study Content analysis Poetic inquiry Narrative inquiry Arts-based research Auto-ethnography Evaluation research Action research Investigative journalism Clinical inquiry Action research Case study Ethnography Ethnomethodology Feminist research Grounded theory Life history Narrative inquiry Participant-observer study Phenomenological study Narrative research Phenomenology Grounded theory Ethnography Case study Case studies Ethnography Participant observation Performance ethnography Phenomenology Education Social Sciences, Art Social Sciences Education, Psychology, Health Education, Psychology, Sociology 65

94 Author Qualitative strategies of inquiry Social Sciences Discipline Merriam & Tisdell 2016 Marshall & Rossman 2016 Ethnomethodology Grounded theory Biographical research Auto-ethnography Life history Testimonio Historical method Action and applied research Clinical research Basic qualitative study Qualitative case study Narrative analysis Ethnography Phenomenology Grounded theory Ethnographic approaches Phenomenological approaches Sociolinguistic approaches Grounded theory Case studies Arts-informed and multimodal inquiry Critical genres - Critical ethnography - Auto-ethnography - Critical discourse analysis - Action research - Participatory action research - Queer theory and analysis - Critical race theory and analysis - Feminist theories and methodologies - Cultural studies - Virtual ethnography Education, Psychology, Sociology Education, Psychology, Sociology, Health, History The listed classifications provided are not exhaustive of all the documented typologies available to qualitative researchers, but serve as a guide to illustrate the continuum of qualitative strategies of inquiry recommended by prominent methodologists in the social sciences. A core group of strategies of inquiry, such as case study research, ethnography, phenomenology, narrative research and grounded theory, are classified consistently in most of the typologies (Creswell, 2013:7 11; Denzin and Lincoln, 2013b:25; Maree, 2007:70 71; Merriam and Tisdell, 2016:41 42; Miles and Huberman, 1994:8 9; Saldaña, 2011:3 30; Tesch, 1990:71; Yin, 2011:16 17), while others, such as virtual ethnography and multimodal inquiry, are introduced in recent classifications (Marshall & Rossman, 2016:10) to accommodate emerging developments and 66

95 technological advancements. Although most social science methodologists agree that a systematic qualitative research approach is significant for rigorous and transparent research, some authors allow for less structured approaches (Maxwell, 2013:88 89). Patton (2015:45 84) justifies qualitative research from the perspective of strategic themes such as naturalistic inquiry and emergent design, and Creswell (2013:29 34) classifies feminist theories, critical theory and critical race theory as transformative frameworks instead of strategies of inquiry. For the purpose of this study, the focus is on structured and systematic approaches towards qualitative strategies of inquiry. Qualitative strategies of inquiry in music education A strategy of inquiry refers to a combination of techniques, assumptions, and practices that researchers employ as they move from their paradigm to the empirical world (Denzin & Lincoln, 2011a:14). Under the qualitative umbrella the strategies of inquiry share the same general characteristics, but have distinct disciplinary and intellectual traditions and customs as they differ in their research goals and objectives, research problems, units of analysis and particular research methods (Bresler, 1995b:5 6). Each of these strategies is related to a complex and extensive literature, as each one has a separate background, history, purpose and a specific process and method for employing the strategy to answer the research question. A comparison of the qualitative strategies of inquiry in the social sciences, with their occurrence in music education specifically, is made by examining edited music education handbooks (Colwell & Richardson, 2012; Conway, 2014b; Flinders & Richardson, 2006; McPherson & Welch, 2012a, 2012b); research articles related to qualitative strategies of inquiry in music education research (Bresler, 1992; Bresler, 1995b; Conway, 2014a; Conway, 2003b; Jorgensen & Ward-Steinman, 2015); and the list by Roulston (2006: ) of general qualitative research designs (case study, document analysis, historical study, life history, autobiography, autoethnography, narrative inquiry, and participatory approaches) that have been used by music education researchers. A typology of the most common qualitative strategies of inquiry in music education is given in Figure

96 Basic qualitative research Case study Phenomenology Qualitative strategies of inquiry in music education Ethnography Narrative inquiry Action research Historical research Grounded theory Arts-based research Conceptual studies Figure 2 4: The most common qualitative strategies of inquiry in music education research. The next section will provide a brief definition of each qualitative strategy of inquiry. In a basic qualitative study the researcher constructs knowledge by understanding and interpreting the meaning a phenomenon has for those involved. The overall purpose is to determine what understanding, interpretation and meaning people attribute to their experiences, and how they construct their social worlds (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016:23 24). Research data are mainly collected through interviews, observations and documents. Interviews can be either highly structured, with the order and wording of questions being predetermined, or semi-structured, where the content of the interview guide is a mixture of structured and flexible questions, or, unstructured with open-ended questions presented in an informal and flexible format (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016:110). As an observer, the researcher can be a complete participant where he is a member of the studied group and his role as observer is concealed, and as a complete observer the researcher is completely hidden from the studied group. Being a participant-observer means the researcher s observer activities, known to the group, are secondary to their role as a 68

97 participant, and as an observer-participant the researcher s participation in the group is subordinate to the role of observer, known to the studied group (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016: ). Various qualitative data analysis techniques can be employed to analyse and interpret the data such as constant comparison analysis (Butler-Kisber, 2010:47; Strauss & Corbin, 1990:74) or qualitative content analysis (Cho & Lee, 2014; Krippendorff, 2013; Mayring, 2014). Basic qualitative research is a general qualitative study, labelled by music education researchers with various generic terms such as qualitative study or descriptive research (Barrrett, 2014; Bresler, 1992). Each of the other types of qualitative strategy of inquiry most common in music education research employ similar research methods techniques regarding data collection and data analysis, and although all qualitative strategies of inquiry share the same characteristics as a basic qualitative study, each strategy of inquiry has a unique added dimension (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016:42). A case study is the in-depth examination of a particular phenomenon such as one or more individuals, a programme, an activity, a process or an event within a bounded system set by time, place, activity and context (Creswell, 2013; Merriam, 2009; Yin, 2014). Three types of case studies are most common in music education research, namely intrinsic case study, instrumental case study, and multiple or collective case study (Barrrett, 2014; Conway, 1999, 2014a; Moore, 2014). The goal of the intrinsic case study is to achieve a comprehensive understanding of a particular individual case (Merriam, 1998; Stake, 1994), while the instrumental case study aims to gain insight into and understanding of a particular situation or phenomenon (Merriam, 1998; Stake, 1994). The multiple case study enables the researcher to explore differences within and between cases (Merriam, 1998; Stake, 1994; Yin, 2003). Figure 2 5 shows the three different types of case studies. 69

98 Intrinsic case study CASE STUDY Collective case study Instrumental case study Figure 2 5: Qualitative strategy of inquiry: case study. Phenomenological research is a qualitative strategy of inquiry in which the researcher identifies and understands the essence of human lived experiences about a phenomenon from the perspective of the participants (Giorgi, 2009; Moustakas, 1994; Van Manen, 1990). Four types of phenomenological research most common in music education research are transcendental phenomenology, existential phenomenology, hermeneutical phenomenology, and interpretive phenomenological analysis (Bresler, 1995b, 1996; Eisner, 2002; Hourigan & Scott, 2014; Randles, 2012; Roberts, 1994). In transcendental phenomenology the researcher studies participants conscious experience, while he brackets or sets aside his own assumptions and experiences in order to describe the meaning of participants experiences in the study (Husserl, 1970; Moustakas, 1994). Hermeneutic phenomenology is context-bound as the researcher moves beyond pure description of perceptions to understanding and interpreting the study of lived experiences (Gadamer, 1965; Heidegger, 1982; Van Manen, 1990). Existential phenomenology is the comprehension and understanding of the experience of the participant from the consciousness and standpoint of the human being who is having the experience (Dreyfus & Wrathall, 2006; Heidegger, 1962; Valle & King, 1978). Interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA) is concerned with exploring and understanding participants lived experience, the manner in which participants make sense of their own experiences and the meanings they attach to those experiences (Smith, 1996, 2004; Smith et al., 2009). Figure 2 6 displays the four different types of phenomenology. 70

99 Hermeneutical phenomenology Interpretive phenomenological analysis PHENOMENOLOGY Existential phenomenology Transcendental phenomenology Figure 2 6: Qualitative strategy of inquiry: phenomenology. Ethnography is the direct and longitudinal observation, in a natural setting, of the shared patterns of behaviour, customs, activities and beliefs amongst members of a certain social group and their cultural phenomena as well as communication and interaction between the group members (Fetterman, 2010; Wolcott, 1999). The five types of ethnographical research most common in music education research is realist ethnography, autoethnography, ethnomethodology, critical ethnography, and virtual ethnography (Bresler, 1995b; Flinders & Richardson, 2006; Krueger, 2014; Roulston, 2001). Realist ethnography is the objective description of the situation gleaned from the participants and their views in the field (Hammersley & Atkinson, 2007; Van Maanen, 1988). Autoethnography is a strategy of inquiry that explores and analyses the researcher's personal experience in an autobiographical narrative as a way to understand cultural and social meanings (Adams et al., 2015; Denzin, 2014; Ellis, 2004). Ethnomethodology studies the methods and procedures of maintaining social order and practice within a particular community (Boden & Zimmerman, 1993; Garfinkel, 1967; Heritage, 1984). In critical ethnography the researcher is interested in supporting marginalised groups and changing society (Carspecken & Apple, 1992; Madison, 2011), and virtual ethnography is the study of online cultures and 71

100 communities formed through internet communications (Boellstorff et al., 2012; Hine, 2000, 2009; Kozinets, 2010). The five types of ethnography are displayed in Figure 2 7. Realist ethnography Virtual ethnography Autoethnography ETHNOGRAPHY Critical ethnography Ethnomethodology Figure 2 7: Qualitative strategy of inquiry: ethnography. Narrative inquiry generates data in the form of stories of the personal and human dimensions of life experiences by inquiring and understanding individuals' life experiences over time and in context (Chase, 2005; Clandinin & Connelly, 2000; Clandinin, 2006; Connelly & Clandinin, 2006; Polkinghorne, 1988; Riessman, 1993, 2008). Eight different types of narrative inquiry most common in music education research are biography, autobiography, narrative analysis, oral history, life history, life story, learning stories, and testimonio s (Barrett & Stauffer, 2009a; Bresler, 2006; Conway, 2003b; De Vries, 2014; Donnelly & Norton, 2011; Hartwig, 2014; McCarthy, 2007). Biographical research involves the gathering of data about a particular individual, either living or deceased, and to interpret these data in order to represent meaningful experiences and specific aspects of the participant s life and times (Denzin, 1989; Miller, 2008). Autobiography is the first-person interpretative understanding and rebuilding of either an entire life or a significant portion of it (Chase, 2005; Freeman, 2006). Narrative analysis uses personal narratives to examine and understand the content and meaning of people s lives (Barrett & Stauffer, 2009b; Chase, 2005; Clandinin & Connelly, 2000; Riessman, 1993, 2008). In oral history 72

101 the focus is on the meanings that past experiences of events hold for those who had direct or indirect experience with or knowledge of the chosen topic with the intention of constructing a historical account (Frisch, 2010; Ritchie, 2014; Thompson, 1978, 2000). Life history may be topical, focusing on only one segmented portion of a life, or a complete recollection of the individual s life based on the collection of written or transcribed oral accounts (Goodson & Sikes, 2001; Tierney, 2000). Life story is a narrative about a specific significant aspect, event or turning point of a person s life (Bertaux, 1981; Harrison, 2009). Learning stories is a philosophical approach to learning and education by evaluating and improving students learning abilities narratively through documentation and observation (Carr, 2001; Carr & Lee, 2012; Drummond, 2011), and testimonio captures the first-person narration of collective experiences of marginalised individuals or communities of socially significant experiences (Brabeck, 2003; Kohl & Farthing, 2013; Randall, 1985). The eight different types of narrative inquiry are shown in Figure 2 8. Biography Testimonio Autobiography Learning stories NARRATIVE INQUIRY Narrative analysis Critical storytelling Life history Oral history Figure 2 8: Qualitative strategy of inquiry: narrative inquiry. Action research entails a participative, collective, collaborative, self-reflective and critical relationship between the researcher and research participants to address a specific problem in a practice-based setting by applying knowledge and research findings to inform, influence, improve, adjust and transform social practices (Bradbury & Reason, 2001; Cain, 2008; Carr & Kemmis, 1986, 2005; Elliot, 1998; Herr & Anderson, 2015; Kemmis & McTaggart, 1998; Reason & Riley, 2009). Four types of action research most common in music education research are collaborative 73

102 action research, participatory research, emancipatory research, and reflective action research. Collaborative action research involves engaged scholarship in action where teams of practitioners with common interests work together to examine problems relevant to their interests (Carr & Kemmis, 1986). Participatory action research is self-reflective inquiry that researchers and participants undertake to understand and improve social practices and situations through a participative process (Carr & Kemmis, 1986; Kemmis & Wilkinson, 1998). The goal of emancipatory action research is to assist participants in the identifying and collaborative exploration of an existing social problem by raising their collective consciousness in order to achieve social transformation (Carr & Kemmis, 1986; Grundy, 1982, 1987). Reflective action research, also known as practitioner research or self-study, focuses on the processes of reflection and examination of both personal and professional levels, open to collaborative input and critique, to improve and transform practice (Bresler, 1995b; Hartwig, 2014; Lassonde et al., 2009; Pinnegar & Hamilton, 2009; Samaras, 2010; Schön, 2013). Figure 2 9 shows the four action research types. Collaboration action research Reflective action research ACTION RESEARCH Participatory action research Emancipatory action research Figure 2 9: Qualitative strategy of inquiry: action research. Historical research is the systematic and critical examination and evaluation of sources related to a past person, experience or event in order to produce an accurate contextual description, understanding and interpretation of the data (Donnelly & Norton, 2011; Gottschalk, 1966; Howell 74

103 & Prevenier, 2001; Lundy, 2008). Three types of historical research most common to music education research are historical events research, comparative historical research, and crosssectional comparative research (Froehlich & Frierson-Campbell, 2013; Heller & Wilson, 1992; McCarthy, 2003). Historical events research focuses on one short historical event or period over a short time period (McCulloch & Richardson, 2000; Sreedharan, 2007). Cross-sectional comparative research compares data from one time period between two or more cases (Lange, 2013; Mahoney & Rueschemeyer, 2003), and comparative historical research is longitudinal comparative research involving many cases and many time periods (Lipset & Hofstadter, 1968; Mahoney & Rueschemeyer, 2003; Skocpol, 1984). The three historical types are shown in Figure Historical events research HISTORICAL RESEARCH Cross-sectional comparative research Comparative historical research Figure 2 10: Qualitative strategy of inquiry: historical studies. Grounded theory is a qualitative strategy of inquiry for systematically developing a theory that is grounded in data which have been inductively gathered and analysed (Glaser, 1978; Glaser & Strauss, 1967; Morse et al., 2009; Strauss & Corbin, 1990; 1994; 1998; 2007). The three types of grounded theory most common in music education research are systematic grounded theory, emergent grounded theory design, and constructivist grounded theory (Callaghan, 2002). Systematic grounded theory uses a systematic set of research procedures to develop a grounded theory with an inductive approach to analysis (Strauss & Corbin, 1990; 1994; 1998; 2007). In emergent grounded theory design the theory emerges from the data in an iterative approach and 75

104 are not forced into predefined categories (Glaser, 1992, 1998, 2001, 2006). In constructivist grounded theory the researcher uses grounded theory to draw multiple meanings from the data, on the understanding that both the research procedures and the studied phenomenon are socially constructed (Charmaz, 2000, 2006, 2010). The three types of grounded theory are shown in Figure Systematic grounded theory GROUNDED THEORY Constructivist grounded theory Emergent grounded theory design Figure 2 11: Qualitative strategy of inquiry: grounded theory. Arts-based research is a qualitative strategy of inquiry that systematically uses the artistic process when examining, understanding and presenting social experiences by both researchers and participants to express a deeper meaning through arts-based forms of expression (Barone & Eisner, 1997, 2012; Eisner, 1991, 2006; Knowles & Cole, 2008; Leavy, 2015; Liamputtong & Rumbold, 2008; McNiff, 1998, 2010, 2013). Four types of arts-based research are most common in music education research, namely performative inquiry, a/r/tography, research-led practice, and practice-based research (Barrett & Bolt, 2014; Rankin, 2014). Performative inquiry is the exploration of a research topic through performance and may be presented in textual form, before live audiences, or in various media forms (Butler-Kisber, 2010; Denzin, 1997, 2003; Hesse-Biber & Leavy, 2006, 2010a; Knowles & Cole, 2008; Leavy, 2009, 2015). A/r/tographical research is an arts and education practice-based research strategy of inquiry dedicated to acts of inquiry through the arts and writing (Irwin & De Cosson, 2004; Sullivan, 2005, 2010). Research-led practice is scholarly creative research directed towards the production of practical outcomes such as methods and techniques (Smith & Dean, 2009; Sullivan, 2005, 2010), and practice-based 76

105 research entails the production of an original study undertaken to gain new knowledge both by means of practice and the outcomes of that practice which may include creative outcomes (Burnard, 2012, 2014; Green, 2008; Taber, 2007; Thomas, 2010). The four types of arts-based research are shown in Figure Performative inquiry A/r/tography ARTS-BASED RESEARCH Practice-based research Research-led practice Figure 2 12: Qualitative strategy of inquiry: arts-based inquiry. Conceptual studies are largely based on secondary sources and focus on the concept, theory or model that explains or describes the phenomenon being studied by examining and organising research data through in-depth systematic data analysis to establish the underlying meaning of the concept (Maree, 2007; Miles & Huberman, 1994; Miles et al., 2014; Patton, 1980, 2015; Schreier, 2014). The six types of conceptual studies most common in music education research are conversation analysis, concept analysis, content analysis, document analysis, meta-analysis, and discourse analysis (Elliot, 2012; Froehlich & Frierson-Campbell, 2013; Talbot, 2013). Conversation analysis is a study of the social organisation of natural conversation and interaction through a detailed examination of transcriptions made from recordings (Sacks et al., 1974; Schegloff et al., 1977; Sidnell & Stivers, 2012). Concept analysis is the study of the meaning and understanding of concepts, their characteristics and relations to other concepts within the same discipline (Fitzpatrick & McCarthy, 2016; Kontiainen & Helkama, 1991). Content analysis is the systematic process of analysing and interpreting data by coding and identifying themes or 77

106 patterns (Cho & Lee, 2014; Krippendorff, 2004, 2013; Mayring, 2014). Document analysis is the systematic process of reviewing and evaluating documents to examine and interpret data to give meaning and understanding to a research problem (Altheide et al., 2008; Altheide, 1996; Bowen, 2009; Rapley & Flick, 2008). Meta-analysis is the interrogation of analyses by analysing results from a large collection of independent studies for the purpose of integrating the findings (Glass, 1976; Sandelowski & Barroso, 2006; Zimmer, 2006), and discourse analysis is concerned with the understanding of words beyond the boundaries of a sentence by examining the ways in which language is used in texts and contexts (Brown & Yule, 1983; Jørgensen & Phillips, 2010; Stubbs, 1983). The six types of conceptual analysis are shown in Figure Content analysis Discourse analysis Document analysis CONCEPTUAL STUDIES Conversation analysis Concept analysis Meta-analysis Figure 2 13: Qualitative strategy of inquiry: conceptual studies. Although this classification system is grounded in academic sources and content analyses of strategies of inquiry in music education, it is not a unique classification system as various approaches to such a classification are possible. The purpose of this classification is to provide a useful framework for evaluating the focus of qualitative strategies of inquiry, the identification of gaps in current research, establishing the need for further research and the development of future directions, and the proper classification of research studies. Some characteristics and approaches within a main strategy of inquiry emerge with or draw on other main strategies of enquiry. 78

107 Qualitative studies are sometimes a combination of two or more strategies of inquiry to incorporate additional analytical methods such as the process of developing a grounded theory using case studies (Eisenhardt, 1989). Several aspects of the ethnographic strategy of inquiry can be applied to content analysis to produce ethnographic content analysis, which may be defined as the reflexive analysis of documents (Altheide, 1987). In an ethnographic case study the researcher conducts an ethnographic study by focusing on the cultural dimension of a particular programme (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016) and in a narrative ethnology narrative interviews are part of the process of data collection (Tedlock, 2011). Action research, concerned with the practical and social challenges and solutions which inform social practice, can be combined with other strategies of inquiry such as ethnographic action research (Tacchi et al., 2003), grounded theory (Charmaz, 2011) and phenomenology (MacDonald, 2006). Some types of qualitative strategies of inquiry are informed by critical theory (Ebersöhn et al., 2007; Steinberg, 2014) such as narrative inquiry (Jørgensen & Largacha-Martinez, 2014), grounded theory (Oliver, 2012), artsbased research (Finley, 2005, 2008; Hanley et al., 2013), ethnography (Madison, 2005), historical research (Morse, 1994) and case study (Davidson, 2006). The methodological tools of arts-based practices can be applied to any strategy of inquiry to represent the research problem effectively (Leavy, 2009), such as performative ethnography (Denzin, 1997, 2003), visual ethnography (Pink, 2001), arts-based autoethnography (Manovski, 2014) and arts-based action research (Wilson & Flicker, 2014). Even though there is no formal typology or classification regarding strategies of inquiry in music education, researchers need to be informed of proper research methodological processes to be followed to ensure systematic and rigorous research. Music education researchers should always be informed of the strategies of inquiry and research methods used in music education research, since a sufficient knowledge and experience of a variety of research procedures is necessary to improve the quality and growth within music education research (Conway, 2003a:90 91; Fung, 2008:42). 79

108 CHAPTER 3 RESEARCH PROCEDURES Introduction This chapter outlines the research procedures for designing this qualitative comparative case study. I am the researcher responsible for all the research processes in this study and a pragmatist philosophical worldview was adopted as the intention of this study was to acquire an understanding of how researchers implemented qualitative strategies of inquiry in five selected music education journals between 2012 and The selected research design is qualitative research, the strategy of inquiry is a comparative case study and data were collected through document analysis. Data were analysed and coded by means of the constant comparative method using the within-case and across-case analytical techniques proposed by Creswell (2013:209) and Friese (2014:1 3). The research process is outlined in Figure 3 1. RESEARCH PROCESS PHILOSOPHICAL ASSUMPTIONS Ontological Epistemological Axiological Methodological PHILOSOPHICAL WORLDVIEW Pragmatism RESEARCH DESIGN Qualitative research STRATEGY OF INQUIRY Comparative case study RESEARCH METHOD Constant comparison method Data collection: document analysis Data coding: provisional coding, open coding, pattern coding Data analysis: within-case analysis; cross-case analysis; ATLAS.ti 7 INTERPRETATION Knowledge Understanding Thick description Validation Figure 3 1: Qualitative research process adapted from Creswell (2013:17). 80

109 Philosophical assumptions Burrell and Morgan (1979:1) argued that all theories of organization are based upon a philosophy of science and a theory of society and they conceptualised social theory by identifying four key paradigms which are grounded upon mutually exclusive views of the social world grounded in different sets of meta-theoretical assumptions about the social world. The model developed by Burrell and Morgan (1979:3) was intended for researchers to question and identify their individual approaches within which they conduct their research. These assumptions are informed by the subjective-objective dimension, and in this study the subjective dimension informs the views and approaches of my framework of reference for conducting this study. Figure 3 2 presents the ontological, epistemological, axiological or human and methodological frameworks employed in research, with the subjective approach highlighted on the left-hand side as utilised in this comparative case study. Figure 3 2: The subjective-objective dimension adapted from Burrell and Morgan (1979:3). The first set of assumptions of an ontological kind is concerned with the very nature or essence of reality or the social phenomena which are being examined. As reality is multiple and seen through many perspectives, each music education journal article is examined, analysed and compared through a nominalist or relativist view. The second set of epistemological assumptions is based upon the foundations of knowledge. In this study the knowledge of qualitative strategies of inquiry in music education was subjectivist, derived from the body of knowledge in music education research. The third set includes axiological assumptions of human nature and 81

110 specifically the association between the experiences, circumstances and values of human beings. The values and voluntarism that informed this research comprised my own understanding based on the body of the knowledge acquired from examining and analysing research journals in music education. The fourth and last set of assumptions concerns methodology and I followed an idiographic approach in analysing the five individual cases (five selected journals). All three sets of assumptions have methodological implications as my views on each assumption have guided my choice towards a comparative case study as the strategy of inquiry and constant comparative method as research method for investigating and obtaining knowledge about the use of qualitative strategies of inquiry in music education (Burrell & Morgan, 1979:2). I used both a deductive and inductive approaches when conducting within-case analysis and cross-case analysis in my study, and data were gathered from documents in the form of music education journal articles. Thick descriptions and interpretation illuminated the meaning and understanding of the context, trends and patterns of qualitative strategies of inquiry in music education research (Creswell, 2013:187). Philosophical worldview: Pragmatism Pragmatism is a philosophical worldview which focuses on the situations and outcome of the research and it uses all approaches available to understand the research problem (Creswell, 2013:28). For a researcher with an interpretive framework centred on pragmatism, research starts with the research problem and the research question in order to generate knowledge and understanding, with the purpose of making suitable decisions for appropriate and meaningful changes that inform future practice (Saunders et al., 2016:143). Biesta (2010:97) describes pragmatism as a set of philosophical tools that can be used to address problems, and Saunders et al. (2016:143) views pragmatism as a worldview with many different ways of interpreting the world and undertaking research, that no single point of view can ever give the entire picture and that there may be multiple realities. Pragmatists conduct research within a specific context, and select the most applicable research procedures that will best focus on the practical implications of the research (Creswell, 2013:28). The ontological assumption in pragmatism is that reality is the practical effects of ideas, experiences and practices. Epistemologically, the focus of pragmatism is on problem solving and informed future practice. Axiologically, the practical meaning and value of knowledge in specific contexts is that it enables findings to be implemented accurately and successfully, and methodologically, the emphasis is on the research problem and research question to arrive at practical outcomes (Mertens, 2010:11). In this study a comparative case study was selected as the strategy of inquiry to acquire an understanding of the use of qualitative strategies of inquiry in 82

111 music education in the five selected journals from 2012 to 2015 within the context of qualitative research. The pragmatic worldview guided the research process, which generated knowledge and drew inferences from emergent themes in the context of the literature on qualitative strategies of inquiry in music education. This philosophical approach is relevant to this study, as the study describes the use of qualitative strategies of inquiry from a variety of viewpoints, and with a view to suggesting future directions. As a pragmatist researcher, I acknowledge that, because there are many realities, there were different ways of understanding and undertaking the research, and that no single opinion or point of view can ever be reflective of the research problem as a whole. My understanding of qualitative strategies of inquiry, as constructed from the body of knowledge in music education research, supported me in shaping the examination and analysis of this study, which included five purposefully chosen cases. It is acceptable in a pragmatic qualitative multiple case study to use both qualitative and quantitative data, and the integration of numbers and percentages when identifying patterns qualitatively during within-case analysis and cross-case analysis can be an integral part of the analytical process (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016:16 17), as the use of numbers and percentages was also applicable to this qualitative study. The numbers and percentages were used to enhance accuracy and credibility by adding valid and essential value to the qualitative data, and therefore the study cannot be considered a mixed method study (Marshall & Rossman, 2016:2 4). To ensure validity, the research procedures in this study were based on the five criteria of Charmaz (2005: ) validation strategy, namely trustworthiness, originality, resonance, usefulness and nature of writing. By adopting the pragmatist worldview, I aimed at arriving at a truthful and meaningful understanding of the use of qualitative strategies of inquiry in music education research, as well as being able to suggest new perspectives, meaningful changes and future directions for the music education practice. Research design: Qualitative research Qualitative research can be traced back to the kind of research undertaken in anthropology, sociology, psychology, as well as various applied fields of study such as education and social work since qualitative inquiry is a set of complex interpretive, interdisciplinary, transdisciplinary and methodological fields (Denzin & Lincoln, 2013a:5; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016:19). Anthropologists and sociologists were among the first to explore the meaning and experiences of the human world, from the perspective of the people themselves and in the social and cultural contexts in which they lived (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016:6). In addition to these studies, researchers in academic disciplines such as education, psychology and philosophy were concerned with specific social phenomena and examined particular cases to understand and interpret their 83

112 meaning within their contexts. Merriam and Tisdell (2016:1) consider that education entails applied social sciences or fields of practice, because practitioners in the field of education are concerned with the meaning that people ascribe to their lives. Music education research, being part of applied research, can make a valuable difference in the music education community by exploring the meaning and understanding from the perspectives of those being studied. Qualitative researchers are guided by a set of philosophical assumptions and paradigms, including ontological, epistemological, axiological and methodological beliefs, which are shown in Table 3 1. Both positivist and postpositivist paradigms are included since qualitative inquiry was historically defined within the positivist worldview as qualitative researchers attempted to conduct positivist research with less rigidly structural research procedures (Creswell, 2013:21; Denzin & Lincoln, 2013a:28). Table 3 1: Philosophical assumptions and worldviews (Creswell, 2013:21; Creswell & Plano Clark, 2011:42; Denzin & Lincoln, 2013a:28; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016:12; Mertens, 2010:11). Positivist / Postpositivist Interpretive / Constructivist Pragmatist Critical / Transformative Postmodern / Poststructural Research purpose Ontology (nature of truth/reality) Epistemology (nature of knowledge) Axiology (nature of values) Methodology (research procedures) Predict Explore Generalise Single external reality Knowable within a specified level of probability Objective Hypothesis and abstraction Distinction between facts and value judgments Critical realism Multidimensional Plurality of possible realities Experimental Quasiexperimental Descriptive Statistical and mathematical techniques Describe Understand Interpret Relativist Multiple realities Socially constructed Context bound Subjective Understanding within context Balanced representation of subjective views Community rapport Value-laden research Inductive approach Emergent design Understanding and meaning 84 Understand Change Complex Practical effects of ideas External Multiple realities Subjective and objective Practical meaning of knowledge and problem solving Value-driven research Researcher reflexive Range of methods Emphasis on outcomes Change Emancipate Empower Subjective Interactive Transformative Respect for cultural norms Beneficence of human rights Social justice and reciprocity Participatory and collaborative inquiry Critical theories Deconstruct Problematise Fragment Materialistrealist Multiple realities within social, political, cultural contexts Objective reality with a multifaceted perspective Social and cultural values and perspectives Discourse analysis Critically reflexive analysis

113 To define qualitative research one has to take into account the complex and changing historical fields of qualitative inquiry since qualitative research has different meanings to different people in different contexts (Denzin & Lincoln, 2013a:5). In the view of these changing historical fields, Denzin and Lincoln (2013a:7) view the process of qualitative research as qualitative researchers examining things in their natural settings, attempting to make sense of or interpret phenomena in terms of the meanings people bring to them. Creswell (2013:44) describes qualitative research as a process commencing with philosophical assumptions and theoretical frameworks guiding the procedures that follow, including the selection and use of the qualitative strategies of inquiry and research methods in order to gain a deep understanding of a central phenomenon. Although specific definitions differ, qualitative research comprises various perspectives and methodologies for generating knowledge and aims at providing a descriptive, in-depth, interpretive understanding of the multiple perceptions of social phenomena (Ritchie et al., 2013:34 36). All definitions emphasise the interpretive characteristics of qualitative inquiry in understanding the meaning people have constructed to their social world. Qualitative researchers use various techniques to examine how people construct their worlds, and what value and meaning they ascribe to their experiences. As a qualitative researcher in this study, I attempted to obtain a better understanding of how music education researchers implemented qualitative strategies of inquiry in music education. I conducted a qualitative approach by exploring the recent use of qualitative strategies of inquiry in articles published in five selected journals between 2012 and 2015, in order to recommend the future directions for the application of strategies of inquiry in various music education research contexts. As the focus is on knowledge and understanding, the research question should be comprehensive enough to include all eminent dimensions of the subject under inquiry, but also specific enough to define what the study and the context is about (Butler-Kisber, 2010:27). This study is located in a qualitative-quantitative continuum (see 1.5.2), with a comparative case study as the selected strategy of inquiry. The data which was extracted from each individual case was guided by the research questions to provide sufficient knowledge and understanding of the use of qualitative strategies of inquiry in music education research (Creswell, 2013:24 25). Qualitative strategy of inquiry: Comparative case study The main purpose of conducting case study research is to examine the distinctiveness, complexity and individuality of a particular case (Simons, 2009:3). Case study research is the systematic investigation, from various perspectives and acknowledging multiple realities, of the uniqueness 85

114 of a particular unit or unity within its context, anchored in real live settings to offer a thick description of a complex phenomenon (Njie & Asimiran, 2014:36; Simons, 2009:21). In this study comparisons within and across contexts were made to generate the best knowledge and understanding to explore the recent use of qualitative strategies of inquiry in five selected journals between 2012 and 2015 in order to recommend directions for future research. Merriam and Tisdell (2016:37) define a case study as an in-depth description and analysis of a bounded system, which in this study is the five selected journals. The bounded system or context is the single unit or entity enclosed by boundaries and can involve the examination of a specific phenomenon such as a programme, a project, an event, a person, a group, an institution, a community, a curriculum, a process or a policy (Merriam, 2009:40). Merriam explains that the unit of analysis, and not the topic of investigation or the area of research interest, determines the nature of a case study, and therefore she supports Stake s statement that the emphasis of case study research is a choice of what is to be studied (Merriam, 2009:40; Stake, 2005:443). Case study is the only qualitative strategy of inquiry which is defined by the unit of analysis as all other qualitative strategies of inquiry are defined by the focus of the study (Merriam, 2009:42). If the phenomenon being studied is not specifically, uniquely and intrinsically bounded, it is not classified as case study research (Merriam, 2009:41; Stake, 2005:445). Since it is the analysis of a bounded system that defines the case, other types of strategies of inquiry can be combined with the case study such as ethnographic case studies, narrative case studies or grounded theory within a case study (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016:39). Yin (2014:2) defines case study in terms of the research process and explains that the need for case study research originated out of the desire to understand complex social phenomena. He considers case study research as an empirical enquiry that examines a contemporary phenomenon (the case ) in depth and within its real-world context and therefore researchers focus on a specific current case by maintaining a holistic and real-world perspective (2014:2,16). He adds that in case study research the boundaries between phenomenon and context are not always clear and obvious in real-world situations (Yin, 2014:16). Stake (2006:8) considers case study both as a process of inquiry about the case and the product of that inquiry as his emphasis in case study is on the particular and the situational, where Creswell (2013:97) views case study as a strategy of inquiry that may be both an object of study, as well as a product of the inquiry. This comparative case study is defined by the unit of analysis, namely five selected music education journals, as the use of qualitative strategies of inquiry by music education researchers within these five selected journals is examined and analysed. A case study is a unit, a process as well as a product (Merriam, 2009:40). The unit is the selected case of the study being examined and is singular and different from other units. The process of conducting an investigation involves a number of steps and needs to follow a research design and method systematically and rigorously. As a product, the final written research document 86

115 identifies, describes, analyses and interprets the case being studied (Rule & Vaughn, 2011:5). The selection of a case study as a qualitative strategy of inquiry is not so much a methodological choice as choosing what it is to be studied (Flyvbjerg, 2013: ). Creswell (2013:97) combines the core definitions and concepts by affirming that case study research is a qualitative approach in which the investigator explores a real-life, contemporary bounded system (a case) or multiple bounded systems (cases) over time, through detailed in-depth data collection involving multiple sources of information (e.g. observations, interviews, audio visual material, and documents and reports), and reports a case description and case themes. In this comparative case study a qualitative approach was followed, five music education journals were selected as bounded cases (see 3.6.3) to be analysed and compared, and within-case and cross-case themes were developed to provide an in-depth understanding of the use of strategies of inquiry in music education research Historical development of the case study as a strategy of inquiry As a qualitative strategy of inquiry, case studies have been employed in disciplines such as psychology, sociology, anthropology, political science, social science, nursing and education, and contributed to the knowledge of individuals, groups, organisations, processes, programs, events, and related social phenomena in their respective fields of interest (Creswell, 2013:97; Merriam, 2009:39; Stake, 2005:443; Yin, 2014:4). According to Platt (1992:19 20), the concept of a case study originated in the 1920s with sociologists using data from case histories, case work or case records to conduct research on life histories and social studies. From the 1930s to the 1970s a case study was not considered a formal strategy of inquiry, but merely as an optional part of empirical and exploratory studies in the early stages of the complete research process. Case studies were regarded as a process or method for collecting data rather than as a complete strategy of inquiry (Platt, 1992:25; Yin, 2014:15). The approach was included in textbooks as an additional chapter to exploratory research to explain the in-depth description of a phenomenon which contributed to the comprehensive research study (Merriam, 2009:39; Platt, 1992:17 18). Case study research has also been conducted interchangeably with general categories such as fieldwork, and descriptive and naturalistic research which do not contribute to the meaning and understanding of what can be learned from the specific case (Stake, 2005: ). According to Hesse-Biber and Leavy (2011:255) the problem in defining case study research is that the term is used inconsistently across the literature as researchers refer to their work by the methods they employed within the case study, such as ethnography or oral history. Since the 1970s case studies were acknowledged from a methodological perspective and research methodologists such as Stake (1978, 1988), Yin (1984) and Merriam (1988) classified 87

116 case study as a recognised and independent qualitative strategy of inquiry. In the qualitative research community researchers conducting a case study must disclose the type of case study being researched, since the term case study emphasises the empirical knowledge, examination, analysis and interpretation of the specific case and its social, educational and contextual influences (Stake, 2005: ). This comparative case study is also defined by the unit of analysis, which in this study is the five selected music education journals, as the use of qualitative strategies of inquiry by music education researchers in these five selected journals between 2012 and 2015 is examined and analysed. The research questions guided the in-depth investigation of within- and across-case analyses that were conducted to generate knowledge and understanding in order to make informed decisions for practical outcomes and recommend directions for future research Basic qualitative case study designs The primary decision in designing a case study is to distinguish between single case and multiple case (collective or comparative) study designs. Yin (2014:51 53) proposes five rationales for conducting a single case study, namely (i) when the case is critical in relation to an existing theory, (ii) an unusual or extreme case which deviates from general situations or events, (iii) common cases which determine general social processes and occurrences, (iv) revelatory cases where the researcher examines and analyses a phenomenon which was previously inaccessible to empirical study, and (v) a longitudinal study when the same single case is examined at two or more different time intervals or certain periods of interest. Although the rationale for a single case study does not apply to multiple cases, such as the unusual or extreme case, the critical or revelatory case, the aim of multiple research is to develop a better understanding of the phenomenon within its context by replicating two or more cases (Yin, 2014:57). The reason behind the replication for multiple studies is to ensure that the analytical conclusions arising from more than one case will be more substantial and robust than the research findings coming from a single case (Yin, 2014:57,64). Single case study designs as well as individual cases in multiple case study designs have two variations, namely the holistic case study design, which comprises only of one unit, and the embedded case study design, which involves sub-units, mini-cases or units of analysis at more than one level (Stake, 2005:451; Yin, 2014:53). Sub-units provide more possibilities for extended data analysis to enhance the understanding of the case study and perspectives on it (Yin, 2014:56). The matrix shown in Figure 3 3 illustrates four types of designs for case study research, namely the holistic single case and embedded single case, and the holistic multiple case and embedded multiple case. All four case study types allow for analysing the case in relation to its context. This study is similar to a holistic multiple case study design. 88

117 Figure 3 3: Basic types of case study designs (Yin, 2014:50). Case studies are also differentiated according to different types, functions or outcomes such as exploratory, descriptive, interpretive, evaluative and explanatory research (Rule & Vaughn, 2011:8; Yin, 2014:8 9). The purpose of a descriptive case study is to describe a phenomenon in depth in its real-world context. Exploratory case studies examine a phenomenon that has not been examined before, they are pilot research studies which serve as a basis for subsequent research. An explanatory case study explains what or why certain phenomena occur in a particular case. Interpretive case studies develop conceptual categories inductively, while evaluative case studies explain, evaluate and review social phenomena. The purpose of this comparative case study is to explore the recent use of qualitative strategies of inquiry in the articles published in five accredited journals between 2012 and 2015, in order to recommend future directions for the application of strategies of inquiry in various music education research contexts. Stake (2005:445) identifies three types of case studies, which are differentiated by the interest of the researcher, namely intrinsic case study, instrumental case study and multiple or collective case study. In the intrinsic case study the case itself is of intrinsic, unique or unusual interest in and of itself and the aim is to acquire a better understanding of the particular case (Creswell, 2013:98; Stake, 2005:445). When conducting an instrumental case study the purpose is to understand a specific issue or concern, and a case is selected to best investigate this problem. The case is of secondary interest and less important than the insight and understanding it can 89

118 provide regarding the phenomenon under investigation (Creswell, 2013:98; Flinders & Richardson, 2006:331). A multiple case study is an instrumental case study extended to several cases (Stake, 2005: ). Data are collected and analysed from several cases and can be studied comparatively in order to investigate similarities and differences between the cases. This study is a comparative case study to examine and analyse patterns and themes of qualitative strategies of inquiry in music education. By conducting a comparative case study, I attempted to acquire a more advanced understanding of the different patterns of qualitative strategies of inquiry by comparing the different individual music education journals as this allowed breadth as well as depth of focus (Rule & Vaughn, 2011:21) Aims and objectives of case study research Hesse-Biber and Leavy (2011:258) noted that case study research can serve many different purposes and can be conducted with different aims and objectives. In conducting this case study, I considered the following five components when planning a research design based on Creswell's (2013:98) and Yin's (2014:29) suggestions, namely the research question and sub-questions, identifying the unit of analysis, purpose of the research, data collection linked to the research purpose and the criteria for interpreting the research findings (Creswell, 2013:98; Yin, 2014:29). In the first component as case study researcher I needed to clarify the essence and relevance of the research questions, as case study research has a conceptual structure and is organised around descriptive questions such as how and why (Stake, 2005:448; Yin, 2014:29). Although a phenomenon may be generally defined, the research question must be definite and specific for the unit of analysis to be clearly identified. The main research question and sub-questions in this comparative case study are open-ended and descriptive in order to fully understand the meaning and essence of the research problem. Secondly, the selected cases may be concrete, actual entities such as an individual, small group or organisation, or a less concrete, abstract instance such as a process or project (Creswell, 2013:98). When deciding on the unit of analysis, the defining of each case is directly followed by setting the boundaries of the case. When defining the boundaries of a case study, certain features and perceptions will be included or excluded, which contributes to the richness, depth and texture of a case study (Rule & Vaughn, 2011:11). Setting the boundaries of the case clarifies the choice of parameters such as intent and size, time and place (Creswell, 2013:99), time and activity (Stake, 2005:444) and definition and context (Miles & Huberman, 1994:25) to indicate the breadth and depth of the study and to ensure that the scope of the research remains within manageable limits (Baxter & Jack, 2008:546; Njie & Asimiran, 2014:37). Each unit of analysis and its related research questions and research purpose require a different case study as each case study has its own specific research design, and data collection and analysis procedures (Yin, 2014:31 32). The unit of analysis in this comparative case study, 90

119 five accredited music education journals, is bounded by time ( ) and by type (music education journal with music education in the title and acknowledged by the South African Department of Higher Education and Training (DHET) as accredited for the purposes of research subsidy payments to South African researchers). The rationale for choosing the date range of is that previous studies on music education research had been conducted until 2012 and therefore the commencement date of data collection for this study is 2012 to ensure continuity. Creswell (2013:98) describes the third component by explaining that establishing the purpose or intent of conducting a qualitative case study is important, as case studies can either be conducted to illustrate a unique case, or to understand a specific issue or problem. According to Merriam (2009:43), case study research can be particularistic, descriptive or heuristic. Case studies are particularistic if they concentrate on a particular context such as a single phenomenon, entity, situation or event. The focus is on the essence of the case study as it reveals important information about the phenomenon under investigation, in this instance qualitative strategies of inquiry in music education research. When case studies are descriptive, this indicates that the phenomenon or entity under study has been described in a complete, rich, thick, literal and creative way. Heuristic research means that case study research enhances the knowledge and comprehension of the phenomenon or entity under investigation, as its findings can produce new meaning, perception and understanding (Merriam, 2009:44). This comparative case study is a heuristic study as it generates knowledge and understanding of the recent use of qualitative strategies of inquiry in articles published in five accredited journals between 2012 and In this study I constructed a heuristic model for qualitative research procedures in music education as an interpretive tool to reach a qualitative understanding of the use of strategies of inquiry in music education. The next component is the unique contribution of a case study which provides the researcher with a holistic understanding of a problem, issue, or phenomenon within its social context (Hesse- Biber & Leavy, 2011:256). By enabling a holistic understanding of the case, the case is examined from different perspectives to view various dimensions of the issue by collecting and analysing multidimensional data (Creswell, 2013:98; Rule & Vaughn, 2011:1; Willis, 2007:242). The design of this study is a holistic comparative case study as five independent music education journals were selected as separate cases. Both the phenomenon of interest and its context within each individual case were analysed and interpreted to present a holistic account of the comparative case study (Yin, 2014:59). Finally, Hesse-Biber and Leavy (2011:264) state that contexts in case study research which is complex, overlapping and multidimensional are more pronounced than in any other qualitative strategy of inquiry. Defining and describing contexts is prominent in the process of generating 91

120 meaning and creating understanding. Through case study research a complex and nuanced understanding of the subject of examination can be achieved by interpreting the research questions by way of thick descriptions in a continuing iterative process. These in-depth descriptions enable naturalistic generalisation, which is based on a natural process to convey the particularity of the case to readers, where they can relate themselves, or their experiences to the phenomenon investigated in the case study (Hesse-Biber & Leavy, 2011:256; Stake, 2005:444; Yin, 2014:212). This comparative case study was conducted to generate an understanding of how researchers employed qualitative strategies of inquiry in music education and to analyse the recent developments of qualitative strategies of inquiry in music education. I provided a thick, rich description of the cases in order to illuminate their essence within their wider contexts (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016:259) Strengths and limitations of case study research As with all qualitative strategies of inquiry, case study research also has certain strengths and limitations. Since a case study design is primarily chosen by the researcher because of the nature of the particular research problem and the research questions being asked, the strengths of a case study outweigh the limitations (Merriam, 2009:50). The case study design plays a significant part in advancing, developing and expanding a discipline s knowledge base, particularly in applied fields such as social work and education. By examining the applied fields methods, procedures and processes, increased meaning and understanding of the phenomenon are gained by the researcher, which in turn affects and improves practice (Merriam, 2009:51). This comparative case study contributed to the body of knowledge of music education research by generating knowledge through an understanding of the implementation of qualitative strategies of inquiry in music education research. A case study is an intensive investigation, since it is the in-depth examination of a particular situation or event, which focuses on the complex relations within the case as well as the broader context of and perspective on the case (Rule & Vaughn, 2011:7). A case study is flexible and versatile in terms of the research problem, the unit of analysis and the wide variety of research methods to be used, depending on what is appropriate to the research question and particular case (Rule & Vaughn, 2011:7). Case studies, with the emphasis on the individual unit or entity, can also be used in combination with other strategies of inquiries to add depth, insight and understanding to the situation or problem being studied (Rule & Vaughn, 2011:10 12). In this study, an in-depth examination of five music education journals was conducted through withincase analysis and cross-case analysis to investigate the research problem with a contextual view. Case studies are valuable for examining and understanding processes, trends and dynamics of change over a period of time. By describing and analysing events and patterns, they can 92

121 determine factors and analyse patterns and links between them (Simons, 2009:21). In this study the use of qualitative strategies of inquiry by music education researchers was examined by conducting within-case and cross-case analyses of the five selected journals in order to suggest future directions in qualitative music education research. Case studies are limited by the sensitivity, integrity, rigour and bias of the investigator. In this comparative case study, I was responsible for the collection and analysis of all the research data and attempted to follow systematic procedures and validation strategies in order to avoid ambiguous inferences and interpretations of the research findings (Charmaz, 2005: ; Merriam, 2009:52; Yin, 2014:19 20). I have selected a holistic comparative case study design, presented in Figure 3 4 to illustrate the unit of analysis of this case study. HOLISTIC COMPARATIVE CASE STUDY CONTEXT CONTEXT CONTEXT CONTEXT CONTEXT CASE 1 CASE 2 CASE 3 CASE 4 CASE 5 International Journal of Music Education Music Education Research British Journal of Music Education Journal of Research in Music Education Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education Figure 3 4: Holistic comparative case study, adapted from Rule and Vaughn (2011:18). 93

122 Goodrick (2014:9) argues that a combination of qualitative and quantitative data can be incorporated into a comparative case study. He states further that since comparative case studies are embedded in a specific research design, the presentation of the research report should reflect the intended purpose of the comparative case studies (Goodrick, 2014:10). This comparative case study drew on qualitative data, which were derived from the literature review (Chapter 2), and subsequently on both quantitative and qualitative data that emerged from analysing the five selected journals (Chapters 4 and 5). The purpose of my study is to explore the recent use of qualitative strategies of inquiry in the five selected journals in order to recommend the future directions for the application of strategies of inquiry in various music education research contexts. It is embedded in a qualitative research design to reflect the research purpose, although it is located on the qualitative-quantitative continuum as quantitative data is integrated in the qualitative research design In comparative case studies researchers usually choose between four and five individual cases to present an in-depth description of the case (Creswell, 2013:101; Stake, 2006:23). Each single case is of interest because it belongs to a particular collection of cases as it shares a common characteristic with other single cases. These individual cases are categorically bounded, and Stake (2006:6) refers to this collective entity, group or phenomenon to be studied a quintain. Stake (2006:8) explains that to understand the specific phenomenon, the researcher studies what is similar and different about the single cases, or the individual parts, in order to fully comprehend the meaning of the quintain. In this study the five selected music education journals are the collective entity which forms the unit of analysis; they are analysed within-, and across cases to gain a better understanding of the use of qualitative strategies of inquiry in music education. The aim of multiple research is to develop a better understanding of the phenomenon under study and hence the research questions must be selected to guide the research towards this understanding, while the interpretation of the findings will also be informed by the research questions (Stake, 2006:14). In this study the main research question was How have qualitative strategies of inquiry been used in five selected accredited music education journals between 2012 and 2015, and what future directions does this analysis suggest? This question guided the research to generate knowledge and understanding, and enabled informed analysis of the application of qualitative strategies of inquiry by music education researchers. In a multiple case study, each individual case to be studied is a separate and complex entity situated in its own context (Stake, 2006:12). With multiple case studies comparisons across cases can be made and a collection of cases can be chosen to present the research problem more effectively. Although it is unlikely that a comparative case study design will generate findings that represent all other similar case studies, it is possible that when common findings emerge, generalisations can be generated that may be applicable to other comparable settings (Rule & Vaughn, 2011:21). 94

123 Stake (2006:23) suggested that the criteria for selecting cases for a multiple case study must be that they are relevant to the phenomenon under study and that they provide enough diversity and opportunities to learn about complexity and contexts. Each case to be studied is a complex entity located in a milieu or situation embedded in a number of contexts or backgrounds (Stake, 2005:449). In this comparative study all the articles analysed and coded in each music education research journal are relevant to the research problem as each individual music education journal has certain prescribed rules regarding content, ethics and methodology to be met. Although each case is an independent study on its own, it belongs to a particular collection of cases by sharing a binding concept, the research problem (Stake, 2005:5 6). Rule and Vaughn (2011:120) propose three different structures for presenting multiple case studies, namely as a sequenced structure where the individual cases are presented separately, followed by a cross-case analysis; a thematic structure where the study is organised according to key themes and the individual cases are explained according to each theme; and a synthesised structure where the cases are synthesised in relation to particular themes in order to provide an evidential overview of the phenomenon. A sequential structure is usually employed in intrinsic case studies where the case is regarded as important in and of itself, whereas thematic and synthesised structures are suited for an instrumental purpose, where cases are specifically chosen to illuminate a phenomenon as a whole. A thematic structure was adopted in this study as the analysed data were categorised into themes to describe and interpret the recent use of qualitative strategies of inquiry in music education research. As more than one case was selected to conduct this study, a comparative case study was the most appropriate strategy of inquiry for answering the research questions. The intention of this comparative case study is to develop a better understanding of the use of qualitative strategies of inquiry in music education research and the research questions were selected to guide the research towards establishing meaning and gaining insight to uncover and interpret these patterns in music education journals. Procedures for conducting a comparative case study I have followed the procedures shown in Figure 3 5 for conducting this comparative case study as proposed by Creswell (2013: ) and Stake (2005: ). 95

124 PROCEDURES FOR A COMPARATIVE CASE STUDY 1 Identify approach Researcher identifies a comparative case study approach based on the research problem 2 Case study selection Researcher selects five comparative cases 3 Data collection Researcher determines documents as the type of data collection Researcher collects data from five accredited music education journals 4 Data analysis Researcher selects constant comparison analysis method as type of analysis Researcher develops a detailed description of the case Researcher focuses on analysis of key themes 5 Interpretation Researcher reports the knowledge and understanding of the case Figure 3 5: Procedures for a comparative case study adapted from Creswell (2013: ) and Stake (2005: ). A comparative case study was selected for this study on the basis of the research questions, and the epistemological orientation of this study is pragmatic in order to generate knowledge to understand the research problem and suggest directions for future research (Creswell, 2013:28). As no comprehensive investigation of qualitative strategies of inquiry in music education research has yet been conducted, a comparative case study is appropriate to explore the recent use of qualitative strategies of inquiry in articles published in five selected journals between 2012 and 2015, in order to recommend the future directions for the application of strategies of inquiry in various music education research contexts. The individual cases have pre-defined boundaries that share common characteristics that are relevant to the research problem. By comparing the content of five peer-reviewed music education journals the study will provide an in-depth understanding of the use of qualitative strategies of inquiry in music education. 96

125 Five peer-reviewed music educational journals, similar in nature and context, have been purposefully identified to allow comparisons within and across cases. The British Journal of Music Education (BJME), the Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education (BCRME), the International Journal of Music Education (IJME), the Journal of Research in Music Education (JRME) and the Music Education Research (MER), (see Figure 3 4), are bounded by parameters such as intent (music education research), time ( ) and context (journal-specific contexts) to provide an in-depth understanding of the research problem. As the study focuses on qualitative strategies of inquiry, the research is limited to articles with a qualitative design. I am responsible for gathering data and am therefore dependent on my own abilities and perceptions to collect and interpret data from research documents (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016:175). The first step in this process was finding relevant data sources which is a systematic procedure, informed by the topic of inquiry, the research question and research purpose (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016:175; Yin, 2014:94) Purposeful sampling Purposeful sampling was used in this study as five cases were selected that met certain predetermined criteria (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016:96). The objective with this criterion sampling was to discover and understand the use of methodology in music education research by selecting cases from which the most insight and knowledge could be gained (Yin, 2014:95). Certain criteria needed to be established to guide the case selection and research process, and to ensure that each case would illuminate the research interest. To meet the criteria established for this study, five accredited music education journals with music education as part of the title were selected as each of them is an exemplary case of the phenomenon under study and reflected the research purpose, which was to explore the recent use of qualitative research methodology in music education research articles. The time period selected for examination of articles published by the five accredited music education journals was 2012 to 2015 to ensure uninterrupted research in the field of music education. Because of the set criteria, the data sources from the five individual cases in this comparative case study were similar and shared a commonality as the concept of research methodology connected all the cases. They were therefore comparable, which allowed for a detailed description of each individual case to be developed before continuing with emerging similarities and differences in cross-case comparisons. The study included only research articles that met these fixed criteria and all other similar data sources and articles were excluded. 97

126 Journal ranking Since the five selected music education journals are the five selected cases, or unit of analysis, a brief explanation on the journal ranking system follows before each journal is discussed separately. The SCImago Journal Rank (SJR) (SJR, 2016) is a ranking system of scientific influence of scholarly journals based on both the number of citations that the journal receives and the importance of the journals where such citations are made. The SJR journal ranking for each of the five selected journals, measured until 2015, is shown in Table 3 2. The ranking and measures are explained as follows: The H-index: this measures both the productivity and citation impact of the publication history of a researcher. The H-index quantifies both the journal s scientific productivity and scientific impact. SJR indicator: this expresses the average number of citations received in 2015 by the documents published in the selected journal in the three previous years from SJR quartile: this is a category classification; Q1 means the highest value, and Q4 is the lowest values. Total documents: the productivity of all types of documents, which include citable and noncitable documents, for the period from Total cites: the number of total citations and the journal s self-citations received in 2015 by a journal to the articles and documents published in the previous three years from Self cites: the number of journal s self-citations in the selected journal to the journal s own documents published in the previous three years from Citable documents: number of primary research documents, which includes citable articles, reviews and conference papers published by a selected journal in the three previous years from Non-citable documents: number of documents other than research articles, reviews and conference papers published by a selected journal in the three previous years from External cites per document: the average citations by subtracting the number of self-citations from the total number of citations received by the journal in 2015 per document published in the three previous years from Cites per document: the average citations and external citations received by a journals in 2015 per document published in the three previous years from Cited documents: ratio of a journal s documents that have been published in the three previous years from that have been cited at least once. 98

127 Uncited documents: ratio of a journal s documents that have been published in the three previous years from that were not cited during the following year. International collaboration: the ratio of articles that have been produced by researchers from several countries. 99

128 Table 3 2: SCImago Journal Rank for the five selected journals as measured in Journal H- index SJR indicator SJR quartile Total documents ( ) Total cites ( ) Self cites ( ) Citable documents ( ) Noncitable documents ( External cites per document ( ) Cites per document Cited documents ( ) Uncited documents ( ) International collaboration Country JRME Q % USA MER Q % UK IJME Q % UK BJME Q % UK BCRME Q % USA 100

129 Journal of Research in Music Education (JRME) The JRME is a quarterly, peer-reviewed journal publishing original research articles related to the teaching and learning of music. This journal covers a wide range of areas of interest including various aspects of music pedagogy, history and philosophy related to vocal, instrumental, and general music at all levels, ranging from early childhood to adult years. The mission of the JRME is to encourage, publish and distribute research of the highest quality for the development of music teaching and learning. The JRME publishes quantitative, qualitative, historical, and philosophical research, but does not publish action research, literature reviews or essays. Contributors should submit research articles that represent the highest standards of research design and scholarly writing with implications for music teaching and learning provided in all articles. The JRME disseminates research findings that support the strategic plan of encouraging the study and practice of music as specified by the National Association for Music Education (NAfME, 2011). Authors must adhere to the ethical, legal and publication standards of the American Psychological Association (APA, 2010) and the National Association for Music Education (NAfME, 2011). The JRME was established in 1953 and the journal is published by Sage Publications in association with the National Association for Music Education. The SJR ranking for the JRME is measured at 0.93 and shown in Figure 3 6. Figure 3 6: SCImago Journal Rank for the JRME (SJR, 2016) Music Education Research (MER) MER is an international refereed journal with contributors from a wide community of music education researchers. The focus is primarily on music education research by providing an international forum for cross-cultural examinations and discussions related to all areas of music education. MER focuses on research related to philosophy, sociology, psychology and comparative studies in music education. The journal communicates ideas, interpretations and findings relating to practical and theoretical developments, teaching and learning, formal and 101

130 informal contexts, musical development, creativity and perception, instrumental and vocal studies, technologies, special needs, community settings, socio-cultural issues, policy, curriculum design and assessment in music education. The journal was first published in 1999 and is compliant with the Research Councils Policy on Open Access (RCUK, 2013). The SJR ranking for the MER is measured at 0.76 and shown in Figure 3 7. Figure 3 7: SCImago Journal Rank for the MER (SJR, 2016) International Journal of Music Education (IJME) The IJME is a quarterly peer-reviewed academic journal covering research in the field of music education. The journal differentiates between two article types, namely research articles and practice articles, and each published issue contains articles from both the research and practice section of the journal, and each issue has a special focus. Research issues cover scholarly reports that enrich knowledge concerning the teaching and learning of music related to the interest and relevance of the international music education community. These issues include quantitative or qualitative research studies, summaries bodies of research, present theories, models or philosophical positions. Submitted research articles should include a discussion of implications and applications to music teaching and learning, and be of interest and relevance to the international music community. Practice issues comprise articles related to the advancement of the practice of music learning and teaching at all age levels concerning the classroom and private studio, in school and out of school, and private and group tuition. Contributors to the IJME have to conform to the Code of Conduct by the Committee of Publication Ethics (COPE, 2011). The IJME was established in 1983 and is published by Sage Publications on behalf of the International Society for Music Education. The SJR ranking for the IJME is measured at 0.57 and shown in Figure

131 Figure 3 8: SCImago Journal Rank for the IJME (SRJ, 2016) British Journal of Music Education (BJME) The BJME is a fully refereed international journal which publishes contemporary research in music education. The journal supports the connection between research and practice by enriching and developing professional development and practice within the field of music education. The BJME covers a broad range of subjects including music teaching and learning both in formal and informal educational contexts including classroom, individual, group, instrumental and vocal teaching, music in higher education, international comparative music education, music in community settings, and teacher education. Contributors to the BJME include music educators and researchers from schools and higher education academic institutions, and they must consult BERA s Revised Ethical Guidelines for Educational Research (BERA, 2004) for ethical guidelines. The BJME was first published in 1984 and three issues are published annually by Cambridge University Press. The SJR ranking for the BJME is measured at 0.39 and shown in Figure 3 9. Figure 3 9: SCImago Journal Rank for the BJME (SJR, 2016). 103

132 Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education (BCRME) The BCRME is a peer-reviewed journal that covers contemporary research articles of interest to the international music education profession. Contributors to the journal have to disclose their research purpose, procedures, and conclusions, and propose implications for and applications to the music education profession. Original research published in the BCRME has to adhere to a well implemented and rigorous research methodology. Research manuscripts should cover timely and significant topics, and music education contributors should contribute to the body of knowledge by providing new understanding and insight, and drawing inferences by developing a synthesis in contrast to merely providing a summary of extant research. Contributors need to conform to the ethical and legal publication standards of the American Psychological Association (APA, 2010). The BCRME was established in 1963 and is a quarterly academic journal which focuses both on quantitative and qualitative studies in music education. It is published by the University of Illinois Press on behalf of the Council for Research in Music Education. The SJR ranking for the BCRME is measured at 0.36 and shown in Figure Figure 3 10: SCImago Journal Rank for the BCRME (SJR, 2016). Case study research does not prescribe any particular methods for data analysis as the method selected is dependent on the type of case study being conducted (Baxter & Jack, 2008:554; Merriam, 2009:42). The type of analysis of case studies can be a holistic analysis of the complete case or an embedded analysis of a particular aspect of the case (Creswell, 2013:100; Yin, 2014:53). Several ways of analysing case studies are possible provided that the researcher develops systematic analytical strategies and procedures for analysing the data. Regardless of the differences in analytical approaches, the core of qualitative analysis is describing and categorising data, and making connections between categories (Dey, 1993:6; Yin, 2014:169). In this comparative case study I have employed the constant comparison method to code and categorise data from the 233 qualitative music education research articles examined, and both 104

133 within-case and cross-case analysis were used to analyse and compare similarities and differences within each of the five music education journals and across the five journals. Qualitative inquiry produces rich and complex data and requires a systematic and rigorous analytical approach for the data to be presented in a manageable form (Hewitt-Taylor, 2001:39;42). The constant comparative analysis method is chosen as the research method for this study as it identifies broad categories, patterns and themes that emerge from qualitative inquiry. The interpretative comparable characteristics of case study research are the basis of a large number of comparative research studies as the comparative analytical constructs of this research method support comparative case studies (Collier, 1993: ) Definition Butler-Kisber (2010:47) defines constant comparative analysis as a thematic form of qualitative work that uses categorizing, or the comparing and contrasting of units and categories of field texts, to produce conceptual understandings of experiences and/or phenomena that are ultimately constructed into larger themes. This method is an iterative and inductive process of examining and re-examining the data through constant coding and recoding of the material (Glaser & Strauss, 1967: ). Strauss and Corbin (1990:74) define this method as the making of comparisons for similarities and differences between each incident, event and other instances of phenomena. Grove (1988:273) describes the constant comparison method as the sorting of data sections, namely words, sentences, and paragraphs, into intuited categories. He explains that when the analysing and sorting process continues, these categories become more explicit and rules can be built for inclusion of terms within them (1988:273). Segments of data are systematically and constantly compared to other segments of data during the process of coding. During this comparative process, the researcher critically examines why this segment of data is different or similar to other pieces of data to draw new meaning from the data (Butler-Kisber, 2010:24 31; Hewitt-Taylor, 2001:39; Yamagata-Lynch, 2010:73) Historical development of constant comparison inquiry Glaser (1965) wrote a paper, The Constant Comparative Method of Qualitative Analysis, which emerged from the difficulty of analysing qualitative data. The constant comparison method was developed and expanded by Glaser and Strauss (1967: ) as part of their inductive grounded theory methodology (Butler-Kisber, 2010:24). The purpose of developing the constant comparative method was the use of systematic coding and analytical procedures in four stages (Glaser & Strauss, 1967:103). First, data segments are coded and compared according to suitable existing or emerging categories, followed by the integration of categories and subcategories. The next step is the reduction and delimitation of categories, while the last step is deriving themes 105

134 from the analytical framework, presented in a written form (Glaser & Strauss, 1967: ). Lincoln and Guba (1985: ) expanded upon this method by adding more refinements and additional steps to Glaser and Strauss s (1967: ) model. Lincoln and Guba added a unitizing step where data units are coded before being compared and categorised, and a step that provide for omitted or incomplete categories. Strauss and Corbin (1990:61) focused on applying the constant comparative method to qualitative data analysis in general and not limited to grounded theory. They identified categories not only as analytical, but also as descriptive and interpretive. The constant comparative method has been adapted by Corbin and Strauss (2008, 1990, 1998) to include a theoretical framework and structured coding process, while Charmaz (2000, 2006) developed a constructivist grounded theory approach with the focus on a mutual construction of knowledge by the researcher and the participants. The constant comparison method was employed in this comparative case study to generate knowledge and understanding of the use of qualitative strategies of inquiry in the five selected journals by identifying and comparing codes and categories during the qualitative analysis of the music education articles Characteristics of the constant comparison method Constant comparison analysis can be employed outside the grounded theory methodology to support the comparative analysis of other qualitative strategies of inquiries (Fram, 2013:11; O'Connor et al., 2008:41). The constant comparison of data is a central principle of the analysis process in all the qualitative strategies of inquiry, and therefore this research method is not merely an analytic coding strategy, but can be considered a mode of inquiry building insight and understanding across phenomena and research cases, while acknowledging multiple realities (Boeije, 2002:391; Butler-Kisber, 2010:26). This method can be employed to identify and classify categories, broad patterns and themes that emerge from qualitative studies. The objective of constant comparison analysis in qualitative inquiry is to compare, link and integrate categories in order to conceptualise the field under study and to provide an answer to the research questions that are examined in a particular study (Tesch, 1990:96). In this study the exploration of the use of qualitative strategies of inquiry in the five selected music education journals was conducted by comparing categories and developing themes to generate knowledge and understanding. In each of these categories and themes, the data are presented in a logical and analytical order in relation to the research question (O'Connor et al., 2008:42). In constant comparison analysis associations and comparisons are implied when categories are created. To compare categories, they need to be both expressive and meaningful internally, with regard to the contextual data, as well as externally, with reference to the compared data (Dye et al., 2000:3). The complex non-linear and comparative process is continuously present during the entire inquiry process, from the data selection to the interpretation of findings, and is not limited to the analysis phase (Butler-Kisber, 2010:30). Butler-Kisber (2010:31) divides the iterative analytical process 106

135 into two phases, namely the coarse-grained phase and the fine-grained phase, and explains that during the first phase broad categories are created, and during close reading and rereading of the data, the researcher works back and forth across the categories to expand and decrease them as the analysis proceeds. More refined categories are assigned and reassigned during the second phase as relationships are discovered within and across categories. When these categories are saturated and cannot be refined any further, they are reassigned into larger themes based on the corresponding qualities among the categories that emerge (Kolb, 2012:83 84). The constant comparison method in this study was conducted to identify and compare categories which are directly related to the main research question and sub-questions. During the analysis of all the music education articles, broad categories were created during the first phase to classify the data by giving them different codes. After the five journals were examined and analysed, these broad categories were compared and refined during the second phase, and then to be reassigned into larger themes, which resulted in a heuristic model of qualitative research procedures (4.2). A disciplined and systematic logic needs to be followed when analysing documents, such as the discovery of data, comparative analysis, critical synthesis, exploratory theoretical sampling, articulated theoretical sampling, critical comparison and thematic analysis (Altheide et al., 2010:136,148; Silverman, 2013a). Analysing data entails exploring all content interactively and systematically, after which explicit and subtle relevant data will be examined and compared while key words, terms, meanings and themes will be discovered, integrated, analysed and categorised. The analysis of data in this comparative case study has been conducted according to a holistic approach as each case was examined and compared with others in their totality (Sivesind, 1999:363). With each comparative case, a detailed description was provided on the basis of the themes generated within each case called a within-case analysis followed by a thematic analysis and detailed description across the cases called a cross-case analysis (Creswell, 2013:101). Attention was given to similarities and variations within and across the individual cases, emphasising each case s uniqueness in relation to the larger group of cases under study Within-case and cross-case analysis The in-depth analysis of the five music education journals is based on the within-case and acrosscase analysis as proposed by Creswell (2013:209) and Merriam and Tisdell (2016:234) as shown in Figure

136 IN-DEPTH PORTRAIT OF CASES Case context Case description Within-case analysis Cross-case analysis Qualitative strategies of inquiry Similarities Differences CASE 1 JOURNAL: IJME Themes within IJME Case study IJME; MER; BJME; JRME; BCRME CASE 2 JOURNAL: MER Themes within MER Basic qualitative research Phenomenology IJME; MER; BJME; JRME; BCRME IJME; MER; BJME; JRME; BCRME CASE 3 JOURNAL: BJME Themes within BJME Ethnography Narrative inquiry IJME; MER; BJME; JRME; BCRME IJME; MER; BJME; JRME; BCRME CASE 4 JOURNAL: JRME Themes within JRME Action research Historical studies IJME; MER; BJME; JRME; BCRME IJME; MER; BJME; JRME; BCRME CASE 4 JOURNAL: BCRME Themes within BCRME Grounded theory Arts-based research IJME; MER; BJME; JRME; BCRME IJME; MER; BJME; JRME; BCRME Conceptual studies IJME; MER; BJME; JRME; BCRME Figure 3 11: Coding of a comparative case study, adapted from Creswell (2013:209) and Merriam and Tisdell (2016:234). 108

137 The main consideration in analysing and coding the data is to fully understand, interpret and convey the proper significance of the case (Creswell, 2007:73; Merriam, 2009:203). In a single case study there is only one stage of analysis procedures within the specific case, but a multiple case study consists of two stages of analysis procedures. The first stage, similar to the single case study, is the within-case analysis and the second stage is the cross-case analysis (Merriam, 2009:204). For the within-case analysis each individual case is first treated as a separate and comprehensive study in and of itself. Enough data must be collected for the researcher to understand as much as possible about the context and meaning of each individual case to report findings on each study separately. Only after the analysis of each case has been completed, can cross-case analysis between all the relevant cases commence. This entails a cross-case synthesis through examining and aggregating the findings across the separate cases by analysing the patterns for similarities and differences (Yin, 2014:238). Researchers produce new knowledge from a cross-case analysis as they accumulate information and understanding from each individual case in order to compare and contrast the different individual cases (Khan & VanWynsberghe, 2008). As seen from the template in Figure 3 11, the analysis of the cases in this study was conducted in two phases, as codes were generated for each of the five music education journals within their respective contexts to describe and interpret each music education journal. After that themes were categorised within each individual case and compared on the basis of their content as well as the number of occurrences within and across the five cases (Creswell, 2013:209). Each individual music education journal was first examined and analysed separately to retain its distinctive contextual meaning. When the findings were merged, the themes were synthesised into a complex whole to answer the research question (Stake, 2006:46 47). When examining the data in this study, I completed the first within-case analysis of each individual music education journal before continuing with the cross-case analysis of all five music education journals. I collected enough data to compare patterns for within-case analysis to understand and interpret each music education journal as a separate unit of analysis. After acquiring sufficient knowledge about the context and meaning of each individual music education journal to report findings on each journal, the similarities and differences in the data were examined collectively to understand the case as a whole, and not only the discrete parts of the case (Baxter & Jack, 2008:555). I expressed my interpretations of the findings of this comparative case study in a rich descriptive format and hoped to generate significant knowledge and understanding to contribute to the field of music education research (Stake, 2005:450). The themes, as reflected in the heuristic model of qualitative research procedures (see 4.2), were analysed and compared on the basis of their content as well as the number of occurrences within and across cases. Morgan (1993: ) states that the qualitative use of counting data 109

138 patterns that emerged from the coding process adds new meaning and understanding to the context by summarising and recontextualising the data. Qualitative counting seeks to answer questions about why and how the patterns in question came to be (Morgan, 1993:116), as it is a both a descriptive and an interpretive step in the analysis process. Counting and comparing these patterns help to provide a conceptual explanation and understanding of the context under study (Butler-Kisber, 2010:47) ATLAS.ti 7 The organisational and analytical aspects of the processes are essential to the successful execution of case study research (Hesse-Biber & Leavy, 2011:266). In this comparative case study data analysis was conducted with the assistance of the software program ATLAS.ti (Friese, 2014:1 3). ATLAS.ti 7 belongs to a genre of computer-aided qualitative data analysis software (CAQDAS) and is designed to support, analyse and organise qualitative contentanalytical processes by assisting the researcher to systematically categorise data to improve accuracy and reliability. The collected data are saved in ATLAS.ti 7 in one heuristic unit (Addendum B compact disk) and the data are organised into codes, categories and themes. ATLAS.ti 7 does not analyse the data, but assists the researcher in the coding process to identify and compare data segments by creating new codes, or deleting, renaming or merging the codes. The analytical and visualisation settings enable the researcher to present various interpretative network views of the category development of the analysed material. Tools such as retrieving texts based on codes and keywords, renaming or merging existing codes, generating network views of existing codes and categories and their relationship to one another assisted the researcher to interpret the results. The articles from the music education journals were inserted into ATLAS.ti 7 and significant words, concepts and phrases that were relevant to the research question were identified and coded (Saldaña, 2013:3). In ATLAS.ti 7 these segments of data are referred to as quotes and an appropriate code with a distinctive name and meaning is assigned to each quote (Addendum B see code list on compact disk). To codify entails arranging data in a systematic order by organising similar textual data in order to form a pattern to consolidate meaning. A code is a keyword linked to a quotation or data section that assigns an interpreted meaning to a specific data segment. The portion of data to be coded can range from a single word, a full sentence to an entire page (Saldaña, 2009:3). Data are compared with former analysed data for similarities and differences. Sections of information which are conceptually similar in nature are grouped together under the same code name as categories. Codes may be renamed to merge information that does not completely correspond with similar data segments previously coded. 110

139 Codes are related to each other through their content, meaning and context, and they assist the researcher in the analysis process by identifying patterns, categories and themes. The core conceptual basis of qualitative analysis entails creating categories. Krippendorff (1980:76) claims that the procedure of defining categories is an art. Mayring (2014:95) emphasised the importance of determining proper categories to ensure the accurate categorisation of a given material component. The selected codes are organised into groups that share similar meanings and characteristics by creating categories and sub-categories (Cavanagh, 1997:7; Elo & Kyngäs, 2008: ; Saldaña, 2013:9). Creating categories is both a conceptual and empirical exercise to ensure that all relevant data should be categorized in a suitable category (Dey, 1993:102; Downe Wamboldt, 1992:317; Graneheim & Lundman, 2004:107). Themes are generated by integrating and merging categories with similar patterns and meanings (Gläser & Laudel, 2013). A theme illustrate the way that the various categories relate to each other and is an outcome of the process of coding, categorisation and analytical reflection (Saldaña, 2009:13). The themes that recurred within and across categories on an interpretive level guided the findings and conclusions presented in this comparative case study. Data were coded during an initial cycling process and recoded during a second coding cycle. During the first cycle coding process the data were approached both deductively and inductively. This study drew on the scholarly literature as qualitative data, which were inductively analysed to develop a heuristic model (Chapter 2). After that quantitative data from the five selected journals were deductively analysed (Chapter 4), and lastly a discussion were abductively constructed from all the analysed material to construct a model for future directions (Chapter 5). Open coding was used during the preliminary review of previous studies of research methodology in music education, and provisional codes were developed from these anticipated categories (Saldaña, 2013:100,144). This first coding cycle reflects an etic or outsider point of view associated with and influenced by the external meaning given to the textual material, and is not conducive to understanding the emic or insider perspective of the context under study (Butler-Kisber, 2010:33;36; Morse & Field, 1998:130). These codes were organised into categories by arranging the codes with similar meaning and characteristics into larger meaningful units (Saldaña, 2013:9). The second coding cycling, pattern coding, was an iterative process of combining and assigning codes, categories and sub-categories into themes (Saldaña, 2013:212). The purpose of the second step was to enhance and develop the conceptualisation of the field under study by searching for certain characteristics to define each concept (Butler-Kisber, 2010:36). The research questions guided the analysis as pre-selected codes as well as emergent themes were continually referred back to the research questions throughout the duration of the analysis process. By finding and identifying relations and patterns in the data, research questions can be 111

140 answered and findings can be integrated to gain an in-depth understanding of the research problem. The final interpretative phase reports the understanding of the research problem in this comparative case study (Creswell, 2013:101). Boeije (2002:409) is of the opinion that purposeful comparisons need to be made in order to arrive at meaningful interpretations. The intention of this comparative study was to provide rich detail and in-depth description of all the research processes to produce insight into the use of qualitative strategies of inquiry in music education. By evaluating the research comparisons and results in the light of the purpose of this study, I intended to interpret the findings within the context to which they belong. Role of the researcher I have been involved with supervision of Honours and Masters students in music education at the University of Pretoria since My interest in qualitative research methodology developed as I assisted the students in their postgraduate studies. Assisting students in connecting the research problem, research purpose and research question to the selected strategy of inquiry enhanced my interest in the use of qualitative strategies of inquiry in research studies. These experiences informed to my role of researcher in this study, as they were beneficial in cultivating a better understanding of the use of qualitative strategies of inquiry by music education researchers in the five selected music education journals. Marsh and White (2006:27) explain that the researcher draws inferences from one independent domain, the text, to the other independent domain, the context, and to ensure that the correct inferences are made the researcher uses analytical constructs, or rules of inference, to move from the text to the answers to the research questions (Krippendorff, 2013:380; Marsh & White, 2006:27). According to Graneheim and Lundman (2004:106), the analysis of textual data involves dealing with multiple meanings and understanding that is dependent on subjective interpretation, and hence all researchers have to take into account evaluation criteria to ensure the trustworthiness of the findings. The role of the researcher in a case study is to examine, describe, understand and interpret the specific case (Creswell, 2013:45; Merriam, 2009:219; Rule & Vaughn, 2011:11). The researcher also needs to determine the original purpose of each document analysed, which in this study is the music education articles published in peer-reviewed music education journals. The purpose of and the context in which each article was written were taken into account as well as the intended audience and outcome (Bowen, 2009:38). In qualitative research researchers need to be reflective, insightful and self-critical at each phase of the analysis process and they frequently need to review the data from different perspectives 112

141 (Elo et al., 2014:8; Vaismoradi et al., 2013:403). The personal and academic perspectives and experiences of the researcher influence the direction of the study as their biases, values and background shape their interpretations, which are formed during a study that involves developing and advancing themes and ascribing meaning to the data (Creswell, 2014:187). Four types of researcher reflexivity are present in qualitative inquiry, namely bracketing out of assumptions, mainly associated with phenomenological research; examining social and political influences, associated with studies on social justice; reciprocal reflexivity on the part of both the researcher and participant; and epistemological reflexivity where researchers take into account their epistemological choices regarding research and findings, often associated with constant comparison inquiry (Butler-Kisber, 2010:19; Dowling, 2008: ). This study was informed by epistemological reflexivity as methodological and epistemological decisions were based on the way the research questions would guide the data analysis and interpretation of findings (Willig, 2013:10). Although all research is subject to the researcher s bias, the research has to limit his subjectivity in order to minimize the bias of the researcher. (Morrow, 2005:254; Shenton, 2004:73). Biased reporting occurs when findings are reported selectively and the data are misrepresented and distorted. Sections of significant data that conflict with other data can also be omitted to suit the researcher s subjective preferences, or wilfully suppressed by not revealing relevant information (Booyse et al., 2011:34) Qualitative researchers have to manage their subjectivity by revealing and explaining their assumptions, values, beliefs and dispositions to themselves and others, as this will reduce the effect of the researcher s bias (Morrow, 2005:254). Transparency is a way of enhancing trustworthiness as it requires a rigorous, clear and detailed documentation of the entire process of inquiry (Butler-Kisber, 2010:21; Hiles, 2008: ). Research procedures need to be as explicit as possible during all stages of data management and interpretation to ensure trustworthiness. In this study the research procedures related to data collection and data analysis are transparent as each methodological step is explained, illustrated and described. Trustworthiness Five accredited journals were selected with music education as part of the title of the journal; they were accessed electronically and downloaded on both the EndNote reference management software program and ATLAS.ti 7, a qualitative data analysis software program for citation and analysis purposes to ensure accuracy, rigour and trustworthiness. When findings are reported, it is important to provide the reader with enough contextual information to understand the processes that were followed and how the conclusions were reached. Although there are several criteria for evaluating trustworthiness for qualitative content analytical studies (Emden et al., 2001; Emden & Sandelowski, 1999; Neuendorf, 2002; Potter & Levine Donnerstein, 1999), the most generally 113

142 accepted criteria for evaluating qualitative analysis were developed by Lincoln and Guba (1985:289), who use the term trustworthiness (Shenton, 2004:63). Lincoln and Guba (1985: ) proposed four criteria for evaluating trustworthiness in interpretive research work: credibility, transferability, dependability, and confirmability. To ensure credibility, researchers need to design systematic and transparent processes for generating codes, categories and themes from the raw data in order to make the correct findings and interpretations from the analysed data (Weber, 2004:123; Zhang & Wildemuth, 2009:313). Transferability refers to whether research findings from one context will be applicable to another context, and the researcher is responsible for providing descriptions that are rich and thick enough for other researchers to be able to make inferences about the transferability of the findings to different settings or contexts (Marsh & White, 2006:38; Zhang & Wildemuth, 2009:313). Dependability means that findings are consistent across time, data, researchers and analytical techniques should the same research procedures been followed. Confirmability is the admission of researcher s beliefs and the in-depth methodological descriptions to allow integrity of research results (Shenton, 2004:73). By providing a thick description, this comparative case study contributed towards establishing the quality, validity and credibility of the research by providing the context and essence of the case. Furthermore, the detailed in-depth methodological explanation of the research methods, techniques and processes through which findings were derived was as explicit and clear as possible (Morrow, 2005:254). To achieve confirmability, I attempted to ensure that the findings that emerged from the data were confirmed and supported by the data through systematic analytic processes and not through my own beliefs, values, assumptions and predispositions (Marsh & White, 2006:38 39; Shenton, 2004:72 73). The honesty and accuracy of the research analysis and findings are fundamental requirements to ensure trustworthiness, validity, reliability and the usefulness of the research findings for other researchers (Booyse et al., 2011:34). Qualitative research needs to be conducted in a trustworthy manner as it is relevant during all the stages of the qualitative research process (Anzul & Ely, 1991:93; Bradley, 1993:437). Baxter and Jack (2008:556) propose several key elements to be integrated into the designing and implementing of a case study project to ensure high quality and complete trustworthiness. In this comparative case study I have attempted to provide enough detail to ensure validity and credibility by explaining and describing the research processes, the case study research question was clearly defined, the case study design was appropriate for the research question, the proper sampling strategy for the case study has been applied, and the data were systematically collected and analysed. The trustworthiness of the analysis of qualitative data should be based on a defined, systematic and logical set of criteria and procedures for assessing the rigour of the coding and analysis process (Elo et al., 2014:2; Marsh & White, 2006:38; Schreier, 2012:97). Constant comparison analysis increases the internal validity of the 114

143 research findings because of the comprehensive categories covering the data and identifying the similarities within and differences between categories (Boeije, 2002:393; Denzin, 2009:104). In this comparative case study internal validity and trustworthiness are increased through the combination of within-case analysis, cross-case analysis and constant comparative case analysis. The validation strategy used in this comparative case study was based on the five criteria proposed by Charmaz (2005: ; 2006: ) for judging constant comparison inquiry: credibility, originality, resonance, usefulness and the nature of writing. I attempted to meet all the validation strategies by making systematic and conceptual comparisons between and across categories. The criterion of credibility has to do with the link between the collected data, the main argument of the study and the analytical process. For this study, data from 233 qualitative music education articles taken from five journals were collected to be systematically compared and analysed. Conducting a combination of within-case analysis, cross-case analysis and comparative case analysis, and developing codes and categories during a first coding cycling, followed by assigning themes during a second coding cycle, helped to develop a heuristic model and define a classification for qualitative strategies of inquiry in music education research. The second criterion, originality, aims at evaluating whether the categories and themes developed in the study offer new insight and understanding into the area of research. In this study I attempted to illuminate the significance of qualitative research in music education as the recent use of qualitative research in music education has not been presented in a heuristic model and classification system. The third criterion, resonance, was ensured by disclosing research procedures for analysing, understanding and interpreting the research problem. The criterion of usefulness assesses whether the study has contributed to the body of knowledge. The findings in this study may be useful as they suggest directions for future research in music education research methodology. The writing process, which is the last criterion, is reflexive, interpretive and transparent to ensure trustworthiness. I attempted to make available information on the recent use, current state and future directions of qualitative research in music education to music educators, which will develop and enhance the domain of knowledge in music education research based on the suggestions by Butler-Kisber (2010:46 47) and Charmaz (2006: ). Ethics Creswell (2009:88 91) emphasises that ethical procedures have to be followed and specified in all qualitative approaches and in all phases of the research process, such as the problem statement, research questions, data collection, analysis and interpretation, as well as the publication and dissemination of qualitative reports. This study is a secondary analysis of data as the purpose of examining qualitative data published in music education research differs from the process of collecting primary data for the purpose of prior studies (Hakim, 1982:1). 115

144 When working with content-analytical strategies of inquiry the researcher must apply ethical principles to preclude research misconduct such as the falsification of data, fabrication of data and misrepresentation of data (Booyse et al., 2011:34). Data falsification is the distortion, omission or altering of data; data fabrication is the act of creating data that never existed; and the misinterpretation of data occurs when findings are reported selectively. In this study I complied with the quality criteria for all the steps of collecting, analysing and interpreting data to ensure that all the fundamental requirements for adhering to ethical principles were met. I ensured and verified that interpretation of findings is based on data reported in the original studies. All the research documents that were analysed are published scholarly articles in the public domain, accessible through various databases and the internet and therefore obtainable without the authors or publishers consent. Only authentic research articles published in the selected journals were analysed and the interpretation of findings was based on data reported in the original studies. The ownership of the original data is acknowledged and a complete list of all the secondary documents used for this comparative case study is provided in Addendum A. No personal information about the participants described in the articles was disclosed (Tripathy, 2013:1478). In this study I attempted to adhere to the ethical norms by promoting the aims of research through the representation of knowledge, truth and academic impartiality, and by avoiding, falsifying or misrepresenting of the research data (Bresler, 1995a:31). By applying a code of ethical practice, I hope to fulfil my responsibilities as a researcher to the music education research community. Delimitation of the study In this study I examined and analysed research articles in the field of Music Education limited to articles published from 2012 to 2015 in five accredited journals with music education as part of the title of the journal. The rationale for choosing the date range of is that previous studies on music education research had been conducted until 2012 and therefore the commencement date of data collection for this study is 2012 to ensure continuity. Only the first two published issues of 2015 of The Bulletin for the Council for Research in Music Education have been included in this study, as the last two issues were not yet available electronically at the time of this study. All the issues of 2015 of the remaining four music education journals were examined. The principal aim of this comparative case study was to examine and analyse research articles related to music education in the five selected journals, and submissions that did not fall within the scope of the criteria for articles, such as editorial letters, special contributions or dedication articles, essays, errata, speeches, rebuttals, symposium abstracts, conference proceedings, and dissertation, literature or book reviews, were not included for examination and analysis. Although related music education research articles have been published in journals other than the selected 116

145 five journals, the main emphasis of this study is on qualitative strategies of inquiry published in accredited music education journals. 117

146 CHAPTER 4 FINDINGS Introduction This chapter discusses the use of qualitative strategies of inquiry by music education researchers in five selected music education journals, between 2012 and 2015, namely: 1. British Journal of Music Education (BJME) 2. Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education (BCRME) 3. International Journal of Music Education (IJME) 4. Journal of Research in Music Education (JRME) 5. Music Education Research (MER). The findings of the analysed data in the five selected journals are explained and illustrated in context with other qualitative strategies of inquiry, in qualitative research, and in comparison with quantitative research and mixed method research. After that the findings are first explained individually by presenting the results of the within-case analysis (each of the five selected journals) and then the findings are compared by presenting the results of the cross-case analysis (strategies of inquiries within each of the five journals). Although the meanings of words are generally associated with qualitative research, while numbers and statistics are relevant to quantitative research, Miles et al. (2014:282) are concerned that numbers tend to get ignored in qualitative research. Miles et al. (2014:282) propose three reasons for applying numbers in qualitative research: 1. to draw attention to certain information instantly in a large collection of data; 2. to confirm a statement or assumption; and 3. to avoid bias by being analytically truthful to the data. Silverman (2006:48, 2013b:52) acknowledges the integration of quantitative data in qualitative research and states that the use of quantitative tabulations in a qualitative study locates the findings in a broader context. He continues that the addition of simple counting techniques and tabulated categories supports qualitative data by enhancing transparency and validity (2006:52). In this comparative case study the integration of numbers into the qualitative analysis has ensured the prompt recognition of certain themes and patterns during the analysis and comparison of large amounts of data, and the incorporation of numbers and percentages has supported and verified the findings from the analysed data. Furthermore, the presentation of accurate numerical facts generated from the analysed data has enhanced rigorous and unbiased research. In case study research the counting of numbers when identifying patterns during within-case analysis and cross-case analysis is an integral part of the analytical process (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016:174). 118

147 According to Maxwell (2010: ), the counting of numbers adds an essential value to qualitative research by increasing accuracy, precision and validity related to the frequency of concepts when identifying patterns and themes. In this study the use of numbers and percentages complements the interpretive and qualitative data as certain inquiry tools in ATLAS.ti 7 allowed for the comparative analysis of codes and associations between selected research concepts. These quantities and comparisons revealed associations related to the intensity between concepts by providing a conceptual explanation and understanding of the context under study (Butler-Kisber, 2010:47). Heuristic model of qualitative research procedures Jorgensen and Ward-Steinman (2015:276) have emphasised the importance of heuristic models in analysing research methodology in music education as these models allow greater depth of analysis. To guide my review of the research procedures, I developed a heuristic model on the basis of the scholarly literature (Chapter 2) on qualitative research procedures as an interpretive tool to reach a qualitative understanding of the use of strategies of inquiry in music education research (Brinkmann, 2012:46). The heuristic model which I created drew on the qualitative research process proposed by methodologists such as Denzin and Lincoln (1994a, 2013b) and Creswell (2014), and was constructed from the emergent themes generated during the analysis process in ATLAS.ti 7. The creation of this heuristic model of qualitative research procedures provided a foundation for in-depth analysis, similar to the three-dimensional heuristic models of Sidnell (1972) and Jorgensen and Ward-Steinman (2015). This heuristic model was further expanded, modified and refined with the addition of the findings of the data analysis based on the data collected from the research articles published in the five selected music education journals. The heuristic model was used as a framework to analyse the data for each qualitative strategy of inquiry and consists of the following fifteen categories: 1. strategies of inquiry 2. combined strategies of inquiry 3. philosophical worldviews 4. theoretical frameworks 5. fields of interest 6. research purpose 7. research question 8. research participants 9. sampling strategies 10. sampling size 11. data collection techniques 12. strategies of data analysis 119

148 13. coding techniques 14. validation strategies 15. ethical procedures. In this study ten qualitative strategies of inquiry emerged from the data analysis of 233 qualitative research articles. The ten qualitative strategies of inquiry that emerged from this data analysis are presented in Figure

149 Case study Basic qualitative research Phenomenology Ethnography Qualitative strategies of inquiry in music education research Narrative inquiry Action research Historical studies Grounded theory Arts-based research Conceptual studies Figure 4 1: The ten emergent qualitative strategies of inquiry in five selected music education journals. 121

150 Music education articles that were self-described with a specific qualitative strategy of inquiry and methodological procedures were identified and examined in order to determine the recent use of such strategies by music education researchers. These ten defined qualitative strategies of inquiry, which emerged from the data analysis, correspond with the ten most common classified qualitative strategies of inquiry employed by researchers in the field of music education discussed in Chapter 2. In cases where some of the research strategy types were not used by researchers in the five selected journals, the particular strategy type was included but dimmed in the illustrations (Figures 4 9, 4 12, 4 15, 4 18, 4 21, 4 24; 4 27 and 4 30) to differentiate between the use of the selected qualitative strategies of inquiry in the five journals between 2012 and 2015, and the use of qualitative strategies of inquiry in general in the field of music education research. Some studies in the five selected journals used generic terms to define the research article, which were included in the basic qualitative research category. The fifty-six remaining qualitative studies did not provide any strategies of inquiry and were showed as none indicated. Although they were part of the examination and analysis process, they were not included in the findings and discussion. Since no strategy of inquiry was indicated in these articles, I had to make my own interpretation. In my opinion they were the following strategies of inquiries: 1. concept analysis studies (21) 2. case studies (9) 3. historical studies (2) 4. practice-based research (6) 5. document analysis (5) 6. learning stories (2) 7. research-led research (3) 8. reflective studies (4) 9. collaborative action research (1) 10. arts-based research (1) 11. virtual ethnography (1) 12. narrative analysis (1). Research designs In this comparative case study a total of 480 music education articles were examined and analysed in five selected journals during 2012 and Music educations researchers used qualitative and quantitative research procedures in relatively equal numbers as qualitative research articles comprised nearly half of all the research done in a total of 233 articles (48.54%). The other half of the articles were defined as quantitative articles with a total of 170 articles, and 77 mixed method articles. In 101 of the 233 qualitative articles, the research design was explicitly indicated as qualitative research, which is less than half of the qualitative articles. Table 4 1 and 122

151 Figure 4 2 illustrate the application of research designs by music education researchers in the five selected journals. Table 4 1: Application of research designs by music education researchers in the five selected journals. RESEARCH DESIGNS IJME MER BJME JRME BCRME TOTAL Implied qualitative research 69 (54.76%) 61 (53.98%) 58 (69.05%) 28 (26.67%) 17 (32.69%) 233 (48.54%) Disclosed qualitative research 24 (19.04%) 34 (30.09%) 19 (22.62%) 15 (14.29%) 9 (17.31%) 101 (21.04%) Quantitative research 35 (27.78%) 25 (22.13%) 11 (13.10%) 70 (66.67%) 29 (55.77%) 170 (35.42%) Mixed method research 22 (17.46%) 27 (23.89%) 15 (17.85%) 7 (6.66%) 6 (11.54%) 77 (16.04%) TOTAL APPLICATION OF RESEARCH DESIGNS Mixed method research (16.04%) Quantitative research (35.42%) Qualitative research (48.54%) Figure 4 2: Application of research designs by music education researchers in five selected journals. 123

152 Qualitative strategies of inquiry across five selected journals: within-case analysis It is interesting to note that the BJME published mostly (69%) qualitative research and that the JRME published mostly (73%) quantitative research. The IJME published the highest number of qualitative articles with 69 studies, and the second highest number with 61 studies was published by the MER. The third highest number was published by the BJME with 58 articles, and the JRME published the fourth highest number with 28 studies. The lowest number of qualitative articles in the five selected journals with a total of 17 studies was published by the BCRME. Because the number of published qualitative research articles differs between the journals, percentages were added to place the differences in perspective. The differences in proportion between the numbers and percentages in qualitative research in the five selected journals are shown in Figure 4 3. Figure 4 3: The use of qualitative strategies of inquiry across the five selected journals Qualitative strategies of inquiry across five selected journals 69.05% % 53.98% % 32.69% IJME MER BJME JRME BCRME In the IJME, of the 69 studies using qualitative strategies of inquiry published in music education from 2012 to 2015, the most number of qualitative strategies of inquiry was published in 2014 with 19 studies. The second highest number with 18 studies was published in 2015, and the third highest number was published in 2012 with 17 studies. The lowest number of qualitative strategies of inquiry was published in 2013 with 15 studies. Table 4 5 illustrates the distribution of qualitative strategies of inquiry in the IJME between 2012 and

153 Table 4 2: The use of qualitative strategies of inquiry in the IJME from 2012 to IJME TOTAL Case study Basic qualitative research Phenomenology Ethnography Narrative inquiry Action research Historical studies Grounded theory Arts-based research Conceptual studies None indicated TOTAL Of the 61 studies using qualitative strategies of inquiry in music education published in the MER from 2012 to 2015, the highest number was published in 2013 with 18 studies. The second highest number with 17 studies was published in 2012, and in 2015 the third highest number was published with 16 studies. The lowest number of 10 studies was published in Table 4 4 illustrates the distribution of qualitative strategies of inquiry in the MER between 2012 and

154 Table 4 3: The use of qualitative strategies of inquiry in the MER from 2012 to MER TOTAL Case study Basic qualitative research Phenomenology Ethnography Narrative inquiry Action research Historical studies Grounded theory Arts-based research Conceptual studies None indicated TOTAL In the BJME, of the 58 studies using qualitative strategies of inquiry published in music education from 2012 to 2015, the highest number of qualitative strategies of inquiry was published in 2012 with 23 studies. The second highest number was published in 2014 with 13 studies, while the third highest number was published in 2015 with 12 studies. The lowest number was published in 2013, namely 10 studies. Table 4 2 illustrates the distribution of qualitative strategies of inquiry in the BJME between 2012 and

155 Table 4 4: The use of qualitative strategies of inquiry in the BJME from 2012 to BJME TOTAL Case study Basic qualitative research Phenomenology Ethnography Narrative inquiry Action research Historical studies Grounded theory Arts-based research Conceptual studies None indicated TOTAL Of the 28 studies using qualitative strategies of inquiry published in music education in the JRME from 2012 to 2015, the highest number of qualitative strategies of inquiry was published in 2013 and 2015 with 8 studies. The second highest number was published in 2014 with 7 studies, and the lowest number was published in 2012, namely 5 studies. Table 4 6 illustrates the distribution of qualitative strategies of inquiry in the JRME between 2012 and

156 Table 4 5: The use of qualitative strategies of inquiry in the JRME from 2012 to JRME TOTAL Case study Basic qualitative research Phenomenology Ethnography Narrative inquiry Action research Historical studies Grounded theory Arts-based research Conceptual studies None indicated TOTAL In the BCRME, of the 17 studies using qualitative strategies of inquiry published in music education from 2012 to 2015, the highest number of qualitative strategies of inquiry was published in 2013 with 8 studies. The second highest number with 5 studies was published in 2014, and the lowest number of strategies of inquiry was published in 2012 and 2015, namely 2 studies. Table 4 3 illustrates the distribution of qualitative strategies of inquiry in the BCRME between 2012 and

157 Table 4 6: The use of qualitative strategies of inquiry in the BCRME from 2012 to BCRME TOTAL Case study Basic qualitative research Phenomenology Ethnography Narrative inquiry Action research Historical studies Grounded theory Arts-based research Conceptual studies None indicated TOTAL With a total of 233 studies using qualitative strategies of inquiry published in music education from 2012 to 2015, the highest number of qualitative strategies of inquiry was published in 2012 with 64 studies. The second highest number with 59 studies was published in 2013, while the third highest number was published in 2015 with 56 studies. The lowest number of strategies of inquiry was published in 2014 with 54 studies. Table 4 7 illustrates the distribution of the total use of qualitative strategies of inquiry in the five selected journals between 2012 and

158 Table 4 7: The total use of qualitative strategies of inquiry in the five selected journals from 2012 to JOURNALS TOTAL TOTAL Case study Basic qualitative research Phenomenology Ethnography Narrative inquiry Action research Historical studies Grounded theory Arts-based research Conceptual studies None indicated TOTAL The use of qualitative strategies of inquiry in five selected journals: cross-case analysis Case study was the most common qualitative strategy of inquiry used amongst music education researchers in the five selected journals between 2012 and 2015 with a total of 86 studies (Table 4 8 and Figure 4 4). The second most used popular research strategy was basic qualitative research with 22 studies, and phenomenology followed with 18 studies as the third most used strategy of inquiry. Ethnography was the fourth most used qualitative strategy of inquiry with 14 studies, while narrative inquiry followed in the fifth place with 12 studies. The sixth most used popular strategy of inquiry was action research with 8 studies. Next was historical research in the seventh place with 5 studies, and the three least used qualitative strategies of inquiry were grounded theory, arts-based research and conceptual studies with 4 studies each. In 56 of the qualitative studies, the strategy of inquiry was not clarified and were shown as none indicated. The use of qualitative strategies of inquiry in the five selected music education journals is displayed in Table 4 8 and Figure

159 Table 4 8: The use of qualitative strategies of inquiry in music education. QUALITATIVE STRATEGIES OF IJME MER BJME JRME BCRME TOTAL INQUIRY IN MUSIC EDUCATION Case study Basic qualitative research Phenomenology Ethnography Narrative inquiry Action research Historical research Grounded theory Arts-based research Conceptual research None indicated TOTAL

160 QUALITATIVE STRATEGIES OF INQUIRY IN MUSIC EDUCATION Case study (36.91%) Basic qualitative research (9.44%) Phenomenology (7.73%) Ethnography (6.01%) Narrative inquiry (5.15%) Action research (3.43%) Historical research (2.15%) Arts-based research (1.72%) Grounded theory (1.72%) Conceptual studies (1.72%) None indicated (24.03%) None indicated (24.03%) Case study (36.91%) Conceptual studies (1.72%) Grounded theory (1.72%) Arts-based research (1.72%) Historical research (2.15%) Action research (3.43%) Narrative inquiry (5.15%) Ethnograpgy (6.01%) Phenomenology (7.73%) Basic qualitative research (9.44%) Figure 4 4: The use of qualitative strategies of inquiry in music education in the five selected journals. 132

161 Case study The three types of case study used by music education researchers in five selected journals from 2012 to 2015 were identified as instrumental case study, intrinsic case study and multiple case study. Figure 4 5 illustrates the three types of case studies identified in the five selected journals. Intrinsic case study CASE STUDY Collective case study Instrumental case study Figure 4 5: Case study types identified in five selected journals. Case study was noticeably the most used qualitative strategy of inquiry in music education research. The total number of studies was 86 case study articles out of 233 qualitative studies, which is 36.91% of the qualitative research studies conducted in the five selected journals. Figure 4 6 illustrates the three case study types (instrumental case studies, intrinsic case studies, multiple case studies), one unspecified type (generic case studies) and five combined case study types (ethnographic case studies, narrative-informed case studies, phenomenological case studies, action research case studies, historical case studies) identified in the five selected journals. 133

162 Case study (86) Action research case studies (2) Phenomenological case studies (3) Intrinsic case studies (4) Historical research case studies (1) Narrative-informed case studies (6) Generic case studies (30) Ethnographic case studies (12) Instrumental case studies (12) Multiple case studies (16) Generic case studies (30) Multiple case studies (16) Instrumental case studies (12) Ethnographic case studies (12) Narrative-informed case studies (6) Intrinsic case studies (4) Phenomenological case studies (3) Action research case studies (2) Historical research case studies (1) Figure 4 6: Total number of case study types and combinations identified in five selected journals. In the comparative analysis ( ) it emerged that MER published most of the case studies with a total of twenty-nine articles. The IJME and BJME published the second highest number of case studies with seventeen studies each. The third highest number with fourteen studies was 134

163 published by the JRME, and the BCRME published the lowest number of articles with nine case studies. Because the number of published qualitative research articles differs between the journals, percentages were added to place the differences in perspective (Figure 4 7). The distribution of case studies published in the five selected journals by music education researchers is shown in Table 4 9. Table 4 9: The distribution of case study research in five selected journals. CASE STUDY RESEARCH IJME MER BJME JRME BCRME TOTAL Generic case studies Multiple case studies Instrumental case studies Ethnographic case studies Narrative informed case studies Intrinsic case studies Phenomenological case studies Action research case studies Historical case studies TOTAL

164 The total use of case studies in the five selected journals is illustrated in Figure 4 7. Case study research in five selected journals % 50.00% 52.94% % % IJME MER BJME JRME BCRME Figure 4 7: The total use of case study research in five selected journals. The articles analysed and identified in the five selected journals from 2012 to 2015 as case studies are listed in Table Table 4 10: Case study articles in five selected journals. Generic case studies Author Year Title Journal Barrett, M.S. & Baker, J.S Developing learning identities in and through music: A case study of the outcomes of a music programme in an Australian juvenile detention centre. International Journal of Music Education Bartleet, B Building vibrant school community music collaborations: three case studies from Australia. British Journal of Music Education Bell-Robertson, C.G 2014 Staying on our feet : Novice music teachers sharing of emotions and experiences within an online community. 136 Journal of Research in Music Education

165 Generic case studies Author Year Title Journal Bhebhe, S. et al Training music teachers through distance learning: The case of teaching practice mentoring at one primary school teacher training college in Zimbabwe. British Journal of Music Education Biasutti, M Group music composing strategies: a case study within a rock band. British Journal of Music Education Bolden, B. & Nahachewsky, J Podcast creation as transformative music engagement. Music Education Research Brändström, S. et al Developing distance music education in Arctic Scandinavia: Electric guitar teaching and master classes. Music Education Research Brook, J Placing elementary music education: A case study of a Canadian rural music program. Music Education Research Cain, T Passing it on : Beyond formal or informal pedagogies. Music Education Research Creech, A. et al The role of musical possible selves in supporting subjective well-being in later life. Music Education Research De Villiers, A The transformation of music education: A South African case study. British Journal of Music Education Einarsdottir, S.L Leaders, followers and collective group support in learning art music in an amateur composeroriented Bach Choir. British Journal of Music Education Garnett, J Beyond a constructivist curriculum: A critique of competing paradigms in music education. British Journal of Music Education Gavin, R.B An exploration of potential factors affecting student withdrawal from an undergraduate music education program. Journal of Research in Music Education Hopkins, M.T A descriptive case study of two veteran string teachers' perceptions of including composing in middle school orchestra. Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education Johansson, K Undergraduate students' ownership of musical learning: Obstacles and options in one-to-one teaching. British Journal of Music Education 137

166 Generic case studies Author Year Title Journal Johansson, M On the relationship between technique and style: The case of the violin. Music Education Research Kardos, L How music technology can make sound and music worlds accessible to student composers in further education colleges. British Journal of Music Education Lamont, A. et al Singing in primary schools: case studies of good practice in whole class vocal. British Journal of Music Education Lee, P. & Lin, S Music teaching for young children at a developmentally appropriate practice classroom in Taiwan. Music Education Research Leung, B.W Transmission of Cantonese opera in the conservatory tradition: Two case studies in South China and Hong Kong. Music Education Research Major, M.L How they decide: A case study examining the decision-making process for keeping or cutting music in a K 12 public school district. Journal of Research in Music Education McPhail, G. 2013a Informal and formal knowledge: The curriculum conception of two rock graduates. British Journal of Music Education Moore, G Tristan chords and random scores : Exploring undergraduate students' experiences of music in higher education through the lens of Bourdieu. Music Education Research Naughton, C Heidegger and Joe: revisiting the thing in the context of a student's experience of an online community. British Journal of Music Education Pike, P.D The differences between novice and expert grouppiano teaching strategies: A case study and comparison of beginning group piano classes. International Journal of Music Education Power, A. & McCormack, D Piano pedagogy with a student who is blind: An Australian case. International Journal of Music Education Roberts, J.C Situational interest of fourth-grade children in music at school. Journal of Research in Music Education Thorpe, V Assessment rocks? The assessment of group composing for qualification. Music Education Research 138

167 Generic case studies Author Year Title Journal Yang, Y. & Welch, G Contemporary challenges in learning and teaching folk music in a higher education context: A case study of Hua'er music. Music Education Research Multiple case studies Author Year Title Journal Bond, V.L Sounds to share: The state of music education in three Reggio Emilia-inspired North American preschools. Journal of Research in Music Education Brenner, B. & Strand, K A case study of teaching musical expression to young performers. Journal of Research in Music Education Draves, T Teaching ambition: A case study of high school music students. Music Education Research Eros, J Second-stage music teachers' perceptions of career development and trajectory. Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education Evans, S.E. et al Learners' experience and perceptions of informal learning in key stage 3 music: A collective case study, exploring the implementation of musical futures in three secondary schools in Wales. Music Education Research Harrison, S.D. et al. 2013b Making music or gaining grades? Assessment practices in tertiary music ensembles. British Journal of Music Education Haston, W. & Russell, J.A Turning into teachers: Influences of authentic context learning experiences on occupational identity development of preservice music teachers. Journal of Research in Music Education Hess, J Radical musicking: Towards a pedagogy of social change Music Education Research Hickey, M Learning from the experts: A study of freeimprovisation pedagogues in university settings. Journal of Research in Music Education Kelly-McHale, J The influence of music teacher beliefs and practices on the expression of musical identity in an elementary general music classroom. Journal of Research in Music Education 139

168 Multiple case studies Author Year Title Journal Leung, B.W Teachers transformation as learning: Teaching Cantonese opera in Hong Kong schools with a teacher artist partnership. International Journal of Music Education Pike, P.D Profiles in successful group piano for children: A collective case study of children's group-piano lessons. Music Education Research Powell, S.J Masculinity and choral singing: An Australian perspective. International Journal of Music Education Shaw, J.T Knowing their world : Urban choral music educators knowledge of context. Journal of Research in Music Education Sindberg, L.K Perceptions and perspectives of music teachers in urban settings: Isolation, conversation and collaboration. Music Education Research Wong, M.W Adapting the music curriculum for senior secondary students with intellectual disabilities in Hong Kong: Content, pedagogy and mindsets. Music Education Research Instrumental case studies Author Year Title Journal Bell, A.P Guitars have disabilities: Exploring guitar adaptations for an adolescent with Down syndrome. British Journal of Music Education Fitzpatrick, K.R Motherhood and the high school band director: A case study. Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education Fitzpatrick, K.R. et al Access and retention of marginalized populations within undergraduate music education degree programs. Journal of Research in Music Education Kenny, A Practice through partnership: Examining the theoretical framework and development of a community of musical practice. International Journal of Music Education 140

169 Instrumental case studies Author Year Title Journal Kruse, A.J "I always had my instrument" The story of Gabriella Ramires. Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education Partti, H Cosmopolitan musicianship under construction: Digital musicians illuminating emerging values in music education. International Journal of Music Education Partti, H. & Westerlund, H Envisioning collaborative composing in music education: learning and negotiation of meaning in operabyyou.com. British Journal of Music Education Partti, H. et al Participatory assessment and the construction of professional identity in folk and popular music programs in Finnish and Australian music universities. International Journal of Music Education Russell, J.A. & Haston, W The impact of supervised mentorship on music education master's degree students. Music Education Research Shaw, R.D The work-life balance of competitive marching band teachers: A multiple case study. Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education Shouldice, H.N Trading Hindemith for "hugs, high-fives, and handshakes": one pre-service music teacher's decision to teach elementary general music. Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education Snell, I.I.A.H. & Azzara, C.D Collegiate musicians learning to improvise. Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education Ethnographic case studies Author Year Title Journal Abramo, J.M. & Pierce, A.E An ethnographic case study of music learning at a School for the Blind. Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education Clennon, O. & Boehm, C Young musicians for heritage project: Can a music-based heritage project have a positive effect on well-being? Music Education Research Hoffman, A.R Exclusion, engagement and identity construction in a socioeconomically diverse middle school wind band classroom. Music Education Research 141

170 Ethnographic case studies Author Year Title Journal Hoffman, A.R. & Carter, B.A Representin' and disrespectin': African-American wind band students' meanings of a compositionbased secondary music curriculum and classroom power structures. Music Education Research Jourdan, K Towards an ethical music education? Looking through the lens of Levinas. Music Education Research Mars, A. et al Musical learning in a cross-cultural setting: A case study of Gambian and Swedish adolescents in interaction. Music Education Research Matsunobu, K The role of spirituality in learning music: a case of North American adult students of Japanese music. British Journal of Music Education Matsunobu, K Instrument-making as music-making: An ethnographic study of shakuhachi students learning experiences. International Journal of Music Education Paparo, S.A The Accafellows: Exploring the music making and culture of a collegiate a cappella ensemble. Music Education Research Perkins, R Learning cultures and the conservatoire: An ethnographically-informed case study. Music Education Research Van Niekerk, C. & Typpo, M STTEP by STEPP in the spirit of umuntu ungumuntu ngabantu. British Journal of Music Education Waldron, J. 2013a User-generated content, YouTube and participatory culture on the web: Music learning and teaching in two contrasting online communities. Music Education Research Narrative-informed case studies Author Year Title Journal Garvis, S. & Pendergast, D Storying music and the arts education: the generalist teacher voice. British Journal of Music Education Harrison, S. et al. 2013a Playing it like a professional : Approaches to ensemble direction in tertiary institutions. International Journal of Music Education 142

171 Narrative-informed case studies Author Year Title Journal Kallio, A.A Drawing a line in water: Constructing the school censorship frame in popular music education. International Journal of Music Education Laes, T Empowering later adulthood music education: A case study of a rock band for third-age learners. International Journal of Music Education Mota, G. & Araújo, M.J Music and drama in primary schools in the Madeira Island narratives of ownership and leadership. Music Education Research Rickert, D.L.L. et al Are music students fit to play? A case study of health awareness and injury attitudes amongst tertiary student cellists. International Journal of Music Education Intrinsic case studies Author Year Title Journal Koops, L.H 2014 Songs from the car seat: Exploring the early childhood music-making place of the family vehicle. Journal of Research in Music Education Paparo, S. & Sweet, B Negotiating sexual identity: Experiences of two gay and lesbian preservice music teachers. Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education Tobias, E.S Hybrid spaces and hyphenated musicians: Secondary students' musical engagement in a songwriting and technology course. Music Education Research Tobias, E.S Crossfading music education: Connections between secondary students in- and out-of-school music experience. International Journal of Music Education Phenomenological case studies Author Year Title Journal De Vries, P.A Music without a music specialist: A primary school story. International Journal of Music Education Pellegrino, K Examining the intersections of music making and teaching for four string teachers. Journal of Research in Music Education 143

172 Phenomenological case studies Author Year Title Journal Southcott, J. & Joseph, D Singing in La Voce Della Luna Italian women s choir in Melbourne, Australia. International Journal of Music Education Action research case studies Author Year Title Journal Carter, B.A Nothing better or worse than being black, gay, and in the band : A qualitative examination of gay undergraduates participating in historically black college or university marching bands. Journal of Research in Music Education Muhonen, S Songcrafting: A teacher s perspective of collaborative inquiry and creation of classroom practice. International Journal of Music Education Historical case study Author Year Title Journal Ho, W Music education in Shanghai from 1895 to 1945: The cultural politics of singing. Music Education Research Of the eighty-six case studies examined in five selected journals, forty-four studies were acknowledged by the authors as qualitative studies. Thirty studies did not specify the types of case study and were identified as generic case studies. Eleven of these unspecified case studies each were published in the MER and the BJME, four were published in the JRME, the IJME published three, and one generic case study was published in the BCRME. Twelve case studies were described by the authors as instrumental case studies, of which five were published in the BCRME, three in the IJME, two in the BJME, and one instrumental case study each in the MER and the JRME. Four case studies were defined as intrinsic case studies, with the IJME, MER, JRME and BCRME each publishing one case study. Of the sixteen studies that were identified as multiple case studies, six were published in the MER, five in the JRME, the IJME published three, and the BJME and the BCRME each published one multiple case study. 144

173 Twenty-five case studies were conducted in combination with other qualitative strategies of inquiry. Twelve ethnographic case studies were identified, of which eight were published in the MER, two in the BJME, and the IJME and the BCRME each published one ethnographic case study. Four of the eight ethnographic case studies published in the MER were specified as an ethnographic and narrative-informed case study (Hoffman, 2012), a virtual ethnographic case study (Waldron, 2013a), a critical ethnographic case study (Hoffman & Carter, 2013), and an ethnographic and action research case study (Clennon & Boehm, 2014). Four of the six identified narrative-informed case studies were published in the IJME, and the MER and BJME published one study each. Three phenomenological case studies were specified, of which two were published in the IJME, and one in the JRME. The two action research case studies were specified, one as a participatory action research case study (Carter, 2013), published in the JRME, and one as a collaborative action research case study (Muhonen, 2014), published in the IRME. The remaining combined study, the historical case study, was published in the MER. Although not explicitly acknowledged, all research has an underlying worldview, but in the case studies, only ten studies explicitly discussed a philosophical worldview. These worldviews include constructivism, social constructivism, interpretivism, postmodernism and poststructuralism. A constructivist worldview was adopted by two generic case studies (Bolden & Nahachewsky, 2015; Garnett, 2013) and one instrumental case study (Kenny, 2014). A social constructivist lens guided another generic case study (Bell-Robertson, 2014) and an ethnographic case study (Abramo & Pierce, 2013). The interpretivist approach framed one case study (Thorpe, 2012), one instrumental case study (Fitzpatrick et al., 2014) and an ethnographic case study (Matsunobu, 2012). A postmodern frame informed one critical ethnographic case study (Hoffman & Carter, 2013), and a poststructural framework guided the participatory action research case study (Carter, 2013). Of the eighty-six case studies examined in the five selected journals, thirty-nine studies explicitly discussed the theoretical framework within which the study was based on. A community of practice theoretical frame guided six case studies: one generic case study (Bell- Robertson, 2014), three instrumental case studies (Kenny, 2014; Partti & Westerlund, 2013; Partti et al., 2015), and one phenomenological case study (Pellegrino, 2014). One instrumental case study (Partti, 2014) was informed by communities of musical practice. 145

174 Critical theory was employed in the following three case studies: one narrative informed case study (Fitzpatrick et al., 2014), one critical ethnographic case study (Hoffman & Carter, 2013), and the participatory action research case study (Carter, 2013). The social model of disability was utilised in one instrumental case study (Bell, 2014), and in one ethnographic case study (Abramo & Pierce, 2013). Bourdieu's theory of practice guided one generic case study (Moore, 2012) and one ethnographic case study (Perkins, 2013). The theoretical frames that guided generic case studies included: - transformative music engagement (Bolden & Nahachewsky, 2015); - place-based education (Brook, 2013); - the possible selves theory (Creech et al., 2014); - student persistence models (Gavin, 2012); - cultural-historical activity theory (Johansson, 2013); - a theory of differentiated knowledge and social realism (McPhail, 2013a); - Heidegger's artwork as a "thing" (Naughton, 2012); - Tait s language model (Power & McCormack, 2012). Instrumental case studies were guided by the following theoretical frames: - motherhood studies (Fitzpatrick, 2013); - a social capital framework (Kruse, 2013); - home and work sphere boundaries (Shaw, 2014). The intrinsic case study employed the following theoretical frame: - the philosophy of place (Koops, 2014). The theories that guided multiple case studies included the following: - the Reggio Emilia approach (Bond, 2015); - music teacher socialisation (Draves, 2012); - anti-colonialism, anti-racism and anti-racist feminism (Hess, 2014); - musical identity and immigrant adaptation constructs (Kelly-McHale, 2013); - transformational learning (Leung, 2014); - culturally responsive teaching (Shaw, 2015); - the Confucian educational framework (Wong, 2015). Ethnographic case studies were informed by the following theoretical frames: - identity theory and social identity theory (Hoffman, 2012); - Levinas s ethical "other" theory (Jourdan, 2012); - knowledge formation and mediating learning tools (Mars et al., 2015); 146

175 - spirituality theories (Matsunobu, 2012); - expectancy-value theory (Van Niekerk & Typpo, 2012). The theories that guided narrative informed case studies were the following: - sociological theories of identity and agency (Laes, 2015); - ownership and leadership (Mota & Araújo, 2013). The most popular topics under study in case studies were the development of teaching and learning strategies, student and professional identity construction and development, and curriculum evaluation and transformation. The rest of the case studies focused mainly on elementary and secondary school music practices, online education, adult music education, collaborative community projects, higher music education, music teacher education, assessment practices, disability specific education, music education for marginalised groups, ensembles, and choral music Teaching and learning strategies Eleven case studies were aimed at the developing of teaching and learning strategies. Instrumental group teaching strategies were the focus in one generic case study (Pike, 2014) and one multiple case study (Pike, 2013). Improvisational pedagogy was examined in one multiple case study (Hickey, 2015) and one instrumental case study (Snell & Azzara, 2015). The emphasis in the remaining seven generic case studies related to teaching and learning strategies was on: - collaborative music composing strategies (Biasutti, 2012); - the developing of music technology applications as a teaching strategy (Kardos, 2012); - instrumental teaching (Johansson, 2015); - formal and informal learning strategies (Cain, 2013; McPhail, 2013a); - constructivist approaches to learning (Garnett, 2013); - an eclectic learning approach (Leung, 2015) Student and professional identity construction and development The following ten case studies focused on identity construction and development in music education, with specific reference to: - the relationship and interaction of the teacher and student in one-to-one tuition in one generic case study (Johansson, 2013); 147

176 - the dual life and blended identities of band directors in two instrumental case studies (Fitzpatrick, 2013; Shaw, 2014); - the musical identity of immigrant students in one instrumental case study (Kruse, 2013), one multiple case study (Kelly-McHale, 2013) and one ethnographic case study (Hoffman & Carter, 2013); - the career development of second-stage music teachers in one multiple case study (Eros, 2013); - the occupational identity development of undergraduate students in one multiple case study (Haston & Russell, 2012); - identity construction in a wind band classroom in one ethnographic case study (Hoffman, 2012); - identity construction in an orchestral programme in one ethnographic case study (Van Niekerk & Typpo, 2012) Curriculum evaluation and transformation Eight case studies were directed towards curriculum evaluation and transformation, with specific reference to: - the inclusion of composing in the curriculum in one generic case study (Hopkins, 2013); - the evaluation of a school music programme in one generic case study (Major, 2013); - curriculum renewal and transformation within a multicultural society in another generic case study (De Villiers, 2015); - the integrating of informal learning as part of the curriculum in a multiple case study (Evans et al., 2015); - applying an integrative and transformative music curriculum in one multiple case study (Hess, 2014; Leung, 2014); - the adaptation of the curriculum for students with intellectual disabilities in one multiple case study (Wong, 2015); - the inclusion of popular musics in the curriculum in one narrative-informed case study (Kallio, 2015) Elementary and secondary school music practices The following six case studies examined elementary and secondary school music practices, considering: - class music activities and singing practices in two generic case studies (Lamont et al., 2012; Roberts, 2015); - learners musical experiences and engagement in a songwriting and technology course in two intrinsic case studies (Tobias, 2012, 2015); 148

177 - the experiences of the generalist class music teacher in one narrative informed case study (Garvis & Pendergast, 2012) and one phenomenological case study (De Vries, 2015) Online education The emphasis in six case studies related to online education was on the following: - online music teaching and learning in one generic case study (Brändström et al., 2012) and one ethnographic case study (Waldron, 2013a); - the musical experiences and creativity in an online community in two generic case studies (Bell-Robertson, 2014; Naughton, 2012) and one instrumental case study (Partti, 2014); - collaborative composing in an online music community in one instrumental case study (Partti & Westerlund, 2013) Adult music education The following five case studies focused on adult music education, with specific reference to: - later adulthood music education in one generic case study (Creech et al., 2014), one phenomenological case study (Southcott & Joseph, 2015), and one narrative-informed case study (Laes, 2015); - the integrated roles of instrument making and spirituality in the learning of music in two ethnographic studies (Matsunobu, 2012, 2013) Collaborative community projects Four case studies examined collaborative community projects, considering: - a music programme in a juvenile detention centre by one generic case study (Barrett & Baker, 2012); - community-based music projects in two generic case studies (Bartleet, 2012; Brook, 2013) and one ethnographic case study (Clennon & Boehm, 2014) Higher music education The emphasis in three case studies related to higher education was on the following: - the withdrawal patterns of undergraduate students in one generic case study (Gavin, 2012); - undergraduate students experiences of music in higher education in one generic case study (Moore, 2012); - undergraduate supervised mentorship in an instrumental case study (Russell & Haston, 2015). 149

178 Music teacher education Three case studies examined music teacher education, considering: - the teaching experiences and perspectives of preservice teachers in one instrumental case study (Shouldice, 2013) and one multiple case study (Draves, 2012); - the sexual identity of preservice teachers in one intrinsic study (Paparo & Sweet, 2014) Assessment practices The following three case studies focused on assessment practices, with specific reference to: - group composing assessment practices in one generic case study (Thorpe, 2012); - participatory assessment in higher education in an instrumental case study (Partti et al., 2015); - assessment practices in tertiary music ensembles and one multiple case study (Harrison et al., 2013b) Disability-specific education The focus in the following three case studies related to disability specific education was on: - teaching for the blind in one generic case study (Power & McCormack, 2012) and one ethnographic case study (Abramo & Pierce, 2013); - different approaches to teaching an instrument to a disabled musician in one instrumental case study (Bell, 2014) Music education for marginalised populations Two case studies examined music education for marginalised populations, considering: - undergraduate marginalised populations in one instrumental case study (Fitzpatrick et al., 2014); - marginalised band members in one action research case study (Carter, 2013) Ensembles The focus in two case studies was on ensembles, with specific reference to: - the culture and music making of an informal ensemble in one ethnographic case study (Paparo, 2012); - the learning experiences within ensembles in one narrative-informed case study (Harrison et al., 2013a). 150

179 Choral music Two multiple case studies examined choral music, with the emphasis on: - gender stereotypes and choral participation (Powell, 2015); - urban choral teachers' use of contextual knowledge and culturally responsive teaching (Shaw, 2015) Other fields of interest Other fields of interest in the remaining generic case studies focused on the following: - collective group support and peer learning (Einarsdottir, 2014); - music and language in early childhood (Lee & Lin, 2013); - folk music education (Yang & Welch, 2014); - music teacher distance teaching and learning (Bhebhe et al., 2015); - the experience of creating podcasts (Bolden & Nahachewsky, 2015). The rest of the multiple case studies examined the following: - music education in Reggio-inspired schools (Bond, 2015); - the teaching of musical expressivity (Brenner & Strand, 2013); - music teacher professional interaction and collaboration (Sindberg, 2014). The focus areas of the remaining ethnographic case studies were: - ethical orientation within music education (Jourdan, 2012); - learning cultures within conservatoires (Perkins, 2013); - cross-cultural learning and teaching (Mars et al., 2015). The rest of the narrative informed case studies focused on the following: - teachers' involvement in a music and drama project (Mota & Araújo, 2013); - well-being and health awareness for professional and student musicians (Rickert et al., 2015). The remaining case studies examined the following: - learning within a community of music practice in the remaining instrumental case study (Kenny, 2014); - the musical "place" of the family motor vehicle in one intrinsic case study (Koops, 2014); - the intersection of music making and music teaching in one phenomenological case study (Pellegrino, 2014); - collaborative song crafting in an action research case study (Muhonen, 2014); - the development of music education and cultural politics in China in the historical case study (Ho, 2012). 151

180 Unit of analysis It is interesting to note that although all the case studies were defined by a specific area of interest, only twenty-two of the studies explicitly discussed the unit of analysis, while in the remaining studies the single unit or bounded case could be inferred, although it was not specifically stated. The unit of analysis in eight generic case studies included the following: - a community of music practice (Bell-Robertson, 2014); - podcast assignments in an undergraduate music education course (Bolden & Nahachewsky, 2015); - an amateur composer-oriented Bach Choir (Einarsdottir, 2014); - two veteran string teachers (Hopkins, 2013); - an activity system (Johansson, 2013); - a developmentally appropriate practice classroom (Lee & Lin, 2013); - two Cantonese opera training institutions (Leung, 2015); - a fourth grade class (Roberts, 2015). In five instrumental case studies, the unit of analysis was the following: - a female high school band director (Fitzpatrick, 2013); - a third-generation immigrant student (Kruse, 2013); - four marching band teachers (Shaw, 2014); - a preservice music teacher (Shouldice, 2013); - an improvisation course (Snell & Azzara, 2015). The unit of analysis in three multiple case studies were the following: - three Reggio-inspired American preschools (Bond, 2015); - three second-stage music educators (Eros, 2013); - and four free-improvisation pedagogues (Hickey, 2015). In two narrative-informed case studies the unit of analysis was the following: - a primary school (Garvis & Pendergast, 2012); - eleven student cellists in two tertiary institutions (Rickert et al., 2015). The unit of analysis in the following studies included the following: - three wind band players in an ethnographic study (Hoffman & Carter, 2013); - two gay and lesbian preservice teachers in one intrinsic study (Paparo & Sweet, 2014); - two intersections of past and present music making and teaching for four string teachers in a phenomenological case study (Pellegrino, 2014); - a songcrafting practice in an action research case study (Muhonen, 2014). 152

181 The action verb indicates the research purpose, as well as the focus and expected outcomes of the studies. All the case studies used a verb to indicate the research purpose, with examine being the most popular verb. Other verbs to indicate the research purpose included: explore, investigate, identify, understand and describe. In some case studies more than one verb indicating the research purpose per study was selected, while others employed only one verb to indicate the research purpose. Examine The verb examine to indicate the research purpose was selected in the following thirty-three studies: - eight generic case studies (Bhebhe et al., 2015; Bolden & Nahachewsky, 2015; Gavin, 2012; Hopkins, 2013; Johansson, 2013; Leung, 2015; Major, 2013; Power & McCormack, 2012); - eight multiple case studies (Bond, 2015; Draves, 2012; Haston & Russell, 2012; Hess, 2014; Hickey, 2015; Kelly-McHale, 2013; Leung, 2014; Sindberg, 2014); - seven instrumental case studies (Bell-Robertson, 2014; Fitzpatrick, 2013; Fitzpatrick et al., 2014; Kenny, 2014; Partti & Westerlund, 2013; Partti et al., 2015; Shaw, 2014); - five ethnographic case studies (Clennon & Boehm, 2014; Hoffman, 2012; Hoffman & Carter, 2013; Matsunobu, 2012; Paparo, 2012); - two action research case studies (Carter, 2013; Muhonen, 2014); - one narrative informed case study (Laes, 2015); - one phenomenological case study (Pellegrino, 2014); - one historical case study (Ho, 2012). Explore Twenty-four case studies employed the verb explore to indicate the research purpose: - six generic case studies (Bartleet, 2012; Bhebhe et al., 2015; Brook, 2013; Creech et al., 2014; Lamont et al., 2012; Yang & Welch, 2014); - five multiple case studies (Brenner & Strand, 2013; Evans et al., 2015; Pike, 2013; Powell, 2015; Shaw, 2015); - five ethnographic case studies (Hoffman, 2012; Hoffman & Carter, 2013; Jourdan, 2012; Mars et al., 2015; Matsunobu, 2013); - four instrumental case studies ( Partti, 2014; Partti & Westerlund, 2013; Partti et al., 2015; Shouldice, 2013); - one narrative informed case study (Kallio, 2015); - one intrinsic case study (Paparo & Sweet, 2014); 153

182 - one phenomenological case study (Southcott & Joseph, 2015); - one action research case study (Carter, 2013). Investigate The verb investigate to indicate the research purpose was selected in the following sixteen studies: - four generic case studies (Bell-Robertson, 2014; Leung, 2015; Power & McCormack, 2012; Thorpe, 2012); - three intrinsic case studies (Koops, 2014; Tobias, 2012, 2015); - two multiple case studies (Eros, 2013; Harrison et al., 2013b); - three ethnographic case studies (Abramo & Pierce, 2013; Garnett, 2013; Mars et al., 2015); - three instrumental case study (Partti, 2014; Partti & Westerlund, 2013; Russell & Haston, 2015); - one narrative informed case study (Rickert et al., 2015). Identify Five case studies employed identify as the selected verb to indicate the research purpose: - three generic case studies (Barrett & Baker, 2012; Roberts, 2015; Yang & Welch, 2014); - one multiple case study (Pike, 2013); - one phenomenological case study (De Vries, 2015). Understand The verb understand to indicate the research purpose was used by five studies: - two generic case studies (Lee & Lin, 2013; Moore, 2012); - two ethnographic case studies (Paparo, 2012; Perkins, 2013); - one instrumental case study (Kruse, 2013). Describe Three case studies selected describe as the verb to indicate the research purpose: - one generic case study (Johansson, 2013); - one instrumental case study (Snell & Azzara, 2015); - one ethnographic case study (Hoffman & Carter, 2013). Other verbs to indicate the research purpose: The verb discuss to indicate the research purpose was selected in one generic case study (McPhail, 2013a) and one ethnographic case study (Waldron, 2013a). Two studies used the verb address, namely one generic case study (Einarsdottir, 2014) and one multiple case study (Shaw, 154

183 2014). The verb compare to indicate the research purpose was used in two generic case studies (Cain, 2013; Pike, 2014). Two narrative-informed case studies selected the verb report to indicate the research purpose (Harrison et al., 2013a; Mota & Araújo, 2013). The remaining generic case studies selected the following verbs to indicate the research purpose: argue (Garnett, 2013), analyse (Biasutti, 2012), contextualise (Naughton, 2012), define (Biasutti, 2012), determine (De Villiers, 2015), evaluate (Bhebhe et al., 2015), document (Power & McCormack, 2012), focus (Kardos, 2012) and present (Brändström et al., 2012). One instrumental study (Partti, 2014) selected reflect as the verb to indicate the research purpose, and one narrative-informed case study selected highlight (Garvis & Pendergast, 2012) as the research verb, while one ethnographic case study (Van Niekerk & Typpo, 2012) used demonstrate as the selected verb to indicate the research purpose Research questions Of the sixty-eight case studies examined in the five selected journals, fifty-five studies were guided and informed by an explicitly stated research question. Nineteen generic case studies, nine instrumental case studies, four intrinsic case studies, eleven multiple case studies, seven ethnographic case studies, two narrative-informed case studies, one historical case study, one phenomenological case study and one action research case study were informed by a research question. The following research questions were asked: Generic case studies - What are the learning outcomes (musical and extra-musical) of participation in the ACMF programme for student participants? What learning and teaching strategies support these outcomes? What contextual factors promote positive learning outcomes for students in this setting? (Barrett & Baker, 2012:247). - What is the contribution of an online community of practice to the personal support of novice instrumental music teachers? (Bell-Robertson, 2014:434). - What are the activities engaged by a group in composing a new piece? How did the group members use their time in composing a new piece? (Biasutti, 2012:344). - What is the student experience of learning through the podcast assignment? (Bolden & Nahachewsky, 2015:19). - What were the benefits and shortcomings in the two cases and how did online teaching differ from face-to-face teaching? (Brändström et al., 2012:448). - Are informal pedagogies necessarily preferable and if not, what are the affordances and constraints of formal pedagogies, compared with informal ones? (Cain, 2013:75). 155

184 - Do older people rediscover or generate possible positive musical selves when actively engaging in making music with others? Does the generation of positive possible musical selves relate to the enhancement of self-reported well-being? (Creech et al., 2014:35). - Were there any commonalities among interviewed students experiences before, during, or after their time as a music education major? What factors influenced attrition from the music education degree? What degree path was taken after departing the music education degree? (Gavin, 2012:312). - How do the participants describe their musical backgrounds, experiences with composing, and their attitude toward teaching composing? What do the participants perceive as benefits and challenges of including composing in the curriculum? How do the participants perceived benefits and challenges of including composing change as a result of including composing in the curriculum? (Hopkins, 2013:25). - What is the aim of one-to-one vocal tuition? What does it mean to be a singer? (Johansson, 2013:284). - Research question asked whether technique and style can be separated at all, and if so, how such a distinction may be best understood (Johansson, 2015:127). - Research question asked how to bridge the knowledge and confidence gaps that exist between students with more and less formal musical experience (Kardos, 2012:143). - How is a music curriculum constructed in the developmentally appropriate practice (DAP) classroom? How does music teaching represent holistic and meaningful learning? (Lee & Lin, 2013:110). - What influenced Lekbery School District decision makers to keep music in the curriculum? What criteria did Lekbery s school board members and administrators use in deciding the value of music education? What obstacles did Lekbery School District overcome to keep its music program? (Major, 2013:8). - Is there a relationship between undergraduate music students musical backgrounds and prior music education and their experiences of music in higher education? What are undergraduate music students musical backgrounds and prior music education? How do undergraduate music students describe their experiences of the study of music in higher education? (Moore, 2012:69). - How can an experience in piano pedagogy that goes beyond chords and improvisation be conceptualized for students who are blind? What can be learned from a case study of success in teaching piano to a student who is blind? (Power & McCormack, 2012:346). - What were the sources of situational interest for children in one fourth-grade music class? (Roberts, 2015:183). - What are the students and teachers experiences of the assessment of group composing? How does the teacher go about assessing an individual s learning in a 156

185 group-composing ensemble? Were the issues raised by the literature review present in the findings of the pilot? What are the implications for the design of the main study? (Thorpe, 2012:422). - What might be the goals for authentic folk music learning and how would these materials to be positioned in the college music curriculum? (Yang & Welch, 2014:211). Instrumental case studies - How can the guitar be adapted for a person whose abilities are limited in these regards? (Bell, 2014:344). - What enabling factors does the participant describe with regard to balancing her parenting and professional responsibilities? What inhibiting factors does the participant describe with regard to balancing her parenting and professional responsibilities? (Fitzpatrick, 2013:7). - What kinds of experiences do the participants report with regard to the process of preparing for and deciding to pursue a music education degree? What kinds of experiences do the participants report with regard to the process of applying/auditioning for a music education degree? What kinds of experiences do the participants describe with regard to their retention as members of a music education degree program? What recommendations do the participants have for improving the process of preparation for, admission to, and retention of music education students from historically marginalized populations? (Fitzpatrick et al., 2014:107). - Research question asked how a community of musical practice developed through this partnership project (Kenny, 2014:397). - What are this student s experiences with academic and social barriers and resilience? How has social capital affected this student s academic pursuits and identity navigation? What have been the roles of music, music education, and specific music educators in this student s academic pursuits and identity navigation? (Kruse, 2013:28). - How is the learning and ownership of musical meaning enhanced or constrained in the operabyyou.com (OBY) online community? (Partti & Westerlund, 2013:208). - How do competitive marching band teachers describe their work-life balance? What factors do competitive marching band teachers cite as facilitative of desired work-life balance? What factors do competitive marching band teachers cite as inhibitive of desired work-life balance? (Shaw, 2014:63). - When and how did the participant decide that he wanted to change career tracks? What factors and/or experiences influenced his decision to change career tracks? How are the participant s beliefs about music teaching and learning and the purpose of music 157

186 education related to his decision to change career tracks? What (if any) changes in these beliefs caused the participant to decide to change career tracks? (Shouldice, 2013:43). - How do participants describe past improvisation experiences? How do participants describe the process of learning to improvise experienced in this course? Do participants perceive a relationship between learning to improvise and their current level of musicianship? (Snell & Azzara, 2015:66). Intrinsic case studies - In what types of music making do children engage while in the car? What qualities of the carseat environment are conducive to music making? What types of activities introduced in an early childhood music class best lend themselves to increased improvisational or compositional music making in the vehicle? How does an awareness of the family vehicle as a music-making place affect parent and teacher experience within an early childhood music course? (Koops, 2014:54). - What is it like to be a member of a collegiate a cappella ensemble? Why do college students participate? How do music teaching and learning occur? How does the group create and sustain its music making? What do participants gain from their experience? What might music educators learn from this knowledge? (Paparo, 2012:20). - In what ways are students engaging with music in the Songwriting and Technology Class STC? (Tobias, 2012:329). - In what ways do students musical engagement in a Songwriting and Technology Class (STC) intersect with their musical engagement outside of school? (Tobias, 2015:20). Multiple case studies - How is music socially constructed and integrated into a Reggio Emilia-inspired preschool classroom s daily life curriculum? How does music education in Reggio-inspired classrooms compare to the national prek music standards? What aspects of Reggio Emilia-inspired preschools may be transferable to early childhood music classroom contexts? (Bond, 2015:462). - How did these teachers define musical expression? Did these teachers believe that musical expression could be taught to children? What were the characteristics of an expressive performance that these teachers could describe and/or demonstrate in their instruction? (Brenner & Strand, 2013:82). - What experiences and people influenced the participants decisions to pursue a career as a music teacher? What do the participants believe are the characteristics of the ideal music teacher? How do the participants express their own emerging teacher identities? What are the participants expectations of a life in music teaching? (Draves, 2012:349). 158

187 - How do participants perceive their career development from the first into the second stage? How do they anticipate their career trajectory through and beyond the second stage? (Eros, 2013:59). - Did Key Stage 3 (KS3) learners identify specific learning preferences during the Musical Futures (MF) Wales pilot? To what extent did KS3 learners direct their own learning during the MF Wales pilot? What skills did KS3 learners acquire and/or develop during the MF Wales pilot? (Evans et al., 2015:3). - What does a radical rereading of well-worn liberal strategies do for music education? (Hess, 2014:244). - What strategies and approaches do free-improvisation ensemble leaders utilize in facilitating their ensembles? What role do these pedagogues view themselves as holding as ensemble leaders? What dispositions were noticeable as either common or unique among the pedagogues observed? What other attributes in training, background, or other appear to be common among the pedagogues? (Hickey, 2015:430). - What effect do notions of masculinity have on male participation in a choir? (Powell, 2015:233). - What does isolation look like and in what ways does it impact the work of the teacher in an urban setting? What collaborative models are available to facilitate meaningful interactions among music teachers in urban schools? In what ways does experience help teachers overcome barriers and navigate the emotional geographies of their work? (Sindberg, 2014:388). - What contextual knowledge do successful urban choral music teachers hold about their students and about the communities in which they teach? How do urban choral music educators use contextual knowledge to inform their pedagogical practice? What experiences do effective urban choral educators consider to be essential preparation for teaching in an urban environment? (Shaw, 2015:200). - Why should bringing the power of music into student learning be a challenge even more so when the class comprises students deemed in need of special education? (Wong, 2015:71). Ethnographic case studies - What would qualitative, ethnographic study that included observation of the learning processes and the gathering of the perspectives of students in visual impairments-specific music education reveal about music education? (Abramo & Pierce, 2013:12). - Can a music-based heritage project have a positive effect on well-being? (Clennon & Boehm, 2014:307). 159

188 - How do peer networks form and function within (and outside of) the band classroom? How do middle-school band students make decisions regarding music course enrolment and participation? What types of social interactions occur within the band classroom, and in what ways do social constructions of meanings and musical constructions of knowledge intersect? (Hoffman, 2012:211). - How do African-American middle-school music students construct identities in the context of a composition-based curriculum? How do African-American middle-school music students make meaning of the power structures between themselves and their music teachers? (Hoffman & Carter, 2013: ). - How do these pupils encounter the Other through music in and outside of school? (Jourdan, 2012:392). - What characterises musical learning in a situation where the intention is that adolescents from different cultures learn while interacting with each other? (Mars et al., 2015:297). - What is the constructed nature of the learning cultures of a UK conservatoire? (Perkins, 2013:199). Narrative-informed case studies - What is the role and function of the ensemble experience on the training of the professional musician? What is the rationale for activities within the ensemble? How does the ensemble director facilitate and enable this learning experience? What activities does the director see as intrinsic to the overall ensemble experience? (Harrison et al., 2013a:173). - How do Finnish music teachers construct the school censorship frame? How does the school censorship frame influence teachers decisions to include or exclude popular musics? (Kallio, 2015:197). Phenomenological case studies - How do participants past music-making experiences intersect with their teaching? How do participants present music-making experiences (inside and outside the classroom) intersect with their teaching? (Pellegrino, 2014:130). Action research case study - What sociocultural discourses surrounding gay Black males influenced the way participants operated within an historically Black colleges or universities (HBCU) band? How did participants identify and negotiate those discourses? (Carter, 2013:28). 160

189 Historical case studies - Research questions asked how Chinese cultural politics have been influenced by Westernisation on the one hand, and by national power and identity on the other, and how these influences have affected what is sung, and why, in music education in Shanghai (Ho, 2012:188). It is interesting to note that, congruent with case study research in the five selected journals, the research questions were mostly directed towards the perspectives and experiences of participants related to teaching and learning approaches, the implications, challenges and benefits of curriculum transformation, and the experiences that influenced student and professional identity construction in music education. Participants in higher education, specifically undergraduate students, were the most popular researched group in case study research. Other participant groups included: secondary school learners, elementary school learners, adult participants and early childhood participants. In some case studies, more than one participant group per study was selected, while others focused only on one participant group. Higher education Participants in higher education were the selected participant group in twenty-four studies. - Higher education undergraduate students Undergraduate students were selected in the following case studies: five generic case studies (Bolden & Nahachewsky, 2015; Gavin, 2012; Johansson, 2013; Kardos, 2012; Moore, 2012); three instrumental case studies (Fitzpatrick et al., 2014; Partti, 2014; Snell & Azzara, 2015); one multiple case study (Haston & Russell, 2012); two ethnographic case studies (Paparo, 2012:20; Perkins, 2013) and one action research case study (Carter, 2013). Four studies examined a specific type of undergraduate student, namely the pre-service music teacher: one generic case study (Bhebhe et al., 2015); two instrumental case studies (Kenny, 2014; Shouldice, 2013) and one intrinsic case study (Paparo & Sweet, 2014). - Higher education lecturers Higher education lecturers were the selected participant group in three generic case studies (Bhebhe et al., 2015; Johansson, 2013; Yang & Welch, 2014); four instrumental case studies (Kruse, 2013; Partti, 2014; Partti et al., 2015; Russell & Haston, 2015); two multiple case studies (Harrison et al., 2013b; Hickey, 2015); one ethnographic case study (Perkins, 2013) and one narrative informed case study (Harrison et al., 2013a). 161

190 - Higher education students, lecturers and dean Opera students, lecturers, and the dean of an opera school were the selected participant group of one generic case study (Leung, 2015). Secondary school Participants in secondary school were selected in fifteen studies. - Secondary school teachers Secondary school class music teachers were the selected participant group in three generic case studies (Bell-Robertson, 2014; Cain, 2013; McPhail, 2013a); one multiple case study (Sindberg, 2014); and one narrative-informed case study (Kallio, 2015). Secondary school marching band directors were the participants of two general case studies (Fitzpatrick, 2013; Shaw, 2015). Secondary school choral singers were chosen as participants in one multiple case study (Draves, 2012). - Secondary school learners Secondary school class music learners were selected in two generic case studies (Brändström et al., 2012; Cain, 2013); one multiple case study (Evans et al., 2015); and one ethnographic case study (Jourdan, 2012). Secondary school class music learners from the songwriting and technology class were the participants in two intrinsic case studies (Tobias, 2012, 2015). Secondary school band members were the selected participant group in one generic case study (Thorpe, 2012) and one ethnographic case study (Hoffman & Carter, 2013). Elementary school Participants in elementary school were the selected participant group in thirteen studies. - Elementary school teachers Elementary school class music teachers were selected in two generic case studies (Brook, 2013; Lamont et al., 2012); three multiple case studies (Hess, 2014; Kelly-McHale, 2013; Leung, 2014) and one narrative informed case study (Mota & Araújo, 2013). Elementary generalists classroom teachers teaching music were the focus in one narrative-informed case study (Garvis & Pendergast, 2012) and one phenomenological case study (De Vries, 2015). Elementary school instrumental teachers were the focus in one generic case study (Pike, 2014) and elementary school band members were the participants in one ethnographic case study (Hoffman, 2012). - Elementary school learners Elementary school learners were selected in two generic case studies (Brook, 2013; Roberts, 2015); one instrumental case study (Kenny, 2014); one multiple case study (Kelly-McHale, 2013); one narrative-informed case study (Mota & Araújo, 2013) and one action research case study (Muhonen, 2014). 162

191 - Elementary school principals Elementary school principals were the selected participant group for two generic case studies (Brook, 2013; Lamont et al., 2012); one narrative informed case study (Garvis & Pendergast, 2012); and one phenomenological case study (De Vries, 2015). - Elementary school parents Parents of elementary school children were selected for two generic case studies (Brook, 2013; Roberts, 2015). Elementary and secondary school Elementary and secondary school participants were selected in nine studies. - Elementary and secondary school teachers Elementary and secondary teachers were the focus of one generic case study (Bartleet, 2012); and one multiple case study (Eros, 2013). Elementary and secondary generalist classroom teachers teaching music were the selected participant group in one generic case study (De Villiers, 2015). Elementary and secondary instrumental and string teachers were the selected participant group in two multiple case studies (Brenner & Strand, 2013; Pike, 2013) and one phenomenological case study (Pellegrino, 2014). Choral teachers were selected as participants for one multiple case study (Shaw, 2015). Middle school string teachers were the participants in one generic case study (Hopkins, 2013). - Elementary and secondary school music teachers, principals and administrators Current and retired music teachers, principals and administrators of elementary and secondary schools were the chosen participants for one generic case study (Major, 2013). - Elementary and secondary school learners Elementary and secondary school learners were selected by one generic case study (Bartleet, 2012). Elementary and secondary group piano students were the participants for one multiple case study (Pike, 2013). - Elementary and secondary school parents Elementary and secondary school parents were chosen in two generic case studies (Bartleet, 2012; Major, 2013). 163

192 Adult participants Adult participants were the selected participant group in nine studies. Adult musicians were selected in one generic case study (Biasutti, 2012) and one ethnographic case study (Matsunobu, 2012). Older adult musicians were the participants in one generic case study (Creech et al., 2014) and one narrative informed case study (Laes, 2015). Online adult participants between the ages of 30 and 35 were selected for one instrumental case study (Partti & Westerlund, 2013). The parent of a disabled musician was the selected participant for another instrumental case study (Bell, 2014), and adult instrument makers were the focus in one ethnographic case study (Matsunobu, 2013). Adult choral singers were the selected participant group in one generic case study (Einarsdottir, 2014), while older adult choral singers were selected in one phenomenological case study (Southcott & Joseph, 2015). Early childhood Participants in early childhood were the selected participant group in three studies. Early childhood teachers and children were selected for one generic case study (Lee & Lin, 2013) and one multiple case study (Bond, 2015). Parents of kindergarten children were chosen as participants in one intrinsic case study (Koops, 2014) and one multiple case study (Bond, 2015). Non-specific age groups Research participants who are not classified into specific age groups were selected in the following studies: - online community composers in one generic case study (Naughton, 2012); - online community teachers and adolescent instrumentalists in one ethnographic case study (Waldron, 2013a); - classical instrumental musicians for one generic case study (Brändström et al., 2012); - choral singers of all ages in one multiple case study (Powell, 2015); - orchestral members and management staff in one narrative-informed case study (Rickert et al., 2015); - adolescent multicultural music students in one ethnographic case study (Mars et al., 2015); - music teachers for disabled learners by one generic case study (Power & McCormack, 2012) and one multiple case study (Wong, 2015); - disabled musicians in one generic case study (Power & McCormack, 2012), one instrumental case study (Bell, 2014) and one ethnographic study (Abramo & Pierce, 2013); 164

193 - teachers, students, musicians, educators, facilitators and youth workers involved in community music projects in one generic case study (Bartleet, 2012) and two ethnographic case studies (Clennon & Boehm, 2014; Van Niekerk & Typpo, 2012); - a juvenile centre music teacher and programmes manager in one generic case study (Barrett & Baker, 2012). It is interesting to note that in two studies a second set of participants was chosen to serve as secondary participants. Although the focus was on the secondary school members as primary participants, one ethnographic case study (Hoffman, 2012) selected the primary participants band teacher, non-music teachers, counsellor, parents, activities coordinator and achievement director as secondary participants; and in one instrumental case study (Fitzpatrick et al., 2014) the undergraduate students were the main interest of the study, but each student s most influential secondary school teacher or university professors were selected as secondary participants to provide more perspective and information on the participant and to triangulate the collected data Sampling strategies The most popular sampling strategy employed in case study research was purposive sampling. Other sampling strategies included: criterion sampling, convenience sampling and combined sampling strategies. Purposive sampling Purposive sampling was selected in thirteen studies: - five generic case studies (Bell-Robertson, 2014; Bhebhe et al., 2015; Lee & Lin, 2013; Major, 2013; McPhail, 2013a); - four multiple case studies (Eros, 2013; Evans et al., 2015; Kelly-McHale, 2013; Sindberg, 2014); - two narrative informed case studies (Kallio, 2015; Laes, 2015); - one instrumental case study (Shouldice, 2013); - one ethnographic case study (Perkins, 2013). Criterion sampling Eleven studies selected criterion sampling: - five multiple case studies (Bond, 2015; Draves, 2012; Haston & Russell, 2012; Pike, 2013; Wong, 2015); - two generic case studies (Gavin, 2012; Hopkins, 2013); - one instrumental case study (Partti, 2014); - one intrinsic case study (Tobias, 2015); 165

194 - one phenomenological case study (Pellegrino, 2014); - and one action research case study (Carter, 2013). Convenience sampling Convenience sampling was used in two studies: - one multiple case study (Leung, 2014); - one ethnographic case study (Hoffman & Carter, 2013). Combined sampling strategies The following combined sampling strategies were used in three case studies: - a combination of criterion and convenience sampling techniques in one multiple case study (Haston & Russell, 2012); - combined criterion and intensity sampling strategies were used by one instrumental case study (Partti, 2014); - criterion and snowball sampling strategies were selected in one action research case study (Carter, 2013). Other sampling strategies Other sampling strategies were selected in the following case studies: - opportunistic sampling by one multiple case study (Hickey, 2015) and one ethnographic case study (Paparo, 2012); - snowball sampling by one multiple case study (Brenner & Strand, 2013); - critical case sampling in one instrumental case study (Kruse, 2013); - intensity sampling in one instrumental case study (Fitzpatrick et al., 2014); - maximal sampling by a multiple case study (Shaw, 2015). Studies that discussed the selection of participants without stating the specific sampling strategy used were seven generic case studies (Bolden & Nahachewsky, 2015; De Villiers, 2015; Einarsdottir, 2014; Leung, 2015; Pike, 2014; Power & McCormack, 2012; Roberts, 2015); three instrumental case studies (Russell & Haston, 2015; Shaw, 2014; Snell & Azzara, 2015); three multiple case studies (Harrison et al., 2013b; Hess, 2014; Powell, 2015); three ethnographic case studies (Abramo & Pierce, 2013; Hoffman, 2012; Mars et al., 2015); two intrinsic case studies (Koops, 2014; Paparo & Sweet, 2014); one narrative informed case study (Gavin, 2012); one phenomenological case study (Southcott & Joseph, 2015) and one action research case study (Muhonen, 2014). 166

195 Sampling size Sample sizes varied considerably, depending on whether interviews, focus group interviews or observations were used. In many cases the studies combined these data collection strategies, but below they are discussed separately to provide clarity on the numbers of participants that were typically used for each data collection strategy. In some cases the same study will therefore be mentioned under more than one heading below. In case studies, the selected sampling sizes ranged from one participant to fifty-five participants. Individual interviews The selected sampling sizes in case study research for individual interviews ranged from one participant to thirty-nine participants, and included the following: - Generic case studies: one participant (Cain, 2013; Kardos, 2012; Lee & Lin, 2013; Naughton, 2012; Pike, 2014; Roberts, 2015); two participants (Brook, 2013; Hopkins, 2013; Power & McCormack, 2012; Yang & Welch, 2014); three participants (Brändström et al., 2012; Johansson, 2013); four participants (Thorpe, 2012); six participants (McPhail, 2013a); nine participants (Bolden & Nahachewsky, 2015); eleven participants (Bell- Robertson, 2014); fourteen participants (Einarsdottir, 2014; Gavin, 2012); fifteen participants (Major, 2013); seventeen participants (Barrett & Baker, 2012); nineteen participants (Bhebhe et al., 2015) and twenty-nine participants (Creech et al., 2014); - Instrumental case studies: one participant (Bell, 2014; Fitzpatrick, 2013; Shouldice, 2013); two participants (Kruse, 2013); four participants (Kenny, 2014; Shaw, 2014; Snell & Azzara, 2015); five participants (Partti, 2014; Partti & Westerlund, 2013; Partti et al., 2015) and six participants (Fitzpatrick et al., 2014; Russell & Haston, 2015); - Intrinsic case studies: two participants (Paparo & Sweet, 2014) and three participants (Tobias, 2012, 2015); - Multiple case studies: three participants (Eros, 2013; Wong, 2015); four participants (Draves, 2012; Harrison et al., 2013b; Hess, 2014; Hickey, 2015; Southcott & Joseph, 2015); five participants (Haston & Russell, 2012; Kelly-McHale, 2013; Pike, 2013); seven participants (Sindberg, 2014) and fifteen participants (Brenner & Strand, 2013; Powell, 2015); - Ethnographic case studies: one participant (Abramo & Pierce, 2013; Matsunobu, 2012); two participants (Mars et al., 2015; Van Niekerk & Typpo, 2012); three participants (Jourdan, 2012); six participants (Hoffman, 2012); seven participants (Hoffman & Carter, 2013); and twenty-six participants (Waldron, 2013a). One ethnographic case study (Perkins, 2013) selected thirty-nine participants for individual interviews while an additional four participants were selected for self-documentation; 167

196 - Narrative informed case studies: two participants (Garvis & Pendergast, 2012); three participants (Harrison et al., 2013a; Mota & Araújo, 2013); five participants (Kallio, 2015); six participants (Laes, 2015). Eleven participants were selected in one narrative informed case study (Rickert et al., 2015) while an additional fifteen participants were selected to triangulate the initial eleven participants; - Phenomenological case studies: four participants (Pellegrino, 2014) and six participants (De Vries, 2015); - Action research case studies: one participant (Muhonen, 2014) and four participants (Carter, 2013). In the following studies the selected sample sizes were not specified: two generic case studies (Lamont et al., 2012; Leung, 2015); two ethnographic case studies (Matsunobu, 2013; Paparo, 2012) and one multiple case study (Bond, 2015). Although a combined selection of 400 participants was chosen for individual interviews, focus group interviews and observation for a community project by one generic case study (Bartleet, 2012), the number of participants specifically assigned for individual interviews were not specified. Focus group interviews In case study research the selected sampling sizes ranged from two participants to forty-seven participants for focus group interviews, and included the following: - Generic case studies: two participants (Johansson, 2013); three participants (Brändström et al., 2012); four participants (Thorpe, 2012); eight participants (Major, 2013); nine participants (Bhebhe et al., 2015); twenty-seven participants in pairs (Roberts, 2015); thirty-one participants (Brook, 2013) and forty-seven participants in groups of four to eight (Creech et al., 2014); - Intrinsic case studies: eight participants (Tobias, 2012, 2015); - Multiple case studies: three participants (Eros, 2013); four participants (Kelly-McHale, 2013; Shaw, 2015); seven participants (Leung, 2014); twenty participants (Pike, 2013); and four to six participants from four ensembles (Harrison et al., 2013b); - Ethnographic case studies: ten participants (Abramo & Pierce, 2013); and twenty-three participants divided in two groups (Clennon & Boehm, 2014); - Narrative informed case study: six participants interviewed in two groups (Laes, 2015); - Phenomenological case studies: four participants (Pellegrino, 2014) and five participants (Southcott & Joseph, 2015). In the following studies the selected sample sizes were not specified: two generic case studies (Cain, 2013; McPhail, 2013a), two multiple case studies (Evans et al., 2015; Powell, 2015), one instrumental case study (Kenny, 2014), and one narrative informed case study (Mota & 168

197 Araújo, 2013). Two generic case studies (Bartleet, 2012; McPhail, 2013a) only discussed the total sample sizes chosen for individual interviews, focus group interviews and observation without specifying the number of participants selected for focus group interviews. Observations The selected sampling sizes for observations in case study research ranged from one participant to fifty-five participants, and included the following: - Generic case studies: one participant (Lee & Lin, 2013; Pike, 2014); two participants (Hopkins, 2013; Johansson, 2015); three participants (Biasutti, 2012; Brändström et al., 2012; Johansson, 2013); four participants (Thorpe, 2012); fourteen participants (Einarsdottir, 2014; Gavin, 2012); seventeen participants (Barrett & Baker, 2012); twentyseven participants (Roberts, 2015); and twenty-eight participants (Bhebhe et al., 2015); - Instrumental case studies: one participant (Bell, 2014; Fitzpatrick, 2013; Shouldice, 2013); five participants (Partti, 2014); six participants (Shaw, 2014); and twenty-one participants (Kenny, 2014); - Intrinsic case studies: nine participants (Koops, 2014) and eleven participants (Tobias, 2012, 2015); - Multiple case studies: three participants (Shaw, 2015; Wong, 2015); four participants (Draves, 2012; Hess, 2014; Hickey, 2015); five participants (Haston & Russell, 2012; Kelly-McHale, 2013); seven participants (Leung, 2014); fifteen participants (Brenner & Strand, 2013); and twenty participants (Pike, 2013). One multiple case study (Powell, 2015) selected four choirs with twelve, fifteen, thirty and fifty participants in the respective choirs; - Ethnographic case studies: one participant (Matsunobu, 2012); two participants (Mars et al., 2015); three participants (Jourdan, 2012); six participants (Hoffman, 2012); seven participants (Hoffman & Carter, 2013); twenty participants (Van Niekerk & Typpo, 2012); twenty-three participants (Clennon & Boehm, 2014); twenty-six participants (Waldron, 2013a); forty-two participants (Perkins, 2013); and fifty-five participants (Abramo & Pierce, 2013); - Phenomenological case studies: four participants (Pellegrino, 2014) and five participants (Southcott & Joseph, 2015); - Action research case study: one participant (Muhonen, 2014). In the following studies the selected sample sizes were not specified: seven generic case studies (Bartleet, 2012; Brook, 2013; Cain, 2013; De Villiers, 2015; Lamont et al., 2012; Leung, 2015; McPhail, 2013a); two multiple case studies (Bond, 2015; Harrison et al., 2013b); two ethnographic case studies (Matsunobu, 2013; Paparo, 2012); and one narrative informed case study (Mota & Araújo, 2013). 169

198 Documents One curriculum document was selected as a sample size for a generic case study (Garnett, 2013). Questionnaires and surveys For an independent survey, sixty participants were selected in one generic case study (Moore, 2012). The sampling sizes for the remaining questionnaires and surveys corresponded with the number of participants selected for the interviews and observations in the related studies, as they were mainly utilised to gain background information about the participant and to triangulate, confirm and clarify certain information gathered during data collection. Data were collected mainly through individual interviews in case study research. Other data collection techniques included focus group interviews, observations, researchers journals, participants journals, documents, and open-ended questionnaires and surveys. Individual interviews Individual face-to-face interviews were conducted in forty-seven case studies. In a further five case studies follow-up interviews were conducted via telephone, Skype or , while four case studies used these means exclusively and did not conduct face-to-face interviews. The individual interviews were mostly in-depth, open-ended and semi-structured, with transcribed audio- and video-recordings. The individual face to face interviews were conducted in: - fifteen generic case studies (Barrett & Baker, 2012; Bell-Robertson, 2014; Bolden & Nahachewsky, 2015; Einarsdottir, 2014; Gavin, 2012; Hopkins, 2013; Kardos, 2012; Lamont et al., 2012; Lee & Lin, 2013; Leung, 2015; Naughton, 2012; Pike, 2014; Power & McCormack, 2012; Rickert et al., 2015; Yang & Welch, 2014); - ten instrumental case studies (Bell, 2014; Fitzpatrick, 2013; Fitzpatrick et al., 2014; Kruse, 2013; Partti, 2014; Partti et al., 2015; Russell & Haston, 2015; Shaw, 2014; Shouldice, 2013; Snell & Azzara, 2015); - seven multiple case studies (Brenner & Strand, 2013; Draves, 2012; Haston & Russell, 2012; Hess, 2014; Hickey, 2015; Sindberg, 2014; Wong, 2015); - eight ethnographic case studies (Hoffman, 2012; Hoffman & Carter, 2013; Jourdan, 2012; Mars et al., 2015; Matsunobu, 2012; Perkins, 2013; Van Niekerk & Typpo, 2012; Waldron, 2013a); - four narrative-informed case studies (Garvis & Pendergast, 2012; Harrison et al., 2013a; Kallio, 2015; Rickert et al., 2015); 170

199 - two action research case studies (Carter, 2013; Muhonen, 2014); - one intrinsic case study (Paparo & Sweet, 2014). Discussions via telephone, Skype and were conducted after the individual face-to-face interviews for clarification of information and follow-up questions in the following studies: - one generic case study (Major, 2013); - one instrumental case study (Shaw, 2014); - one narrative-informed case study (Garvis & Pendergast, 2012); - one ethnographic case study (Matsunobu, 2012); - one action research case study (Carter, 2013). One instrumental case study (Partti et al., 2015) conducted some of the interviews via Skype because of geographical constraints, and in another instrumental case study (Partti & Westerlund, 2013), the structured computer-assisted interviews were conducted as an additional source of research information. In some of the studies individual interviews were not conducted face-toface, but telephonic and interviews were selected because of distance and travel time constraints in one instrumental case study (Fitzpatrick et al., 2014), while interviews were conducted via telephone as one generic case study (Bell-Robertson, 2014) examined online communities. Individual and focus group interviews In twenty-six case studies both individual and focus group interviews were conducted. The interviews were mostly in-depth, open-ended and semi-structured, with transcribed audio- and video-recordings. It is interesting to note that focus group interviews were selected for learners with disabilities to lessen their fears as they might feel too exposed during individual interviews (Abramo & Pierce, 2013). The individual and focus group interviews were conducted in: - eleven generic case studies (Bartleet, 2012; Bhebhe et al., 2015; Brändström et al., 2012; Brook, 2013; Cain, 2013; Creech et al., 2014; Johansson, 2013; Major, 2013; McPhail, 2013a; Roberts, 2015; Thorpe, 2012); - seven multiple case studies (Bond, 2015; Eros, 2013; Harrison et al., 2013b; Kelly- McHale, 2013; Pike, 2013; Powell, 2015; Shaw, 2015); - two intrinsic case studies (Tobias, 2012, 2015); - two ethnographic case studies (Abramo & Pierce, 2013; Paparo, 2012); - two narrative informed case studies (Laes, 2015; Mota & Araújo, 2013); - one instrumental case study (Kenny, 2014); - one phenomenological case study (Pellegrino, 2014). 171

200 Focus group interviews Focus group interviews were exclusively conducted in six case studies. The focus group interviews were mostly in-depth, open-ended and semi-structured, and half of the interviews were transcribed audio- and video-recordings. The focus group interviews were conducted in: - two multiple case studies (Evans et al., 2015; Leung, 2014); - two ethnographic case studies (Clennon & Boehm, 2014; Jourdan, 2012); - one generic case study (Roberts, 2015); - one phenomenological case study (Southcott & Joseph, 2015). Observations Observation techniques were employed in fifty-eight of the case studies and included: - twenty case studies (Barrett & Baker, 2012; Bartleet, 2012; Bhebhe et al., 2015; Biasutti, 2012; Brändström et al., 2012; Brook, 2013; Cain, 2013; De Villiers, 2015; Einarsdottir, 2014; Gavin, 2012; Hopkins, 2013; Johansson, 2013; Johansson, 2015; Lamont et al., 2012; Lee & Lin, 2013; Leung, 2015; McPhail, 2013a; Pike, 2014; Roberts, 2015; Thorpe, 2012); - thirteen multiple case studies (Bond, 2015; Brenner & Strand, 2013; Draves, 2012; Harrison et al., 2013b; Haston & Russell, 2012; Hess, 2014; Hickey, 2015; Kelly-McHale, 2013; Leung, 2014; Pike, 2013; Powell, 2015; Shaw, 2015; Wong, 2015); - twelve ethnographic case studies (Abramo & Pierce, 2013; Clennon & Boehm, 2014; Hoffman, 2012; Hoffman & Carter, 2013; Jourdan, 2012; Mars et al., 2015; Matsunobu, 2012, 2013; Paparo, 2012; Perkins, 2013; Van Niekerk & Typpo, 2012; Waldron, 2013a); - six instrumental case studies (Bell, 2014; Fitzpatrick, 2013; Kenny, 2014; Partti, 2014; Russell & Haston, 2015; Shouldice, 2013); - three intrinsic case studies (Koops, 2014; Tobias, 2012, 2015); - one narrative informed case study (Mota & Araújo, 2013); - two phenomenological case studies (Pellegrino, 2014; Southcott & Joseph, 2015); - one action research case study (Muhonen, 2014). The observer role of the researcher is specified in thirteen of the case studies and included participant-observers, non-participant observers and instructors or observer-participants. Researchers acted as participant-observers in three generic case studies (Einarsdottir, 2014; Johansson, 2013; Roberts, 2015); one instrumental case study (Kenny, 2014); one multiple case study (Bond, 2015); and four ethnographic case studies (Clennon & Boehm, 2014; Mars et al., 2015; Paparo, 2012; Waldron, 2013a). A non-participant approach was followed in two multiple 172

201 case studies (Shaw, 2015; Wong, 2015) and one generic case study (Leung, 2015). In one ethnographic case study (Hoffman & Carter, 2013), the researchers took the role of instructors and acted as observer-participants. Researchers journals Researchers journals were used as a data collection technique in thirty-six case studies: - ten generic case studies (Bell-Robertson, 2014; Brook, 2013; Cain, 2013; Einarsdottir, 2014; Gavin, 2012; Hopkins, 2013; Johansson, 2013; Lee & Lin, 2013; Major, 2013; Thorpe, 2012); - ten multiple case studies (Bond, 2015; Brenner & Strand, 2013; Draves, 2012; Harrison et al., 2013b; Haston & Russell, 2012; Hess, 2014; Hickey, 2015; Kelly-McHale, 2013; Shaw, 2014; Sindberg, 2014); - eight ethnographic case studies (Abramo & Pierce, 2013; Clennon & Boehm, 2014; Hoffman, 2012; Hoffman & Carter, 2013; Matsunobu, 2012; Perkins, 2013; Van Niekerk & Typpo, 2012; Waldron, 2013a); - three narrative-informed case studies (Brook, 2013; Garvis & Pendergast, 2012; Harrison et al., 2013a); - two instrumental case studies (Bell, 2014; Kruse, 2013); - two intrinsic case studies (Koops, 2014; Tobias, 2015); - one action research case study (Carter, 2013). Participants journals Participants journals were used in fourteen case studies as a data collection technique in the following studies: - four ethnographic case studies (Clennon & Boehm, 2014; Hoffman, 2012; Jourdan, 2012; Perkins, 2013); - three generic case studies (Bell-Robertson, 2014; Johansson, 2013; Roberts, 2015); - three intrinsic case studies (Koops, 2014; Paparo & Sweet, 2014; Tobias, 2015); - two multiple case studies (Eros, 2013; Haston & Russell, 2012); - one instrumental case study (Fitzpatrick, 2013); - one action research case study (Carter, 2013). It is interesting to note that participant self-documentation was facilitated in one ethnographic study (Perkins, 2013) by each participant being presented with a notebook, a voice recorder and a disposable camera to record their answers to a set of questions in written or oral form. In another ethnographic study (Jourdan, 2012) participants were given a research packet of a mini mp3 recorder, a camera, notebook and memory stick to record research data. 173

202 Documents Documents such as primary and secondary sources, academic sources, archival material, instrumental compositions, songbooks, flip charts, photographic documentation, concert programmes, CD s, public records, policy, project and administrative documents, and correspondence were used in the following fifteen case studies: - five multiple case studies (Bond, 2015; Brenner & Strand, 2013; Hess, 2014; Shaw, 2015; Sindberg, 2014); - four ethnographic case studies (Clennon & Boehm, 2014; Hoffman & Carter, 2013; Jourdan, 2012; Perkins, 2013); - two generic case studies (Bartleet, 2012; Major, 2013); - two instrumental case studies (Kenny, 2014; Kruse, 2013); - one narrative informed case study (Mota & Araújo, 2013); - one action research case study (Muhonen, 2014). Documents related to curriculum documents, lesson plans, course outlines, project rubrics, class assignments, formal and informal assessment requirements, textbooks, school documents and university catalogues were collected in twelve case studies: - four generic case studies (De Villiers, 2015; Garnett, 2013; Pike, 2014; Roberts, 2015); - four multiple case studies (Harrison et al., 2013b; Hickey, 2015; Kelly-McHale, 2013; Wong, 2015); - two instrumental case studies (Shouldice, 2013; Snell & Azzara, 2015); - one intrinsic case study (Tobias, 2015); - one narrative case study (Harrison et al., 2013a). Computer-mediated communication, such as websites, online communities, discussion boards, blogs, forums such as Facebook and Wikispace, was used to collect data in six case studies: - two generic case study (Bell-Robertson, 2014; Koops, 2014); - two ethnographic case studies (Clennon & Boehm, 2014; Waldron, 2013a); - one instrumental case study (Partti & Westerlund, 2013); - one phenomenological case study (Southcott & Joseph, 2015). Open-ended questionnaires and surveys Open-ended questionnaires were mostly selected to gain background information from the participants, and to triangulate, confirm and clarify certain information obtained during the interviews. They were selected in the following ten case studies: - five generic case studies (Brook, 2013; Creech et al., 2014; Gavin, 2012; Moore, 2012; Pike, 2014); 174

203 - two ethnographic studies (Van Niekerk & Typpo, 2012; Waldron, 2013a); - one intrinsic case study (Koops, 2014); - one multiple case study (Pike, 2013); - one narrative informed case study (Mota & Araújo, 2013). Open-ended surveys were used to collect demographic information from the participants, and to validate certain interview data and findings in eight case studies: - four generic case studies (Bartleet, 2012; Einarsdottir, 2014; Moore, 2012; Roberts, 2015); - two multiple case studies (Eros, 2013; Powell, 2015); - one instrumental case study (Snell & Azzara, 2015); - one phenomenological case study (Pellegrino, 2014). A specified strategy of data analysis was followed in forty case studies. The data analysis strategy most used in case study research was constant comparison and using both within-case and cross-case analysis. Other strategies of data analysis included narrative analysis, cross-case analysis on its own, and content analysis. Constant comparison analysis The constant comparison analysis strategy was selected in the following thirteen case studies: - seven multiple case studies (Brenner & Strand, 2013; Eros, 2013; Kelly-McHale, 2013; Pike, 2013; Shaw, 2015; Sindberg, 2014; Wong, 2015); - five generic case studies (Bell-Robertson, 2014; Biasutti, 2012; Lee & Lin, 2013; Pike, 2014; Thorpe, 2012); - one phenomenological case study (De Vries, 2015). Within-case and cross-case analysis Within-case and cross-case analysis strategies guided the following thirteen studies: - four multiple case studies (Bond, 2015; Kelly-McHale, 2013; Pike, 2013; Wong, 2015); - three intrinsic case studies (Paparo & Sweet, 2014; Tobias, 2012, 2015); - two generic case studies (Hopkins, 2013; McPhail, 2013a); - two ethnographic case studies (Hoffman, 2012; Hoffman & Carter, 2013); - one instrumental case study (Fitzpatrick et al., 2014); - one phenomenological case study (Pellegrino, 2014). 175

204 Narrative analysis The following six studies followed narrative analysis techniques: - one instrumental case study (Partti, 2014) followed a narrative-biographic approach with horizontal and vertical analysis strategies; - one instrumental case study (Partti & Westerlund, 2013) was based on narrative configuration; - one ethnographic case study followed a narrative data essentialist approach (Matsunobu, 2013); - one narrative-informed case study (Laes, 2015) employed horizontal and vertical analysis strategies; - one narrative-informed case study (Kallio, 2015) used a vertical analysis technique; - one narrative-informed case study (Mota & Araújo, 2013) used narrative inquiry in combination with content analysis. Cross-case analysis In only four case studies were cross-case analysis strategies employed: - two generic case studies (Leung, 2015; Leung, 2014); - one multiple case study (Hess, 2014); - one narrative-informed case study (Kallio, 2015). Content analysis A content analysis strategy was included in three case studies: - one case study (Power & McCormack, 2012); - one multiple case study (Harrison et al., 2013b); - one narrative-informed case study (Mota & Araújo, 2013) used content analysis in combination with narrative inquiry. Other strategies of data analysis Other strategies of data analysis in case study research included: - a theoretical reading analysis in a instrumental case study (Partti & Westerlund, 2013); - the steps of the data analysis spiral in another instrumental case study (Fitzpatrick, 2013); - a combination of action research based analysis and zooming in analysis strategies in one action research case study (Johansson, 2013) Coding techniques Coding techniques were followed in sixty-eight case studies. The thematic coding approach was the most used coding technique employed in case study research. Other coding techniques 176

205 included iterative coding and deductive coding. Some coding techniques were described in combination with other coding techniques, while others were used exclusively. Computer-assisted qualitative data analysis software programs such as Nvivo, HyperRESEARCH and ATLAS.ti 7 were selected to assist in coding case study research. Thematic coding Thematic coding was used in sixty-five case studies: - twenty generic case studies (Barrett & Baker, 2012; Bartleet, 2012; Bell-Robertson, 2014; Bhebhe et al., 2015; Bolden & Nahachewsky, 2015; Brändström et al., 2012; Brook, 2013; Creech et al., 2014; Einarsdottir, 2014; Gavin, 2012; Hopkins, 2013; Lamont et al., 2012; Leung, 2015; Major, 2013; McPhail, 2013a; Moore, 2012; Pike, 2014; Power & McCormack, 2012; Roberts, 2015; Yang & Welch, 2014); - thirteen multiple case studies (Bond, 2015; Draves, 2012; Eros, 2013; Evans et al., 2015; Harrison et al., 2013b; Haston & Russell, 2012; Hess, 2014; Hickey, 2015; Leung, 2014; Pike, 2013; Powell, 2015; Shaw, 2015; Sindberg, 2014); - eleven instrumental case studies (Bell, 2014; Fitzpatrick, 2013; Kenny, 2014; Kruse, 2013; Partti, 2014; Partti & Westerlund, 2013; Partti et al., 2015; Russell & Haston, 2015; Shaw, 2014; Shouldice, 2013; Snell & Azzara, 2015). An interesting approach was adopted in one instrumental case study (Shaw, 2014) which employed an eclectic coding method by using values coding, in vivo coding, and emotions coding to develop themes by organising these groups of codes into categories; - nine ethnographic case studies (Abramo & Pierce, 2013; Clennon & Boehm, 2014; Hoffman, 2012; Hoffman & Carter, 2013; Jourdan, 2012; Matsunobu, 2012; Paparo, 2012; Perkins, 2013; Van Niekerk & Typpo, 2012); - four narrative-informed case studies (Harrison et al., 2013a; Kallio, 2015; Mota & Araújo, 2013; Rickert et al., 2015); - four intrinsic case studies (Koops, 2014; Paparo & Sweet, 2014; Tobias, 2012, 2015); - two phenomenological case studies (De Vries, 2015; Pellegrino, 2014); - two action research case studies (Carter, 2013; Muhonen, 2014). An interesting approach was adopted in one instrumental case study (Shaw, 2014) which employed an eclectic coding method by using values coding, in vivo coding and emotions coding to develop themes by organising these groups of codes into categories. Iterative coding An iterative coding approach was followed by five case studies: - two intrinsic case studies (Tobias, 2012, 2015); - one generic case study (Roberts, 2015); 177

206 - one multiple case study (Hickey, 2015); - one ethnographic case study (Clennon & Boehm, 2014). Deductive coding A deductive approach was selected for five studies: - two instrumental case studies (Kenny, 2014; Russell & Haston, 2015); - one multiple case study (Haston & Russell, 2012); - one ethnographic case study (Perkins, 2013); - one narrative informed case study (Rickert et al., 2015). Other coding techniques Other coding techniques selected in case study research included: - open coding and axial coding in one generic case study (Thorpe, 2012) and two multiple case studies (Brenner & Strand, 2013; Pike, 2013); - descriptively coded data to include the diverse ethnographic data collected for the study in one ethnographic study (Waldron, 2013a); - an inductive analysis approach to locate interconnected narrative story lines throughout the data in one narrative-informed case study (Garvis & Pendergast, 2012). Computer assisted qualitative data analysis software Only thirteen case studies discussed the use of a qualitative data analysis software program to assist in data analysis: - the Nvivo software program in four generic case studies (Creech et al., 2014; Einarsdottir, 2014; Thorpe, 2012; Yang & Welch, 2014); one multiple case study (Hess, 2014) and one instrumental case study (Kenny, 2014); - HyperRESEARCH in two multiple case studies (Bond, 2015; Kelly-McHale, 2013) and two intrinsic case studies (Tobias, 2012, 2015); - ATLAS.ti 7 in one generic case study (Brook, 2013) and one ethnographic case study (Perkins, 2013); - an unspecified qualitative data analysis software program in one ethnographic study (Hoffman & Carter, 2013). Validation strategies that were explicitly discussed were identified in fifty-six case studies. Data collection triangulation was the primary validation technique for ensuring trustworthiness in case study research. Other validation strategies included member checking, peer debriefing, data source triangulation, thick description and prolonged engagement, intercoder agreement and 178

207 external audits. Some validation strategies were described in combination with other validation strategies, while others were used exclusively. Data collection triangulation Data collection triangulation was selected in the following forty studies: - ten multiple case studies (Bond, 2015; Draves, 2012; Eros, 2013; Harrison et al., 2013b; Haston & Russell, 2012; Hickey, 2015; Kelly-McHale, 2013; Perkins, 2013; Shaw, 2015; Wong, 2015); - ten instrumental case studies (Bell, 2014; Fitzpatrick, 2013; Fitzpatrick et al., 2014; Kenny, 2014; Partti & Westerlund, 2013; Partti et al., 2015; Russell & Haston, 2015; Shaw, 2014; Shouldice, 2013; Snell & Azzara, 2015); - eight generic case studies (Barrett & Baker, 2012; Bell-Robertson, 2014; Brook, 2013; Cain, 2013; Gavin, 2012; Hopkins, 2013; Major, 2013; Roberts, 2015); - five intrinsic studies (Brändström et al., 2012; Koops, 2014; Paparo & Sweet, 2014; Tobias, 2012, 2015); - five ethnographic case studies (Abramo & Pierce, 2013; Hoffman & Carter, 2013; Paparo, 2012; Perkins, 2013; Waldron, 2013a); - one narrative informed case study (Harrison et al., 2013a); - one action research case study (Carter, 2013). Member checking Member checking was used in thirty-seven studies: - thirteen multiple case studies (Bond, 2015; Brenner & Strand, 2013; Draves, 2012; Eros, 2013; Haston & Russell, 2012; Hess, 2014; Hickey, 2015; Kelly-McHale, 2013; Leung, 2014; Pike, 2013; Shaw, 2015; Sindberg, 2014; Wong, 2015); - eight generic case studies (Barrett & Baker, 2012; Bell-Robertson, 2014; Bolden & Nahachewsky, 2015; Cain, 2013; Hopkins, 2013; Johansson, 2013; Major, 2013; Roberts, 2015); - seven instrumental case studies (Fitzpatrick, 2013; Fitzpatrick et al., 2014; Kenny, 2014; Kruse, 2013; Russell & Haston, 2015; Shaw, 2014; Shouldice, 2013); - three ethnographic case studies (Clennon & Boehm, 2014; Hoffman & Carter, 2013; Paparo, 2012); - two intrinsic studies (Paparo & Sweet, 2014; Tobias, 2012); - two narrative informed case studies (Garvis & Pendergast, 2012; Rickert et al., 2015); - one phenomenology case studies (De Vries, 2015); - one action research case study (Carter, 2013). 179

208 Peer debriefing Peer debriefing was selected in eighteen studies: - six instrumental case studies (Fitzpatrick et al., 2014; Kenny, 2014; Kruse, 2013; Russell & Haston, 2015; Shouldice, 2013; Snell & Azzara, 2015); - five generic case studies (Biasutti, 2012; Creech et al., 2014; Gavin, 2012; Leung, 2015; Roberts, 2015); - four multiple case studies (Bond, 2015; Draves, 2012; Eros, 2013; Shaw, 2015); - two ethnographic case studies (Paparo, 2012; Waldron, 2013a); - two narrative informed case studies (Harrison et al., 2013a; Rickert et al., 2015); - one intrinsic case study (Paparo & Sweet, 2014). Data source triangulation Data source triangulation was used in five studies: - two generic case studies (Barrett & Baker, 2012; Major, 2013); - one instrumental study (Snell & Azzara, 2015); - one intrinsic study (Tobias, 2012); - one narrative informed case study (Rickert et al., 2015). Thick description Thick description was employed by seven studies: - four multiple case studies (Bond, 2015; Haston & Russell, 2012; Kelly-McHale, 2013; Shaw, 2015); - two instrumental case studies (Fitzpatrick, 2013; Russell & Haston, 2015); - one intrinsic case study (Tobias, 2015). Prolonged engagement Prolonged engagement was selected by six studies: - four multiple case studies (Bond, 2015; Haston & Russell, 2012; Hess, 2014; Shaw, 2015); - one generic case study (Hopkins, 2013); - one instrumental case study (Russell & Haston, 2015). Other validation strategies Other validation strategies selected were the following: - investigator triangulation by one ethnographic case study (Abramo & Pierce, 2013) and one narrative informed case study (Rickert et al., 2015); - intercoder agreement by three instrumental case studies (Fitzpatrick, 2013; Kruse, 2013; Russell & Haston, 2015), and one multiple case study (Haston & Russell, 2012); 180

209 - external audits by three instrumental case studies (Fitzpatrick, 2013; Fitzpatrick et al., 2014; Russell & Haston, 2015) and one action research case study (Carter, 2013); - researchers discussed the importance of remaining unbiased in one generic case study (Major, 2013); one instrumental case study (Shaw, 2014); four multiple case studies (Bond, 2015; Draves, 2012; Haston & Russell, 2012; Shaw, 2015) and one narrative informed case study (Rickert et al., 2015). Ethical procedures were explicitly discussed in sixty-nine of the eighty-six case studies. In case study research, ethical procedures included acquiring ethical approval and consent, and anonymising qualitative data by removing or changing identifying details through using generic names. In some studies, pseudonyms were used to protect the privacy and confidentiality of participants. Some ethical procedures were employed in combination with other ethical procedures, while others were used exclusively. It is important to note that although not all the case studies discussed ethical procedures explicitly, the identities of the participants were protected to maintain anonymity in all the studies. Ethical approval and consent Procedures for ethical approval and consent were followed in the following thirty-five studies: - sixteen generic case studies (Barrett & Baker, 2012; Bartleet, 2012; Bell-Robertson, 2014; Biasutti, 2012; Brook, 2013; Creech et al., 2014; Gavin, 2012; Hopkins, 2013; Johansson, 2013; Lamont et al., 2012; Lee & Lin, 2013; Major, 2013; Pike, 2014; Power & McCormack, 2012; Roberts, 2015; Yang & Welch, 2014); - seven ethnographic case studies (Abramo & Pierce, 2013; Clennon & Boehm, 2014; Hoffman, 2012; Jourdan, 2012; Mars et al., 2015; Paparo, 2012; Perkins, 2013); - five multiple case studies (Bond, 2015; Draves, 2012; Harrison et al., 2013b; Hess, 2014; Sindberg, 2014); - three narrative-informed case studies (Harrison et al., 2013a; Laes, 2015; Rickert et al., 2015); - three instrumental studies (Fitzpatrick et al., 2014; Partti, 2014; Snell & Azzara, 2015); - two phenomenological case studies (De Vries, 2015; Southcott & Joseph, 2015). Anonymising of qualitative data It is important to note that in two generic case studies (Cain, 2013; Einarsdottir, 2014) and one ethnographic case study (Van Niekerk & Typpo, 2012) permission was granted by some of the participants for their real names to be disclosed in any publication as long as the identity of the other participants and institutions are protected. In one ethnographic study (Abramo & Pierce, 181

210 2013) the examining of visual impairment interview questions specifically related to participants eye illnesses and medical statuses were not permitted. Privacy protection and anonymity procedures were applied in twenty-four studies: - nine generic case studies (Bhebhe et al., 2015; Brook, 2013; Creech et al., 2014; Hopkins, 2013; Johansson, 2013; Major, 2013; Naughton, 2012; Power & McCormack, 2012; Yang & Welch, 2014); - four multiple case studies (Bond, 2015; Brenner & Strand, 2013; Harrison et al., 2013b; Pike, 2013); - three narrative informed case studies (Kallio, 2015; Mota & Araújo, 2013; Rickert et al., 2015); - two ethnographic studies (Clennon & Boehm, 2014; Paparo, 2012); - four instrumental case studies ( Partti, 2014; Partti & Westerlund, 2013; Partti et al., 2015; Shouldice, 2013); - one phenomenological case studies (Johansson, 2013); - one action research case study (Carter, 2013). Pseudonyms were used in thirty-nine studies: - ten generic case studies (Barrett & Baker, 2012; Bell-Robertson, 2014; Bolden & Nahachewsky, 2015; Einarsdottir, 2014; Gavin, 2012; Lamont et al., 2012; Leung, 2015; McPhail, 2013a; Roberts, 2015; Thorpe, 2012); - nine multiple case studies (Draves, 2012; Eros, 2013; Haston & Russell, 2012; Hess, 2014; Kelly-McHale, 2013; Leung, 2014; Shaw, 2015; Sindberg, 2014; Wong, 2015); - seven instrumental case studies (Fitzpatrick, 2013; Fitzpatrick et al., 2014; Kruse, 2013; Partti, 2014; Russell & Haston, 2015; Shaw, 2014; Snell & Azzara, 2015); - four ethnographic case studies (Abramo & Pierce, 2013; Hoffman, 2012; Hoffman & Carter, 2013; Matsunobu, 2012); - three intrinsic case studies (Koops, 2014; Tobias, 2012, 2015); - three narrative informed case studies (Kallio, 2015; Laes, 2015; Rickert et al., 2015); - three phenomenological case studies (De Vries, 2015; Pellegrino, 2014; Southcott & Joseph, 2015). Basic qualitative research Since basic qualitative research was labelled only with various generic names and not classified into different types of qualitative research studies by the music education researchers, no classification types were identified in the five selected journals. Basic qualitative research is, next 182

211 to case study research, the second most used qualitative strategy of inquiry in music education research. There were 22 basic qualitative research studies out of 233 qualitative studies, which amounts to 9.44% of the qualitative research done in the five selected journals. In the comparative analysis ( ) it emerged that MER published most of the basic qualitative research studies with a total of seven articles. The second highest number was published by the BJME with six articles, and the IJME produced the third highest number of basic qualitative articles with five articles. The JRME, together with the BCRME, produced two articles each, which is the least amount of basic qualitative research, published. Because the number of published qualitative research articles differ between the journals, percentages were added to place the differences in perspective (Figure 4 8).The distribution of basic qualitative research published in the selected five journals by music education researchers is shown in Table Table 4 11: The distribution of basic qualitative research in five selected journals. BASIC QUALITATIVE RESEARCH IJME MER BJME JRME BCRME TOTAL Basic qualitative research TOTAL

212 The total use of basic qualitative research in five selected journals is illustrated in Figure Basic qualitative research in five selected journals % 10.34% 11.76% % % IJME MER BJME JRME BCRME Figure 4 8: The total use of basic qualitative research in five selected journals. The articles analysed and identified in the five selected journals from 2012 to 2015 as basic qualitative research are listed in Table Table 4 12: Basic qualitative research in five selected journals. Basic qualitative research Author Year Title Journal Allsup, R.E 2012 Music education and human flourishing: A meditation on democratic origins. British Journal of Music Education Ballantyne, J. et al Developing music teacher identities: An international multi-site study. International Journal of Music Education Boon, E.T Making string education culturally responsive: The musical lives of African American children. International Journal of Music Education Broeske- Danielsen, B.A Community music activity in a refugee camp student music teachers' practicum experiences 184 Music Education Research

213 Basic qualitative research Author Year Title Journal Cabedo-Mas, A. & Díaz-Gómez, M Positive musical experiences in education: Music as a social praxis. Music Education Research Cleaver, D. & Ballantyne, J Teachers views of constructivist theory: A qualitative study illuminating relationships between epistemological understanding and music teaching practice. International Journal of Music Education Conway, C.M. 2012a Ten years later, experienced teacher reflections on "beginning music teacher perceptions of districtsponsored induction programs" (2001). Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education Conway, C.M. 2012b Ten years later: Teachers reflect on perceptions of beginning teachers, their mentors, and administrator regarding pre-service music teacher preparation. Journal of Research in Music Education Conway, C. et al Teacher research as professional development for P- 12 music teachers. Music Education Research Gaunt, H. et al Supporting conservatoire students towards professional integration: One-to-one tuition and the potential of mentoring. Music Education Research Gower, L. & McDowall, J 2012 Interactive music video games and children's musical development. British Journal of Music Education Johansson, K Experts, entrepreneurs and competence nomads: The skills paradox in higher music education. Music Education Research Juntunen, M Teacher educators visions of pedagogical training within instrumental higher music education. A case in Finland. British Journal of Music Education Lee, P Self-invented notation systems created by young children. Music Education Research Lowe, G Lessons for teachers: What lower secondary school students tell us about learning a musical instrument. International Journal of Music Education Mok, A.O East meets west: Learning-practices and attitudes towards music-making of popular musicians. British Journal of Music Education Oakland, J. & Ginsborg, J Continuing professional development in a chamber orchestra: Player and management perspectives. 185 Music Education Research

214 Basic qualitative research Author Year Title Journal Roulston, K. et al Adult perspectives of learning musical instruments. International Journal of Music Education Stanley, A.M The experiences of elementary music teachers in a collaborative teacher study group. Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education Swain, N. & Bodkin-Allen, S Can't sing? Won't sing? Aotearoa/New Zealand tonedeaf early childhood teachers musical beliefs. British Journal of Music Education Wu, S Reflecting on the implications, problems and possibilities raised by the entrance of world musics in music education. British Journal of Music Education Youm, H.K Parents goals, knowledge, practices, and needs regarding music education for their young children in South Korea. Journal of Research in Music Education Of the 22 basic qualitative research studies examined in five selected journals, 19 articles were acknowledged by the authors as qualitative studies. Basic qualitative research was labelled with various generic names and not classified into different types of qualitative research studies. The generic label most used was qualitative research methodology which was employed in nine studies, four studies were conducted using basic qualitative research as the type of study, and the rest of the studies were identified with the following generic labels: empirical investigation, hermeneutical methodology, interview study, longitudinal study, comparative analysis, interpretivist qualitative interview study, qualitative multi-site study, qualitative reflection and social constructivist inquiry. No combinations of basic qualitative research were conducted with other qualitative strategies of inquiry. 186

215 All research has an underlying worldview, even though it is not clearly or explicitly defined, but in basic qualitative research only four studies were framed by a philosophical worldview. These worldviews include interpretivism, constructivism and social constructivism. An interpretivist worldview was followed by two basic qualitative studies (Boon, 2014; Conway et al., 2014). A constructivist frame informed one study (Youm, 2013) and a social constructivist worldview was employed by the remaining one basic qualitative study (Stanley, 2012). Of the twenty-two basic qualitative studies examined in the five selected journals, nine studies explicitly discussed the theoretical framework that the study was based on. These studies included: - professional identity (Ballantyne et al., 2012); - Paulo Freire s conscientization (Boon, 2014); - the constructivist theory (Cleaver & Ballantyne, 2014); - teacher performance and development frameworks (Conway, 2012b); - cultural-historical activity theory (Johansson, 2012); - teacher s visions and didactic triangle as two theoretical tools (Juntunen, 2014); - expectancy-value theory (Lowe, 2012); - adult development and learning theories (Roulston et al., 2015); - parent involvement and multiple realities (Youm, 2013). The examining of teaching and learning strategies was the most popular topic under study in basic qualitative research, while the remaining studies focused on professional development, curriculum development, early childhood, music teacher education, and teacher support and collaboration Teaching and learning strategies The following seven basic qualitative research studies were directed at examining teaching and learning strategies in music education, with specific reference to: - culturally responsive teaching and learning (Boon, 2014); - the learning experiences of students in a community music project (Broeske-Danielsen, 2013); - teachers views of constructivism (Cleaver & Ballantyne, 2014); 187

216 - undergraduate instrumental pedagogy (Johansson, 2012); - the influence of instrumental teachers on student motivation (Lowe, 2012); - popular band group learning practices (Mok, 2014); - adults views and experiences of learning musical instruments (Roulston et al., 2015) Professional development The emphasis in four basic qualitative research studies related to professional development was on the following: - the conducting of teacher research as professional development (Conway et al., 2014); - the educational role and relationship of instrumental and vocal teachers in supporting students towards achieving professional integration (Gaunt et al., 2012; Juntunen, 2014); - perspectives on managing and playing in a chamber orchestra (Oakland & Ginsborg, 2014) Curriculum development The development of the music education curriculum was the focus of the following four studies, with specific reference to: - contemporary music (Allsup, 2012); - participatory approaches (Cabedo-Mas & Díaz-Gómez, 2013); - interactive video music games (Gower & McDowall, 2012); - the integration of world music (Wu, 2012) Early childhood Three studies focused on early childhood, considering: - different self-invented notation systems created by young musicians (Lee, 2013); - the singing ability of early childhood music educators (Swain & Bodkin-Allen, 2014); - parent involvement in early childhood education (Youm, 2013) Music teacher education Two studies focused on the training and preparation of pre-service teachers, with specific reference to: - pre-service music teachers views on their identities as professional teachers (Ballantyne et al., 2012); - different perspectives on preservice music teacher preparation (Conway, 2012b). 188

217 Teacher support and collaboration The following two studies examined teacher support and collaboration with the emphasis on: - beginning teacher support and professional development (Conway, 2012a); - the experiences of a teacher collaboration group (Stanley, 2012). The action verb indicates the research purpose, and the focus and expected results of the studies. All the basic qualitative research studies discussed a research purpose with examine being the most popular verb. Other verbs to indicate research purpose included: explore and investigate. In some basic qualitative research studies more than one verb to indicate the research purpose per study was selected, while others employed only one verb to indicate the research purpose. Examine Examine was the selected verb to indicate the research purpose in seven basic qualitative studies (Conway, 2012a; Conway et al., 2014; Conway, 2012b; Juntunen, 2014; Lee, 2013; Lowe, 2012; Stanley, 2012). Explore The verb explore to indicate the research purpose was selected in six basic qualitative studies (Boon, 2014; Cabedo-Mas & Díaz-Gómez, 2013; Cleaver & Ballantyne, 2014; Gaunt et al., 2012; Johansson, 2012; Youm, 2013). Investigate Five basic qualitative studies were conducted with investigate as the verb to indicate the research purpose (Ballantyne et al., 2012; Gower & McDowall, 2012; Lowe, 2012; Mok, 2014; Oakland & Ginsborg, 2014). Other verbs to indicate the research purpose The remaining basic qualitative studies used compare (Allsup, 2012); discuss (Broeske- Danielsen, 2013; Wu, 2012); focus (Swain & Bodkin-Allen, 2014); report (Roulston et al., 2015); and understand (Youm, 2013) as the selected research purpose verbs Research question Only fifteen out of twenty-two basic qualitative research studies were guided by a research question. 189

218 The following research questions were asked: - What promises and problems does democratic education hold for the 21st century music teacher? (Allsup, 2012:172). - How do the individual perceptions of the violin program and the sociocultural musical backgrounds of these students relate? (Boon, 2014:135). - What do student music teachers learn within a practicum in a Palestinian refugee camp in Lebanon, and in which ways do their learning experiences relate to the student teachers development as professional music teachers? (Broeske-Danielsen, 2013:305). - What are the educative principles that promote significant musical practices and enhancing of musical experiences? (Cabedo-Mas & Díaz-Gómez, 2013:459). - What are music teachers perceptions of and attitudes towards a constructivist theory of learning? What is the relationship between teachers espoused theory of teaching delivery and their design of practical learning experiences? To what extent do the teachers perceptions and attitudes seem to be embodied in their teaching practice? What are the suggestions for music teaching and for music teacher education? (Cleaver & Ballantyne, 2014:230). - How do participants describe their reactions to a present-day examination of 1999/2000 data (journals, individual and focus group interviews, and two questionnaires) and findings? What can this reflective examination from experienced teachers reveal about current trends in beginning teacher induction and professional development? (Conway, 2012a:63). - How would participants describe their reactions to a present-day examination of 1999 or 2000 data (journals, individual and focus group interviews, and two questionnaires) and 2002 study findings? How had their perceptions regarding pre-service music teacher preparation changed since ? On the basis of their recent work with preservice interns and student teachers, what could these experienced teachers say about preservice music teacher preparation today? (Conway, 2012b:324). - How do these music educators describe the experience of planning and implementing a teacher research project? What do the teachers choose to examine? How do teachers consider teacher research in relation to their experiences of professional development? Does the project count for professional development in their school districts? If so, what procedures must be followed? And, if not, why not? (Conway et al., 2014:404). - What are the teachers goals in teaching and how do they define development? (Johansson, 2012:48). - What kinds of visions regarding ideal teaching practices and teacher preparation do teachers of instrumental pedagogy in Finnish higher music education express? (Juntunen, 2014:158). 190

219 - What systems do young children invent to document and help them recall pitch? What systems do young children invent to document and help them recall rhythm? What systems do young children invent to document pitch and rhythm simultaneously and help them recall the music? (Lee, 2013:395). - What is the impact of the instrumental lesson upon the motivation of year 8 students to continue learning a musical instrument in Western Australia, from the student perspective? (Lowe, 2012:230). - To what extent could the skills learned from participating in continuing professional development activities benefit both individual players and the orchestra as a whole? What considerations should be taken into account when planning a longer term project with the aim of encouraging innovative artistic performance through professional development? (Oakland & Ginsborg, 2014:15). - How do the participants describe their experience in the collaborative teacher study group (CTSG)? How has the focus on collaboration in the CTSG changed their teaching practice? What can these music teachers tell other music educators about collaboration? (Stanley, 2012:53). - What are the parents goals for their children s music programs? What do the parents know about music programs for young children? What are the parents practices for music activities with their children? What do parents need to facilitate their children s music education? (Youm, 2013:283). Research questions in basic qualitative research focus mainly on the understanding of the perspectives, visions and goals of the student and music teacher regarding teaching practices in music education. It becomes clear from the type of questions asked that individual experiences, suggestions and problems, the development of the professional music teacher and the improvement of the music education profession are important to music education researchers. Two participant groups were the most popular researched group in basic qualitative research, namely undergraduate students, and elementary school teachers. Other participant groups included: secondary school participants, early childhood participants, and adult participants. In some basic qualitative research studies, more than one participant group per study was selected, while others focused only on one participant group. Higher education Higher education participants were the selected participant group in five studies. 191

220 - Undergraduate students Higher education students were selected in two studies (Broeske-Danielsen, 2013; Juntunen, 2014). One study (Ballantyne et al., 2012) examined a specific type of undergraduate student, namely the pre-service music teacher. - Undergraduate and postgraduate students Undergraduate and postgraduate students were the participants in one study (Gaunt et al., 2012). - Higher education lecturers Higher education lecturers were the selected participant group in two studies (Johansson, 2012; Juntunen, 2014). Elementary school Participants in elementary school were the selected participant group in five studies. - Elementary school teachers Elementary class music teachers were selected as participants in four studies (Conway, 2012a; Conway et al., 2014; Gower & McDowall, 2012; Stanley, 2012). - Elementary school learners Elementary class music learners were the participants in one study (Gower & McDowall, 2012), and elementary instrumental music learners were selected for another study (Boon, 2014). Secondary school Participants in secondary school were selected in three studies. - Secondary school teachers Secondary class music teachers were the participants in two studies (Conway et al., 2014; Conway, 2012b). - Secondary school learners Secondary class learners were the participant group in another study (Lowe, 2012). Early childhood Early childhood participants were the selected participant group in three studies. 192

221 Early childhood teachers were selected in two studies (Lee, 2013; Swain & Bodkin-Allen, 2014). Early childhood children were the participants in one study (Lee, 2013), and an early childhood parent-child music programme was the focus in one study (Youm, 2013). Adult participants Adult participants were selected in two studies. Adult band members were the participants in one study (Mok, 2014); and adult instrumental learners were chosen for one study (Roulston et al., 2015). Non-specific age groups Research participants who are not classified into specific age groups were selected in the following studies: - music educators and philosophers (Cabedo-Mas & Díaz-Gómez, 2013; Cleaver & Ballantyne, 2014); - orchestral management staff members and orchestral musicians (Oakland & Ginsborg, 2014) Sampling strategies The most popular sampling strategy employed in basic qualitative research studies was purposeful sampling. Other sampling strategies included criterion sampling. Purposeful sampling Purposeful sampling was selected in six basic qualitative studies (Boon, 2014; Conway, 2012a; Conway, 2012b; Gower & McDowall, 2012; Lowe, 2012; Youm, 2013). Criterion sampling Criterion sampling was employed in four basic qualitative studies (Cabedo-Mas & Díaz-Gómez, 2013; Conway et al., 2014; Mok, 2014; Oakland & Ginsborg, 2014). Other sampling strategies Other sampling strategies selected in basic qualitative research were the following: - small-scale sampling (Cleaver & Ballantyne, 2014); - intensity sampling (Stanley, 2012); - snowball sampling (Youm, 2013). 193

222 Six basic qualitative studies (Ballantyne et al., 2012; Cleaver & Ballantyne, 2014; Gaunt et al., 2012; Johansson, 2012; Juntunen, 2014; Swain & Bodkin-Allen, 2014) discussed the selection of participants without explicitly stating the sampling strategy used Sampling size Sample sizes varied considerably, depending on whether interviews, focus group interviews or observations were used. In many cases the studies combined these data collection strategies, but below they are discussed separately to provide clarity on the numbers of participants who were typically used for each data collection strategy. In some cases the same study will therefore be mentioned under more than one heading below. In basic qualitative research, the selected sampling sizes ranged from two participants to fortyeight participants. Individual interviews The selected sampling sizes in basic qualitative research for individual interviews ranged from two participants to thirty-four participants: two participants (Cleaver & Ballantyne, 2014); three participants (Stanley, 2012); seven participants (Conway, 2012a; Conway et al., 2014); ten participants (Boon, 2014); eleven participants (Gower & McDowall, 2012); twelve participants (Conway, 2012b; Juntunen, 2014); fifteen participants (Roulston et al., 2015); twenty-two participants (Youm, 2013); twenty-five participants (Cabedo-Mas & Díaz-Gómez, 2013); thirty participants (Lee, 2013) and thirty-four participants (Gaunt et al., 2012). One study (Ballantyne et al., 2012) selected three separate sample groups of eight, eight, and nine participants in three different countries respectively, and one group of nine participants were individually interviewed. Focus group interviews In basic qualitative research the selected sampling sizes ranged from six participants to fortyeight participants for focus group interviews: six participants (Mok, 2014); seven (Conway et al., 2014; Oakland & Ginsborg, 2014); twelve (Johansson, 2012); twenty-five (Ballantyne et al., 2012); and forty-eight participants (Lowe, 2012). In the study with the sample size of six, the participants were interviewed in pairs as two musicians from each of the three bands were interviewed together, since they practised and performed together. One study (Ballantyne et al., 2012) selected three separate sample groups of eight, eight and nine participants in three different countries respectively. The largest focus group sample size with forty-eight participants was divided into one focus group for each of the eight schools, resulting in ten participants per school. 194

223 Participants journals Sixteen participants used participants reflective journals exclusively as a data collection strategy in one study (Broeske-Danielsen, 2013). Questionnaires The sampling sizes of participants who were selected to complete open-ended questionnaires were twelve participants (Oakland & Ginsborg, 2014), twenty-two participants (Youm, 2013) and forty participants (Swain & Bodkin-Allen, 2014). Data were collected mainly through individual and focus group interviews in basic qualitative research. Other data collection techniques included observations, researchers journals, participants journals and documents. Individual interviews Individual face-to-face interviews were conducted in fourteen basic qualitative studies (Boon, 2014; Cabedo-Mas & Díaz-Gómez, 2013; Cleaver & Ballantyne, 2014; Conway, 2012a; Conway, 2012b; Gaunt et al., 2012; Gower & McDowall, 2012; Juntunen, 2014; Lee, 2013; Roulston et al., 2015; Stanley, 2012; Youm, 2013). In four studies (Ballantyne et al., 2012; Conway, 2012a; Conway, 2012b; Youm, 2013) some of the individual interviews were conducted telephonically because participants were located at different institutions long distances apart. The individual interviews were mostly in-depth, open-ended and semi-structured, with transcribed audio- and video-recordings. Individual and focus group interviews Five basic qualitative studies conducted both individual and focus group interviews (Ballantyne et al., 2012; Conway et al., 2014; Johansson, 2012; Mok, 2014; Oakland & Ginsborg, 2014). The interviews were mostly in-depth, open-ended and semi-structured, with transcribed audio- and video-recordings. Focus group interviews One basic qualitative study (Lowe, 2012) conducted focus group interviews, which were semistructured and digitally recorded. Observations Observation techniques were employed in eight studies (Conway, 2012a; Conway et al., 2014; Conway, 2012b; Lee, 2013; Mok, 2014; Oakland & Ginsborg, 2014; Stanley, 2012; Youm, 2013). 195

224 In five studies the observations were video recorded (Conway, 2012b; Lee, 2013; Oakland & Ginsborg, 2014; Stanley, 2012; Youm, 2013). Researchers journals Researchers journals were used as a data collection technique in three studies (Conway et al., 2014; Conway, 2012b; Youm, 2013). Participants journals Participants journals were the data collection method for three studies (Broeske-Danielsen, 2013; Conway, 2012b; Oakland & Ginsborg, 2014). In one study (Broeske-Danielsen, 2013) the use of participant s journals was the only data collection technique employed in the study as the reflective journals covered all the empirical data. Documents Documents such as primary and secondary sources, academic sources, instrumental compositions, children s notations, lesson plans, musical sores, assignments, recordings and PowerPoint presentations were used in six studies (Cabedo-Mas & Díaz-Gómez, 2013; Conway, 2012a; Conway et al., 2014; Conway, 2012b; Lee, 2013; Youm, 2013). An interesting data collection strategy was the recording of children s notations from developing their own notation system based on their ability to read their own notations at a later stage to recall the music accurately (Lee, 2013). Other data collection techniques Other selected data collection techniques were a chamber orchestra workshop in one study (Oakland & Ginsborg, 2014); open-ended written questionnaires in three studies (Oakland & Ginsborg, 2014; Swain & Bodkin-Allen, 2014; Youm, 2013); and an open-ended survey in one study (Conway et al., 2014) in order to develop interview protocols. A specified strategy of data analysis was followed in nine basic qualitative research studies. The data analysis strategy most used in basic qualitative research was content analysis. The other strategy of data analysis selected in basic qualitative research was constant comparison analysis. Content analysis Four basic qualitative studies were based on a content analysis strategy (Ballantyne et al., 2012; Cabedo-Mas & Díaz-Gómez, 2013; Gower & McDowall, 2012; Juntunen, 2014). 196

225 Constant comparison analysis Three basic qualitative studies were guided by a constant comparison analysis (Allsup, 2012; Broeske-Danielsen, 2013; Youm, 2013). Other strategies of data analysis A narrative synthesis was selected for one study (Cleaver & Ballantyne, 2014) and in one study (Boon, 2014), the author specifically stated that the study was not ethnographic, yet an ethnographic analysis model was applied, since cultural and environmental inferences were made Coding techniques Coding techniques were followed in fifteen basic qualitative studies. The thematic coding approach was the most used coding technique employed in basic qualitative research. Other coding techniques included iterative coding and abductive coding. Some coding techniques were described in combination with other coding techniques, while others were used exclusively. Computer assisted qualitative data analysis software programs such as Nvivo and HyperRESEARCH were selected to assist in coding basic qualitative research. Thematic coding The thematic coding approach was selected in fifteen studies (Broeske-Danielsen, 2013; Cabedo- Mas & Díaz-Gómez, 2013; Conway, 2012a; Conway et al., 2014; Conway, 2012b; Gaunt et al., 2012; Gower & McDowall, 2012; Johansson, 2012; Lowe, 2012; Mok, 2014; Oakland & Ginsborg, 2014; Roulston et al., 2015; Stanley, 2012; Swain & Bodkin-Allen, 2014; Youm, 2013). Other coding techniques Iterative coding was applied in one study (Roulston et al., 2015) and the abductive coding approach was followed in two studies (Broeske-Danielsen, 2013; Johansson, 2012). Computer-assisted qualitative data analysis software The use of a qualitative data analysis software program to assist in data analysis was selected in three studies: - the Nvivo software program in two studies (Gaunt et al., 2012; Lowe, 2012); - HyperRESEARCH in one study (Johansson, 2012). Validation strategies that were explicitly discussed were identified in twelve basic qualitative research studies. Data collection triangulation was the primary validation technique for ensuring 197

226 trustworthiness in case study research. Other validation strategies included member checking, peer debriefing, intercoder agreement, prolonged engagement, analyst triangulation and source triangulation. Some validation strategies were described in combination with other validation strategies, while others were used exclusively. Data collection triangulation Data collection triangulation was used in eight studies (Conway, 2012a; Conway et al., 2014; Conway, 2012b; Gower & McDowall, 2012; Lee, 2013; Mok, 2014; Stanley, 2012; Youm, 2013). Member checking Member checking was selected in seven studies (Cabedo-Mas & Díaz-Gómez, 2013; Cleaver & Ballantyne, 2014; Conway, 2012a; Conway et al., 2014; Conway, 2012b; Juntunen, 2014; Youm, 2013). Peer debriefing Peer debriefing was applied in six studies (Conway, 2012a; Conway et al., 2014; Conway, 2012b; Stanley, 2012; Swain & Bodkin-Allen, 2014; Youm, 2013). Other validation strategies Other validation strategies selected were the applied intercoder agreement (Swain & Bodkin- Allen, 2014); prolonged engagement (Conway, 2012a); and analyst triangulation (Conway, 2012b). One study (Gower & McDowall, 2012) used data source triangulation by selecting a diverse number of participants representative of a range of different demographics. Ethical procedures were explicitly discussed in fourteen of the twenty-two basic qualitative studies. In basic qualitative research, ethical procedures included obtaining ethical approval and consent, and anonymising of qualitative data by removing or changing identifying details by using generic names. In some studies, pseudonyms were used to protect the privacy and confidentiality of participants. Some ethical procedures were employed in combination with other ethical procedures, while others were used exclusively. It is important to note that although not all basic qualitative studies discussed ethical procedures, the identities of the participants were protected to maintain anonymity in all the studies. Ethical approval and consent Seven studies followed procedures for obtaining ethical approval and consent (Broeske- Danielsen, 2013; Gower & McDowall, 2012; Juntunen, 2014; Lee, 2013; Lowe, 2012; Swain & Bodkin-Allen, 2014; Youm, 2013). 198

227 Anonymising of qualitative data Privacy protection and anonymity procedures were applied in three studies (Gaunt et al., 2012; Johansson, 2012; Juntunen, 2014). One study (Juntunen, 2014) stated explicitly that participation in the research was voluntary, participants could withdraw from the study without consequence at any time during the study, anonymity was guaranteed, and participants could comment on the results and research report before publication. Participants were provided with pseudonyms in eight studies (Cleaver & Ballantyne, 2014; Conway, 2012a; Conway et al., 2014; Conway, 2012b; Gower & McDowall, 2012; Lowe, 2012; Stanley, 2012; Youm, 2013). Phenomenology The three types of phenomenology used by music education researchers in five selected journals from 2012 to 2015 were identified as IPA, transcendental phenomenology and hermeneutic phenomenology. The fourth type, existential phenomenology, was not identified in any phenomenological study. Figure 4 9 illustrates the three types of phenomenological studies identified in the five selected journals. Hermeneutical phenomenology Interpretive phenomenological analysis PHENOMENOLOGY Existential phenomenology Transcendental phenomenology Figure 4 9: Phenomenology types identified in five selected journals. 199

228 Phenomenological research was the third most used qualitative strategy of inquiry in music education research. They were 18 phenomenological articles out of 233 qualitative studies, which is a total of 7.73% of the qualitative research done in the five selected journals. Figure 4-10 illustrates the three phenomenological types (IPA; transcendental phenomenology; hermeneutic phenomenology) and one unspecified type (generic phenomenology) identified in the five selected journals. Phenomenology (18) Hermeneutic phenomenology (1) Transcendental phenomenology (2) Generic phenomenology (4) I P A (11) Generic phenomenology (4) I P A (11) Transcendental phenomenology (2) Hermeneutic phenomenology (1) Figure 4 10: Total number of phenomenological types and combinations identified in five selected journals. In the comparative analysis ( ) it emerged that the IJME published most of the phenomenological studies with a total of seven articles. The second highest number of articles was published by the BJME, which produced four studies, both the MER and the JRME published three articles, which is the third highest number of phenomenological articles, while the BCRME 200

229 produced the least number of phenomenological research with one published article. Because the number of published qualitative research articles differs between the journals, percentages were added to place the differences in perspective (Figure 4 11). The distribution of phenomenological studies published in the five selected journals by music education researchers is shown in Table Table 4 13: The distribution of phenomenological studies in five selected journals. PHENOMENOLOGY IJME MER BJME JRME BCRME TOTAL Generic phenomenology IPA Transcendental phenomenology Hermeneutical phenomenology TOTAL The total use of phenomenology in five selected journals is illustrated in Figure Phenomenology in five selected journals % 10.71% % % 5.88% IJME MER BJME JRME BCRME Figure 4 11: The total use of phenomenology in five selected journals. 201

230 The articles analysed and identified in the five selected journals from 2012 to 2015 as phenomenological research are listed in Table Table 4 14: Phenomenology articles in five selected journals. Generic phenomenology Author Year Title Journal Conway, C, & Rawlings J Three beginning music teachers' understandings and self-perceptions of micropolitical literacy. Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education De Vries, P Intergenerational music making: a phenomenological study of three older Australians making music with children. Journal of Research in Music Education Paney, A.S. & Buonviri, N.O Teaching melodic dictation in advanced placement music theory. Journal of Research in Music Education Pellegrino, K, et al Becoming music teacher educators: learning from and with each other in a professional development community. International Journal of Music Education IPA Author Year Title Journal Bennetts, K.S Boys' music? School context and middle-school boys' musical choices Music Education Research Joseph, D Tertiary educators voices in Australia and South Africa: Experiencing and engaging in African music and culture. International Journal of Music Education Joseph, D. & Southcott, J So much more than just the music: Australian preservice music teacher education students attitudes to artists-in-schools. International Journal of Music Education Nethsinghe, R Finding balance in a mix of culture: appreciation of diversity through multicultural music education. International Journal of Music Education 202

231 IPA Author Year Title Journal Oakland, J. et al Identity in crisis: the role of work in the formation and renegotiation of a musical identity. British Journal of Music Education Perkins, R. et al Learning through teaching: exploring what conservatoire students learn from teaching beginner older adults. International Journal of Music Education Pulman, M Popular music pedagogy: band rehearsals at British universities. International Journal of Music Education Robinson, T Popular musicians and instrumental teachers: the influence of informal learning on teaching strategies. British Journal of Music Education StGeorge, J. et al Affinity for music: a study of the role of emotion in musical instrument learning. International Journal of Music Education Taylor. A Using repertory grids to explore musical skills and attitudes in a mature-age adult at the early stages of learning for self-fulfilment: a case study of James. British Journal of Music Education Teague, A. & Smith, G.D Portfolio careers and work-life balance among musicians: an initial study into implications for higher music education. British Journal of Music Education Transcendental phenomenology Author Year Title Journal Freer, P.K. & Bennett, D 2012 Developing musical and educational identities in university music students. Music Education Research Sweet, B The adolescent female changing voice: a phenomenological investigation. Journal of Research in Music Education Hermeneutical phenomenology Author Year Title Journal Reynolds, N Hermeneutics and an understanding of children's electronic musical compositions. Music Education Research 203

232 Of the 18 phenomenological studies examined in five selected journals, 13 articles were acknowledged by the authors as qualitative studies. Four studies did not differentiate between the different types of phenomenological research and were identified as generic phenomenology studies. The first generic phenomenology study was described as a heuristic phenomenological inquiry (Pellegrino et al., 2014) and published in the IJME. The second generic phenomenology study followed a phenomenological interview design (Conway & Rawlings, 2015), and was published in the BCRM. The two remaining generic phenomenology studies used a phenomenological approach (De Vries, 2012), and a phenomenological methodology (Paney & Buonviri, 2014), both of which were published in the JRME. A total of thirteen out of seventeen studies clarified the type of phenomenology research conducted in the five selected journals. Eleven studies were identified as IPA research, of which six IPA studies were published in the IJME, four IPA studies in the BJME and one IPA study in the MER. Two studies were transcendental phenomenological studies, and one transcendental phenomenology study each was published in the MER and the JRME. One study was defined as a hermeneutic phenomenological study and published in the MER. No phenomenological studies were conducted in combination with other qualitative strategies of inquiry. Although it may not be explicitly named, all research has an underlying worldview, but in phenomenological research only two studies discussed a philosophical worldview. These worldviews included interpretivism and constructivism. A constructivist approach informed one IPA study (Taylor, 2012), while interpretive hermeneutics guided the hermeneutic study (Reynolds, 2012). Five out of eighteen phenomenological studies explicitly discussed the theoretical framework within which the study was conducted. The generic phenomenological study employed the following theoretical frame: - micro political literacy (Conway & Rawlings, 2015). 204

233 The theories that guided IPA studies included the following: - the musical identity framework (Oakland et al., 2013); - Ryan and Deci s organismic integration theory in motivation, Schunk and Zimmerman s social cognitive analysis of selfregulation, Hidi and Renninger s model of the development of interest, and the affective learning taxonomy developed by Krathwohl (StGeorge et al., 2014). The following theory guided one transcendental phenomenological study: - the possible selves theory (Freer & Bennett, 2012). The hermeneutic phenomenological study employed the following theoretical frame: - Gibson s affordance theory and Ricoeur s hermeneutical theory (Reynolds, 2012). The understanding of teaching and learning strategies was the most popular topic under study in phenomenology, while the remaining studies focused mainly on multi-cultural music education, and teacher and learner role identities Teaching and learning strategies Seven studies were focused on teaching and learning strategies. The following five IPA studies examined the experiences of teaching and learning strategies, with specific reference to: - transformative learning (Perkins et al., 2015); - informal group teaching and learning strategies (Pulman, 2014; Robinson, 2012); - the role of emotion in instrumental music teaching (StGeorge et al., 2014); - adult instrumental learning (Taylor, 2012). One generic phenomenology study focused on: - melodic dictation pedagogy (Paney & Buonviri, 2014). The emphasis in the hermeneutic phenomenological study was on: - class music electronic compositions and compositional approaches (Reynolds, 2012). 205

234 Multi-cultural education Three IPA studies focused on multi-cultural education, considering: - the lived experiences of students and lecturers engaging in multi-cultural education (Joseph, 2015; Joseph & Southcott, 2013); - the understandings of cultural diversity in multi-cultural music education (Nethsinghe, 2012) Teacher and learner role identities The following four studies focused on teacher and learner role identities with the emphasis on: - gendered musical roles and experiences in an IPA study (Bennetts, 2013); - opera singer identity in one IPA study (Oakland et al., 2013); - multiple identities of professional musicians in another IPA study (Teague & Smith, 2015); - the examining of undergraduate and postgraduate musician and teacher identity construction in an transcendental phenomenological study (Freer & Bennett, 2012) Other fields of interests Three generic phenomenology studies examined the following: - beginning music teachers understandings and self-perceptions (Conway & Rawlings, 2015); - intergenerational musical interaction (De Vries, 2012); - the online community of professional music educators (Pellegrino et al., 2014). The remaining transcendental phenomenological study focused on: - female adolescent voice changes (Sweet, 2015). The action verb indicates the research purpose, and the focus and expected outcomes of the studies. All the phenomenological studies indicated a research purpose, with explore being the most popular verb to indicate a research purpose. Other verbs included: examine and investigate. In some phenomenological studies, more than one research purpose verb per study was selected to indicate the research purpose, while others employed only one verb. Explore The verb explore was selected in nine studies to indicate the research purpose: - seven IPA studies (Joseph & Southcott, 2013; Nethsinghe, 2012; Oakland et al., 2013; Pulman, 2014; Robinson, 2012; Taylor, 2012; Teague & Smith, 2015); 206

235 - one generic phenomenology study (De Vries, 2012); - one transcendental phenomenology study (Freer & Bennett, 2012). Examine Four studies used examine as the verb to indicate the research purpose: - three generic phenomenology studies (Conway & Rawlings, 2015; Paney & Buonviri, 2014; Pellegrino et al., 2014); - one IPA study (StGeorge et al., 2014). Investigate The verb investigate to indicate the research purpose was used in four studies: - one IPA study (Bennetts, 2013); - one generic phenomenology study (Paney & Buonviri, 2014); - one hermeneutic phenomenology study (Reynolds, 2012); - one transcendental phenomenology study (Sweet, 2015). Other research purpose verbs to indicate the research purpose were: Two IPA studies (Bennetts, 2013; StGeorge et al., 2014) selected identify, and one IPA study each used argue (Joseph, 2015), discover (Joseph & Southcott, 2013) and understand (Perkins et al., 2015) as the selected research purpose verb Research question Only seven of eighteen phenomenological studies were guided and informed by an explicitly stated research question. The research studies of three generic phenomenology studies, one IPA study and both transcendental phenomenological studies were informed by a research question. The research questions were: Generic phenomenology - How do beginning music teachers describe their music teaching in relation to the political and contextual environment of their school(s)? How do beginning music teachers describe the strategies they used to navigate the political and contextual environment? (Conway & Rawlings, 2015:29). - What is the value of the Professional Development Community? How, if at all, does participation within this Professional Development Community contribute to participants personal and /or professional growth? (Pellegrino et al., 2014:464). 207

236 - What strategies do Advanced Placement teachers offer to help students with melodic dictation? What are similarities and differences among strategies reported by participants? (Paney & Buonviri, 2014:398). IPA - How do boys in contrasting learning environments view participation in their schools musical activities? Are some school contexts more conducive than others in promoting a breadth of musical participation by boys? If so, what are the specific factors that serve to challenge the gendered choices of many boys, and promote greater latitude in musical involvement? (Bennetts, 2013:215). - Why is it important to teach multicultural music like that of Africa? What are some of the effective ways of preparing our students in our music education courses (primary and or secondary) to best teach it? (Joseph, 2015:294). Transcendental phenomenology - How do preservice and early career music teachers describe their identities as musicians and as educators? (Freer & Bennett, 2012:266). - How do adolescent female choir students experience voice change? What is the essence of the experience of voice change for middle school and high school females in choir? (Sweet, 2015:70). It is interesting to note that although most of the phenomenological research in the five selected journals focused on the meaning and essence of the lived experiences of the teachers and students, only one research question employs the words essence and experience as part of the research question, while the other research questions implicated the lived experience around the specific phenomenon without clarifying the specific experience or the phenomenon. Participants in higher education, specifically undergraduate students, were the most popular researched group in phenomenological research. Other participant groups included: adult and elderly participants, secondary school, elementary and secondary school, and elementary school. Higher education Participants in higher education were the selected participant group in six studies. - Undergraduate students Higher education undergraduate students were selected in two IPA studies (Joseph & Southcott, 2013; Perkins et al., 2015). 208

237 - Higher education lecturers and students Higher education lecturers and students were chosen as participants in one IPA study (Pulman, 2014). - Higher education lecturers Higher education lecturers were the participants in two IPA studies (Joseph, 2015; Teague & Smith, 2015). - Undergraduate and postgraduate students Undergraduate and postgraduate students were the focus in one transcendental phenomenology study (Freer & Bennett, 2012). Adult and elderly musicians Adult and elderly participants were selected in three studies. Adult redundant opera singers were the participants in one IPA study (Oakland et al., 2013). An older adult instrumental beginner was selected in one IPA study (Taylor, 2012) as research participant, while elderly musicians were the participant group in one generic phenomenology study (De Vries, 2012). Secondary school Secondary school participants were the selected participant group in two studies. - Secondary school teachers Secondary school teachers were selected in one generic phenomenology study (Paney & Buonviri, 2014). - Secondary school learners Secondary school learners were the participants in one IPA study (Bennetts, 2013). Elementary and secondary school Elementary and secondary school participants were selected in two studies. - Elementary and secondary school teachers Beginning music teachers were the participant group in two generic phenomenology studies (Conway & Rawlings, 2015; Pellegrino et al., 2014). Elementary school Elementary school participants were the selected participant group in one study. 209

238 - Elementary school learners Elementary school music learners were chosen as participants in the hermeneutic phenomenology study (Reynolds, 2012). Non-specific age groups Research participants who are not classified into specific age groups were selected in the following four studies: - adolescent multicultural music students in an IPA study (Nethsinghe, 2012); - adolescent female voice students were selected for the other transcendental study (Sweet, 2015); - instrumental learners of ages ranging from 10 to 75 years in one IPA study (StGeorge et al., 2014); - informal instrumental teachers in one IPA study (Robinson, 2012) Sampling strategies The most popular sampling strategy employed in phenomenological research was criterion sampling. Other sampling strategies included: convenience sampling and combined sampling strategies. Criterion sampling Criterion sampling was selected in four studies: - two generic phenomenology studies (Conway & Rawlings, 2015; Pellegrino et al., 2014); - one IPA study (Oakland et al., 2013); - one transcendental phenomenological study (Sweet, 2015). Convenience sampling One IPA study (Teague & Smith, 2015) selected convenience sampling. Combined sampling strategies A combination of purposive and snowball sampling was employed by one generic phenomenology study (De Vries, 2012). Other sampling strategies Five IPA studies (Bennetts, 2013; Joseph & Southcott, 2013; Nethsinghe, 2012; Perkins et al., 2015; Robinson, 2012); one generic phenomenology study (Paney & Buonviri, 2014) and one transcendental phenomenology study (Freer & Bennett, 2012) discussed the selection of participants without stating the sampling strategy used. 210

239 Sampling size Sample sizes varied considerably, depending on whether interviews, focus group interviews or observations were used. In many cases the studies combined these data collection strategies, but below they are discussed separately to provide clarity on the numbers of participants that are typically used for each data collection strategy. In some cases the same study will therefore be mentioned under more than one heading below. In phenomenology, the selected sampling sizes ranged from two participants to seventy-two participants. Individual interviews The selected sampling sizes in phenomenology for individual interviews ranged from one participant to sixty-six participants, and included the following: - Generic phenomenology studies: three participants (Conway & Rawlings, 2015; De Vries, 2012); five participants (Pellegrino et al., 2014); and twelve participants (Paney & Buonviri, 2014). In one of the generic phenomenology studies (Conway & Rawlings, 2015), an additional participant was interviewed as a secondary source; - IPA studies: one participant (Taylor, 2012); three participants (Joseph, 2015); four participants (Perkins et al., 2015); five participants (Teague & Smith, 2015); six participants (Oakland et al., 2013); eight participants (Robinson, 2012); ten participants (Pulman, 2014); fifty-three participants (Joseph & Southcott, 2013); and sixty-six participants (StGeorge et al., 2014). It is interesting to note that two of the IPA studies had very high sample sizes, namely fifty-three participants (Joseph & Southcott, 2013) and sixty-six participants (StGeorge et al., 2014). The rationale for the inclusion of fifty-three participants was that the study was a longitudinal project, which collected interview data over a period of five years, and the sampling selection of sixty-six participants was designed to reflect a variety of participants ages, experiences and periods of musical involvement to provide a cross-generational perspective; - Transcendental phenomenology study: fourteen participants (Sweet, 2015). Focus group interviews In phenomenology, the selected sampling sizes for focus group interviews ranged from three to sixteen participants, and included the following: - Generic phenomenology studies: three participants (De Vries, 2012); three (Conway & Rawlings, 2015; Pellegrino et al., 2014) and twelve participants (Paney & Buonviri, 2014); - IPA studies: the sample selection for the IPA focus groups differed in size and in conduct, as the study with ten participants (Nethsinghe, 2012) was completed in groups of two, 211

240 whereas the other focus group interviews were conducted with the entire group of twelve (Bennetts, 2013) and sixteen (Pulman, 2014); - Transcendental phenomenology study: fourteen participants (Sweet, 2015). Observations The selected sampling sizes in phenomenology for observations ranged from one participant to seven participants, and included the following: - Generic phenomenology study: three participants (Conway & Rawlings, 2015); - IPA study: one participant (Taylor, 2012) and seven participants (Robinson, 2012). The reason for selecting only seven participants for observations in the IPA study (Robinson, 2012), was because one of the eight selected participants was reluctant to be observed; - Hermeneutical phenomenology study: seven participants (Reynolds, 2012). Questionnaires and surveys Three participants were selected for an survey in one generic phenomenology study (Conway & Rawlings, 2015); and questionnaires were sent to four participants in one IPA study (Perkins et al., 2015). The other transcendental study (Freer & Bennett, 2012) selected seventytwo participants, completed by the participants in three different stages during the research project. Data are collected mainly through individual interviews in phenomenological research. Other data collection techniques include focus group interviews, observations, researchers journals, participants journals, documents, and open-ended questionnaires and surveys. Individual interviews Individual face-to-face interviews were conducted in thirteen phenomenology studies, and one study conducted online interviews via Skype. The individual interviews were conducted in the following studies: - Three generic phenomenology studies (Conway & Rawlings, 2015; De Vries, 2012; Paney & Buonviri, 2014). Two of the studies (De Vries, 2012; Paney & Buonviri, 2014) described the interviews as open-ended and in-depth, and were recorded and transcribed. One study (Pellegrino et al., 2014) conducted online interviews via Skype as the participants were part of an online community; - Nine IPA studies (Joseph, 2015; Joseph & Southcott, 2013; Oakland et al., 2013; Perkins et al., 2015; Pulman, 2014; Robinson, 2012; StGeorge et al., 2014; Taylor, 2012; Teague & Smith, 2015). The individual interviews were semi-structured to allow participants to 212

241 reflect on their views of their experiences in-depth, and to explore emergent issues as they arose during the interviews. One IPA study (Taylor, 2012) used a repertory grid as a tool for semi-structured interviewing; this is an assessment table recording meaning in words and numbers. This repertory grid was used during interviews to assess experiences in order to understand their meaning. Five of these interviews were video-recorded and transcribed (Joseph, 2015; Joseph & Southcott, 2013; Perkins et al., 2015; Taylor, 2012; Teague & Smith, 2015); - In one transcendental study the individual face-to-face interviews (Sweet, 2015) were follow-up questions to previous written responses, which were unstructured and openended. Additional focus group interviews Two phenomenology studies selected additional focus group interviews to the face-to-face individual interviews, which were semi-structured, video-recorded, and transcribed. These studies included the following: - One generic phenomenology study (Conway & Rawlings, 2015) selected an additional focus group interview with all the participants to gather more information since the participants build their narratives from each other s descriptions; - One IPA study (Pulman, 2014) also employed an additional focus group interview to the individual interviews because the students practised together as a group, and therefore their participation was considered an intrinsically cooperative experience which meant that a group interview was an appropriate data collection strategy. Focus group interviews Two IPA studies (Bennetts, 2013; Nethsinghe, 2012) selected only focus group interviews. One IPA study (Nethsinghe, 2012) selected participants in pairs since the participants were unfamiliar with the interviewer, who was an unknown colleague of the researcher. This was done to encourage trust during the interview, and to ensure validity and trustworthiness. The other IPA study (Bennetts, 2013) conducted focus group interviews as the gendered musical roles were discussed within the context of each other s shared experiences in similar situations. Observations Observation techniques were employed in four phenomenology studies, of which one IPA study (Taylor, 2015) and the hermeneutic phenomenology study (Reynolds, 2012) were video recorded and transcribed. Observation techniques were employed in the following studies: - one generic phenomenology study (Conway & Rawlings, 2015); 213

242 - two IPA studies (Robinson, 2012; Taylor, 2012); - one hermeneutic phenomenology study (Reynolds, 2012). Researchers journals Researchers journals were used as a data collection technique in four phenomenology studies: - three generic phenomenology studies (Conway & Rawlings, 2015; De Vries, 2012; Pellegrino et al., 2014); - one IPA study (Oakland et al., 2013). Participants journals Participants journals were used in three phenomenology studies as a data collection technique in: - one generic phenomenology study (Pellegrino et al., 2014); - two IPA studies (Perkins et al., 2015; Taylor, 2012). In one IPA study (Perkins et al., 2015), the participants were provided with a portable voice recorder to keep an oral diary during the research period guided by the research questions. Documents Documents such as primary and secondary sources, academic sources and instrumental compositions, as well as computer-mediated communication channels such as Skype and a private Facebook blog were collected in two generic phenomenology studies (De Vries, 2012; Pellegrino et al., 2014). Electronic musical compositions were used as a data collection technique for the hermeneutic phenomenological study (Reynolds, 2012). The participatory visual research method in the form of students drawings was utilised to analyse the development of teacher self-identity in one transcendental phenomenological study (Freer & Bennett, 2012). It is interesting to note that research methodologies were reapplied in an electronic environment as the computer was used both as a data collection and a data analysis tool since the data were reinterpreted through the same technologies that were used to create it. Open-ended questionnaires and surveys Open-ended, in-depth written questionnaires were selected to gain information on teaching experiences before and after the research project in one IPA study (Perkins et al., 2015). Open-ended surveys were used in the following two phenomenology studies: - one generic phenomenology study (Conway & Rawlings, 2015) conducted surveys in the form of s to collect demographic information; 214

243 - a transcendental phenomenological study (Freer & Bennett, 2012), designed surveys around the research question as a multi-modal technique to collect both textual and nontextual data which added understanding and insight to the study. Three surveys were conducted at three different stages during the study, with the focus on three different aspects of the research, and only the results of the three completed surveys were included in the analysis. A strategy of data analysis was followed in eleven phenomenology studies. The data analysis strategy most used in phenomenology was the IPA approach. The other selected strategy of data analysis was the grounded theory approach. IPA strategy An IPA analysis strategy was selected in ten IPA studies (Bennetts, 2013; Joseph, 2015; Joseph & Southcott, 2013; Nethsinghe, 2012; Oakland et al., 2013; Perkins et al., 2015; Pulman, 2014; Robinson, 2012; StGeorge et al., 2014; Taylor, 2012). It is important to note that three (Joseph, 2015; Oakland et al., 2013; Perkins et al., 2015) of the ten IPA studies that followed an IPA analysis approach, discussed each IPA step separately, while the remaining seven IPA studies only referred to employing an IPA analysis strategy without discussing the steps separately. Grounded theory The grounded theory approach was employed as a data analysis strategy in one IPA study (Teague & Smith, 2015) Coding techniques Coding techniques were followed in sixteen phenomenology studies. The thematic coding approach was the most used coding technique employed in phenomenology. Other coding techniques included iterative coding. Some coding techniques were described in combination with other coding techniques, while others were used exclusively. Computer assisted qualitative data analysis software programs such as Nvivo, Weft QDA, Dedoose and HyperRESEARCH were selected to assist in coding phenomenology studies. Thematic coding Thematic coding was selected in the following fifteen phenomenology studies: - ten IPA studies (Bennetts, 2013; Joseph, 2015; Joseph & Southcott, 2013; Oakland et al., 2013; Perkins et al., 2015; Pulman, 2014; Robinson, 2012; StGeorge et al., 2014; Taylor, 2012; Teague & Smith, 2015); 215

244 - three generic phenomenology studies (Conway & Rawlings, 2015; De Vries, 2012; Paney & Buonviri, 2014); - two transcendental studies (Freer & Bennett, 2012; Sweet, 2015). Iterative coding Iterative coding was applied in two IPA studies (Oakland et al., 2013; Teague & Smith, 2015) and the hermeneutic study (Reynolds, 2012). Computer assisted qualitative data analysis software Only four phenomenology studies discussed the use of a qualitative data analysis software program to assist in data analysis: - the Nvivo software program in one IPA study (StGeorge et al., 2014); - Weft QDA in one IPA study (Pulman, 2014); - Dedoose in one generic phenomenology study (Pellegrino et al., 2014); - HyperRESEARCH in one transcendental study (Freer & Bennett, 2012). Validation strategies that were explicitly discussed were identified in nine phenomenology studies. Member checking was the primary validation technique for ensuring trustworthiness in phenomenology. Other validation strategies included peer debriefing, analyst triangulation, data collection triangulation, prolonged engagement, reflexive triangulation and intercoder reliability. Some validation strategies were described in combination with other validation strategies, while others were used exclusively. Validation strategies that were explicitly mentioned were identified in eleven phenomenological studies. The primary validation technique for establishing trustworthiness in phenomenological research was member checking. Member checking Member checking was employed in the following seven studies: - four generic phenomenology studies (Conway & Rawlings, 2015; De Vries, 2012; Paney & Buonviri, 2014; Pellegrino et al., 2014); - two IPA studies (Joseph & Southcott, 2013; Taylor, 2012); - the transcendental phenomenological study (Sweet, 2015). Peer debriefing Peer debriefing was selected in five studies: - three IPA studies (Nethsinghe, 2012; Perkins et al., 2015; Taylor, 2012); 216

245 - two generic phenomenology studies (Paney & Buonviri, 2014; Pellegrino et al., 2014) used peer debriefing techniques. Analyst triangulation and data collection triangulation Analyst triangulation and data collection triangulation were used in two generic phenomenology studies (Conway & Rawlings, 2015; Pellegrino et al., 2014). Other validation strategies Other selected validation strategies included the following: - prolonged engagement in one generic phenomenology study (De Vries, 2012); - reflexive triangulation in the form of an audience review in one generic phenomenology study (Pellegrino et al., 2014). The audience confirmed at two separate occasions, a national conference and a doctoral seminar, that their experiences and stories were reflected in the research done; - cross-generational verification as perspectives from different participant age groups contributed to the validity of the study in one IPA study (StGeorge et al., 2014); - intercoder reliability in one transcendental phenomenological study (Freer & Bennett, 2012). Ethical procedures were explicitly discussed in fifteen of the eighteen phenomenology studies. In phenomenological studies, ethical procedures included ethical approval and consent, and anonymising of qualitative data by removing or changing identifying details by using generic names. In some studies, pseudonyms were used to protect the privacy and confidentiality of participants. Some ethical procedures were employed in combination with other ethical procedures, while others were used exclusively. It is important to note that although not all phenomenology studies discussed ethical procedures, the identities of the participants were protected to maintain anonymity in all the studies. Ethical approval and consent Procedures for ethical approval and consent was followed in fifteen studies: - nine IPA studies (Bennetts, 2013; Joseph, 2015; Joseph & Southcott, 2013; Nethsinghe, 2012; Perkins et al., 2015; Pulman, 2014; StGeorge et al., 2014; Taylor, 2012; Teague & Smith, 2015); - four generic phenomenology studies (Conway & Rawlings, 2015; De Vries, 2012; Paney & Buonviri, 2014; Pellegrino et al., 2014); 217

246 - one transcendental study (Sweet, 2015); - one hermeneutic phenomenological study (Reynolds, 2012). Anonymising of qualitative data In one IPA study (Teague & Smith, 2015) some of the participants requested to be identified with their real names, while others wished to be given generic names to maintain their anonymity. Permission was granted by the participants of one transcendental study (Sweet, 2015) to publish the original names as they requested that their real names be used. Privacy protection and anonymity procedures were applied in six studies: - four IPA studies, (Perkins et al., 2015; Pulman, 2014; Taylor, 2012; Teague & Smith, 2015); - one generic phenomenology studies (Paney & Buonviri, 2014); - the hermeneutic phenomenological study (Reynolds, 2012). Pseudonyms were used in six studies: - three generic phenomenology studies (Conway & Rawlings, 2015; De Vries, 2012; Pellegrino et al., 2014); - two IPA study (Bennetts, 2013; StGeorge et al., 2014); - one transcendental study (Sweet, 2015). Ethnography The three types of ethnography used by music education researchers in the five selected journals from 2012 to 2015 were identified as critical ethnography, auto-ethnography and virtual ethnography. The third and fourth types, realist ethnography and ethnomethodology, were not identified in any ethnographical study. Figure 4 12 illustrates the three types of ethnography identified in the five selected journals. 218

247 Realist ethnography Virtual ethnography Autoethnography ETHNOGRAPHY Critical ethnography Ethnomethodology Figure 4 12: Ethnographic types identified in five selected journals. Ethnography was the fourth most used qualitative strategy of inquiry in music education research. They were 13 ethnographic articles out of 233 qualitative studies which is a total of 6.01% of the qualitative research done in the five selected journals. Figure 4-13 illustrates the three ethnographic types (critical ethnography; auto-ethnography; virtual ethnography), one unspecified type (generic ethnography) and one combined ethnographic type (auto-ethnography, reflective action research with narrative inquiry) identified in the five selected journals. 219

248 Ethnography (14) Combined autoethnography (1) Critical ethnography (1) Virtual ethnography (1) Generic ethnography (6) Autoethnography (5) Generic ethnography (6) Auto-ethnography (5) Virtual ethnography (1) Critical ethnography (1) Auto-ethnography, reflective action research, narrative inquiry (1) Figure 4 13: Total number of ethnographic types and combinations identified in five selected journals. In the comparative analysis ( ) it emerged that the IJME published most of the ethnographic studies with a total of five articles. The second highest number of articles was published by the BJME with four articles, the MER published the third highest number with three articles, and the JRME and BCRME both produced the least amount of ethnographic research 220

249 with one published article each. Because the number of published qualitative research articles differs between the journals, percentages were added to place the differences in perspective (Figure 4 14). The distribution of ethnographic studies published in the selected five journals by music education researchers is shown in Table Table 4 15: The distribution of ethnography in five selected journals. ETHNOGRAPHY IJME MER BJME JRME BCRME TOTAL Generic ethnography Auto-ethnography Virtual ethnography Critical ethnography Auto-ethnography, reflective action research with narrative inquiry TOTAL The total use of ethnography in five selected journals is illustrated in Figure Ethnography in five selected journals % 6.90% % % 5.88% IJME MER BJME JRME BCRME Figure 4 14: The total use of ethnography in five selected journals. 221

250 The articles analysed and identified in the five selected journals from 2012 to 2015 as ethnographic research are listed in Table Table 4 16: Ethnography articles in five selected journals. Generic ethnography Author Year Title Journal Bartolome, S.J It s like a whole bunch of me! : The perceived values and benefits of the Seattle girls choir experience. Journal of Research in Music Education Ehrlin, A Swedish preschool leadership supportive of music or not? British Journal of Music Education Karlsen, S Multiple repertoires of ways of being and acting in music: Immigrant students' musical agency as an impetus for democracy. Music Education Research Karlsen, S Exploring democracy: Nordic music teachers approaches to the development of immigrant students musical agency. International Journal of Music Education Söderman, J The formation of Hip-Hop Academicus how American scholars talk about the academisation of hip-hop. British Journal of Music Education Stowell, D. & Dixon, S Integration of informal music technologies in secondary school music lessons. British Journal of Music Education Auto-ethnography Author Year Title Journal Dhokai, N Pedagogical ideas on sonic, mediated, and virtual musical landscapes: Teaching hip hop in a university classroom. International Journal of Music Education Gouzouasis, P. & Ryu, J.Y A pedagogical tale from the piano studio: Autoethnography in early childhood music education research. Music Education Research 222

251 Auto-ethnography Author Year Title Journal McIntosh, J Seeing the bigger picture : Experiential learning, applied ethnomusicology and the use of gamelan music in adult literacy education. International Journal of Music Education Taylor, D.M Learning to sing again: a gay widower s journey. Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education Thompson, J.D Towards cultural responsiveness in music instruction with black detained youth: An analytic autoethnography. Music Education Research Virtual ethnography Author Year Title Journal Waldron, J. 2013b YouTube, fanvids, forums, vlogs and blogs: Informal music learning in a convergent on- and offline music community International Journal of Music Education Critical ethnography Author Year Title Journal Silverman, M. 2013c A critical ethnography of democratic music listening. British Journal of Music Education Auto-ethnography, reflective action research, narrative inquiry Author Year Title Journal Harrison, S.D Letting go : An auto-ethnography of higher degree supervision in music. International Journal of Music Education Of the thirteen ethnographic studies examined in five selected journals, nine articles were acknowledged by the authors as qualitative studies. Six studies did not differentiate between the different types of ethnographic research and were identified as generic ethnography studies. The researchers described their generic ethnography studies as ethnographic studies, published in 223

252 the JRME (Bartolome, 2013) and BJME (Ehrlin, 2015; Stowell & Dixon, 2014). The other generic ethnography studies were described as a multi-sited ethnographic study, published in the MER (Karlsen, 2012) and the IJME (Karlsen, 2014), and a methodology following an ethnographic tradition (Söderman, 2013). A total of six out of thirteen studies clarified the type of ethnographic research conducted in the five selected journals. Five studies were identified as auto-ethnography, of which two autoethnography studies each were published in the IJME and the MER, and one auto-ethnography study in the BCRME. One study was defined as virtual ethnography and published in the IJME, while another study, identified as critical ethnography, was published in the BRME. One ethnographic study was conducted in combination with other qualitative strategies of inquiry. It was an auto-ethnographic study, in combination with reflective action research and narrative inquiry, and published in the IJME. All research has an underlying worldview, even if it is not always explicitly revealed, but in ethnographic research, only two studies discussed a philosophical worldview, namely interpretivism. Interpretive auto-ethnographic storytelling informed one auto-ethnographic study (Gouzouasis & Ryu, 2015), and a holistic interpretive lens guided the virtual ethnography (Waldron, 2013b). Only six of thirteen ethnographic studies explicitly discussed the theoretical framework within which the study was based on. The generic ethnography studies employed the following theoretical frames: - community of practice (Ehrlin, 2015); - reflexive negotiations of musical identity and agency (Karlsen, 2012, 2014); - Pierre Bourdieu s field theory of social, cultural and institutional hierarchies (Söderman, 2013); - music information retrieval (Stowell & Dixon, 2014). The following theory guided one auto-ethnographic study: - culturally responsive teaching (Thompson, 2015). 224

253 Exploring of the identity of communities in music education was the most popular topic under investigation in ethnography, while the rest of the studies focused mainly on multi-cultural teaching and learning in music education, and early childhood education The identity of communities in music education The following five studies examined the identity of communities in music education, considering: - choral participation in a generic ethnography study (Bartolome, 2013); - older adult group music in one auto-ethnography study (McIntosh, 2013); - joining a musical community to facilitate personal healing in a auto-ethnography study (Taylor, 2014); - music instruction in correctional settings in another auto-ethnography study (Thompson, 2015); - informal music learning and online communities in the virtual ethnography study (Waldron, 2013b) Multi-cultural education Four ethnography studies focused on multi-cultural education, with specific reference to: - the conceptions and development of immigrant students musical identity and agency in two generic ethnography studies (Karlsen, 2012, 2014); - combined sonic and virtual landscapes to understand musical genres and cultures in one auto-ethnographic study (Dhokai, 2012); - transformative listening in a democratic classroom in one critical ethnography study (Silverman, 2013c) Early childhood education The following two studies examined early childhood education, with the emphasis on: - the influence of preschool leadership in one generic ethnography study (Ehrlin, 2015); - early childhood piano pedagogy in an auto-ethnography study (Gouzouasis & Ryu, 2015) Other fields of interest The remaining two generic studies examined the following: - the academisation of the hip-hop genre (Söderman, 2013); - multi-modal learning (Stowell & Dixon, 2014). 225

254 The combined auto-ethnography, reflective action research and narrative inquiry focused on: - postpostgraduate research supervision (Harrison, 2012). The action verb indicates the research purpose, and the focus and expected results of the studies. All the ethnography studies stated a research purpose, with explore and investigate identified as the two most popular verbs to indicate the research purpose. In some ethnography studies, more than one research purpose verb per study was selected, while others used only one research purpose verb. Explore The research purpose verb explore was selected in four studies, namely three generic ethnography studies (Bartolome, 2013; Karlsen, 2012, 2014) and the combined autoethnographic, reflective action research and narrative inquiry (Harrison, 2012). Investigate The following four studies selected investigate as the research purpose verb: three generic ethnography studies (Ehrlin, 2015; Söderman, 2013; Stowell & Dixon, 2014) and the critical ethnographic study (Silverman, 2013c). Examine Two studies used examine as the research purpose verb: one auto-ethnography study (Dhokai, 2012) and the virtual ethnography study (Waldron, 2013b). Other research purpose verbs Other research purpose verbs selected were develop (Gouzouasis & Ryu, 2015); focus (McIntosh, 2013); highlight (Thompson, 2015); and report (Taylor, 2014) for each of the four remaining auto-ethnography studies. The research purpose verbs explain and illustrate were selected by the critical ethnography study (Silverman, 2013c) Research question Six ethnographic studies were guided by a research question. Four generic ethnographic studies and two auto-ethnographic studies were informed by a research question. 226

255 The following research questions were asked: Generic ethnography - What do various participants consider to be the values and benefits of their participation in the SGC community? How do the values of the organization manifest themselves in action during rehearsals, performances, classes, meetings, and other SGC events? (Bartolome, 2013:398). - In what respect has the strong influence of principals personal interests been problematic at the three preschools studied? In what respects do the principals interest and involvement in music have a supportive or restrictive effect at the two music preschools in focus? (Ehrlin, 2015:164). - Research question related to how hip-hop scholars talk about hip-hop academisation (Söderman, 2013:369). - What music-related concepts do teachers and students negotiate in music classes? How do they achieve this with, and without, technology? (Stowell & Dixon, 2014:20). Auto-ethnography - Are incarcerated youths able to create music that addresses social inequalities? (Thompson, 2015:431). - In what ways did joining a gay men s chorus facilitate my grieving process? How did singing with a gay men s chorus affect my sense of identity (Taylor, 2014:79). It is interesting to note that congruent with most of the ethnographic research in the five selected journals focused on the identity, practices and approaches of communities within music education, each research question was directly related to a specific group of people and the meaning their views and activities contributed to music education. The groups were principals, teachers and students in the music classroom, choir members as part of a choir, scholars and the academisation of hip-hop at a higher music institution, as well as a culturally responsive music teacher at a detention centre. Participants in secondary school, specifically secondary school learners, were the most popular group selected for research in ethnographical studies. Other participant groups included: early childhood participants, adult participants and higher education participants. In some ethnography studies, more than one participant group per study was selected, while others focused only on one participant group. 227

256 Secondary school Secondary school participants were the selected participant group in four studies. - Secondary school learners Secondary school learners were selected in three generic ethnography studies (Karlsen, 2012, 2014; Stowell & Dixon, 2014) and one critical ethnography study (Silverman, 2013c). - Secondary school teachers Secondary school teachers were the participant group in three generic ethnography studies (Karlsen, 2012, 2014; Stowell & Dixon, 2014). Early childhood Early childhood participants were selected in two studies. Early childhood teachers were chosen as participants in one generic ethnography study (Ehrlin, 2015) and one auto-ethnography study (Gouzouasis & Ryu, 2015). Adult participants Adult participants were the selected participant group in two studies. Adult instrumental learners were chosen as participants in one auto-ethnography study (McIntosh, 2013), and the adult author is the sole participant in one auto-ethnography study (Taylor, 2014). Higher education Participants in higher education were selected in one study. Higher education post-graduate students were the selected participation group for one combined auto-ethnography, reflective action research and narrative inquiry (Harrison, 2012). Non-specific age groups Research participants who are not classified into specific age groups were selected in the following studies: - youth choir members, choir conductors, parents of choir members and choir board members in one generic ethnography study (Bartolome, 2013); - hip-hop scholars and intellectuals in one generic ethnography study (Söderman, 2013); - the informal music online community in one auto-ethnography study (Dhokai, 2012) and one virtual ethnography study (Waldron, 2013b); 228

257 - adolescent musicians in a juvenile detention centre in one auto-ethnography study (Thompson, 2015) Sampling strategies The most popular sampling strategy employed in ethnographic research was criterion sampling. Criterion sampling was selected for two generic ethnography studies (Karlsen, 2012, 2014), and one of these studies (Karlsen, 2014) used reputational case selection where the participants were chosen because they were considered experts in certain fields, combined with a maximum variation sampling technique. The virtual ethnography study (Waldron, 2013b) and two auto-ethnography studies (McIntosh, 2013; Thompson, 2015) discussed the selection of participants without stating the sampling strategy used Sampling size Sample sizes varied considerably, depending on whether interviews, focus group interviews or observations were used. In many cases the studies combined these data collection strategies, but below they are discussed separately to provide clarity on the numbers of participants that are typically used for each data collection strategy. In some cases the same study will therefore be mentioned under more than one heading below. In ethnography, the selected sampling sizes ranged from one participant to fifty-five participants. It is interesting to note that the sample sizes in the ethnographic studies in the five selected journals are relatively large because of different culture-sharing groups in music education being investigated. Individual interviews The selected sampling sizes in ethnography for individual interviews ranged from one participant to forty-two participants, and included the following: - Generic ethnography studies: three participants (Ehrlin, 2015; Karlsen, 2014); eight participants (Söderman, 2013), and thirty participants (Karlsen, 2012). In one generic ethnography study (Bartolome, 2013), three participant groups of twenty-four, twenty-five and forty-two were selected for individual interviews; - Auto-ethnography study: one participant (Gouzouasis & Ryu, 2015); - Virtual ethnography study: nine of the twenty-six participants were interviewed individually (Waldron, 2013b). 229

258 Focus group interviews In generic ethnography studies, the selected sampling sizes for focus group interviews ranged from twelve participants to thirty participants. In the study (Bartolome, 2013) with the sample size of twelve participants, the participants preferred to be interviewed in groups of two to four. The other generic ethnography study (Karlsen, 2012) conducted nineteen interviews with thirty participants who were divided into groups of two to three. In another generic ethnography study (Karlsen, 2014) thirty participants were selected. Observations The selected sampling sizes for observation in ethnography studies ranged from one participant to fifty-five participants, and included the following: - Generic ethnography studies: three participants (Ehrlin, 2015), and an unspecified sample size for a focus group (Karlsen, 2012; Stowell & Dixon, 2014); - Auto-ethnography studies: one participant (Taylor, 2014), two participants (McIntosh, 2013; Thompson, 2015); - Critical ethnographic study: fifty-five participants (Silverman, 2013c); - Virtual ethnography study: twenty-six participants (Waldron, 2013b); - Combined auto-ethnographic, reflective action research and narrative inquiry: four participants (Harrison, 2012). Documents One auto-ethnography study (Dhokai, 2012) selected an unspecified number of academic sources. Questionnaires and surveys The selected sampling sizes in ethnography studies for questionnaires and surveys varied from seventeen to twenty participants: - Generic ethnography study: twenty participants were selected for the hard copy and survey (Bartolome, 2013); - Virtual ethnography study: seventeen of the twenty-six participants completed openended questionnaires (Waldron, 2013b). Interviews and observations of participants in their natural environment were the main data collection techniques in ethnographic research. Other data collection techniques included focus group interviews, informal discussions, observations, researchers journals, participants journals, documents, and open-ended questionnaires and surveys. 230

259 Individual interviews In six ethnography studies individual face-to-face interviews were conducted, and one study conducted Skype-to-Skype and Skype-to-telephone interviews. The interviews were mostly semistructured, recorded and transcribed. The individual interviews were conducted in: - five generic ethnography studies (Bartolome, 2013; Ehrlin, 2015; Karlsen, 2012, 2014; Söderman, 2013); - one auto-ethnography (Gouzouasis & Ryu, 2015); - one virtual ethnography study (Waldron, 2013b). The individual interviews in the virtual ethnography study were conducted via Skype-to-Skype and Skype-to-telephone. Focus group interviews Focus group interviews were conducted in three generic ethnography studies (Bartolome, 2013; Karlsen, 2012, 2014), which were semi-structured, recorded and transcribed. Informal discussions Informal discussions and conversations were used as a data collection technique in four ethnography studies: - two generic ethnography studies (Ehrlin, 2015; Stowell & Dixon, 2014); - one auto-ethnographical study (Gouzouasis & Ryu, 2015); - one critical ethnographic study (Silverman, 2013c). Observations Observation techniques were employed in seven ethnography studies. Four of the studies (Ehrlin, 2015; Harrison, 2012; Silverman, 2013c; Waldron, 2013b) discussed recording and transcription strategies, while the authors in one study (Stowell & Dixon, 2014) decided not to use video or audio recordings to minimize distractions and disruptions. Two ethnography studies (Stowell & Dixon, 2014; Waldron, 2013b) specified the role of the researcher as the participant-observer. Observations techniques were employed in: - two generic ethnography studies (Ehrlin, 2015; Stowell & Dixon, 2014); - two ethno-ethnographic studies (McIntosh, 2013; Thompson, 2015); - one critical ethnographic study (Silverman, 2013c); - one combined auto-ethnographic, reflective action research and narrative inquiry (Harrison, 2012); - one virtual ethnography study (Waldron, 2013b). 231

260 Researchers journals Researchers journals were used as a data collection technique in six ethnography studies: - three generic ethnography studies (Bartolome, 2013; Ehrlin, 2015; Karlsen, 2012); - two auto-ethnographic studies (Taylor, 2014; Thompson, 2015); - one critical ethnographic study (Silverman, 2013c). Participants journals The participants journals were the data collection method for the critical ethnographic study (Silverman, 2013c). Documents Documents such as primary and secondary sources, academic sources, Facebook postings, programme archive documents, published books and instrumental compositions were selected for two generic ethnography studies (Bartolome, 2013; Söderman, 2013). Computer-mediated communication such as Skype, posts, and chat room conversations were employed as a collection technique in two auto-ethnographical studies (Dhokai, 2012; Taylor, 2014) and one virtual ethnography study (Waldron, 2013b). Open-ended questionnaires and surveys Open-ended questionnaires were selected for the virtual ethnography study (Waldron, 2013b). Some participants preferred open-ended questionnaires, which were returned via , as opposed to interviews via Skype. An open-ended survey in the form of both hard copies and format in a generic ethnography study (Bartolome, 2013) was employed to view perspectives on participation in a choir. Three ethnography studies selected a strategy of data analysis, which included the following: - content analysis in one generic ethnography study (Karlsen, 2012); - discourse analysis in one generic ethnography study (Söderman, 2013); - a reconstructive analysis in one critical ethnographic study (Silverman, 2013c) Coding techniques Coding techniques were followed in seven ethnography studies. The thematic coding approach was the most used coding technique employed in ethnographic research. Other coding techniques included abductive coding. Some coding techniques were described in combination with other coding techniques, while others were used exclusively. No qualitative data analysis software programs were identified in ethnographic research to assist in the analysis process. 232

261 Thematic coding Thematic coding was selected in the following five studies: - three generic ethnography studies (Bartolome, 2013; Karlsen, 2014; Stowell & Dixon, 2014); - one auto-ethnographic study (Thompson, 2015); - one virtual ethnographic study (Waldron, 2013b). Abductive coding Abductive coding was applied in three generic ethnography studies (Ehrlin, 2015; Karlsen, 2012, 2014). Validation strategies that were explicitly discussed were identified in four ethnography studies. Data collection triangulation was the primary validation technique for ensuring trustworthiness in case study research. Other validation strategies were member checking, peer debriefing and prolonged engagement. Some validation strategies were described in combination with other validation strategies, while others were used exclusively. Data collection triangulation Data triangulation was selected in the following four studies: - two generic ethnography studies (Bartolome, 2013; Ehrlin, 2015); - one auto-ethnography study (Taylor, 2014); - one virtual ethnography (Waldron, 2013b). Member checking Member checking was used in three studies: - one generic ethnography study (Bartolome, 2013); - one auto-ethnography study (Taylor, 2014); - one virtual ethnography study (Waldron, 2013b). Peer debriefing and prolonged engagement Peer debriefing and prolonged engagement were used in two auto-ethnography studies (Taylor, 2014; Thompson, 2015). Ethical procedures were explicitly discussed in eleven of the thirteen ethnography studies. In ethnography, ethical procedures included obtaining ethical approval and consent, and 233

262 anonymising of qualitative data by removing or changing identifying details by using generic names. In some studies, pseudonyms were used to protect the privacy and confidentiality of participants. Some ethical procedures were employed in combination with other ethical procedures, while others were used exclusively. It is important to note that although not all ethnography studies discussed ethical procedures, the identities of the participants were protected to maintain anonymity in all the studies. Ethical approval and consent It was interesting to note that in one ethnography study (Karlsen, 2012), some parents approved the researcher s presence in the classroom to conduct observations, but did not give their consent for individual or focus group interviews to be conducted. In the same study, not all students wanted to participate in the individual interviews, although consent was given by their parents. Procedures for ethical approval and consent were followed in three studies: - two generic ethnography studies (Ehrlin, 2015; Karlsen, 2012); - one virtual ethnography (Waldron, 2013b). Anonymising of qualitative data In the virtual ethnography (Waldron, 2013b) approval for ethical procedures for online research and for the researcher to act as hidden participant observer or lurker was obtained. Privacy protection and anonymity procedures were applied in three studies: one generic ethnography studies (Karlsen, 2014) and two auto-ethnography studies (Gouzouasis & Ryu, 2015; Thompson, 2015). Pseudonyms were used in six studies: - three generic ethnography studies (Bartolome, 2013; Söderman, 2013; Stowell & Dixon, 2014); - one virtual ethnography (Waldron, 2013b); - one critical ethnography study (Silverman, 2013c); - one combined reflective action research and narrative inquiry (Harrison, 2012). grounded theory Narrative inquiry The four types of narrative inquiry used by music education researchers in five selected journals from 2012 to 2015 were identified as narrative analysis, life history, learning stories and critical 234

263 storytelling. The other four types biography, autobiography, oral history and testimonio were not identified in any phenomenological study. Figure 4 15 illustrates the four types of narrative inquiry identified in the five selected journals. Biography Testimonio Autobiography Learning stories NARRATIVE INQUIRY Narrative analysis Critical storytelling Life history Oral history Figure 4 15: Narrative inquiry types identified in five selected journals. Narrative research was the fifth most used qualitative strategy of inquiry in music education research. They were 12 narrative inquiry articles out of 233 qualitative studies, which is a total of 5.15% of the qualitative research done in the five selected journals. Figure 4 16 illustrates the four narrative inquiry types (narrative analysis; life story; learning stories; critical storytelling) and one unspecified type (generic narrative inquiry) identified in the five selected journals. 235

264 Narrative inquiry (12) Life history (1) Critical storytelling (2) Generic narrative inquiry (5) Learning stories (2) Narrative analysis (2) Generic narrative inquiry (5) Narrative analysis (2) Learning stories (2) Critical storytelling (2) Life history (1) Figure 4 16: Total number of narrative inquiry studies identified in five selected journals. In the comparative analysis ( ) it emerged that the IJME and the BJME published most of the narrative inquiry studies, with a total of four articles each. The second highest number was published by the MER with two articles, and the JRME and the BCRME published the least narrative research, with one article each. Because the number of published qualitative research articles differs between the journals, percentages were added to place the differences in perspective (Figure 4-17). The distribution of phenomenological studies published in the five selected journals by music education researchers is shown in Table

265 Table 4 17: The distribution of narrative inquiry in five selected journals. NARRATIVE INQUIRY IJME MER BJME JRME BCRME TOTAL Generic narrative inquiry Narrative analysis Learning stories Critical storytelling Life history TOTAL The total use of narrative inquiry in five selected journals is illustrated in Figure % Narrative inquiry in five selected journals 6.90% 5.88% % % IJME MER BJME JRME BCRME Figure 4 17: The total use of narrative inquiry in five selected journals. 237

266 The articles analysed and identified in the five selected journals from 2012 to 2015 as narrative inquiry are listed in Table Table 4 18: Narrative inquiry articles in five selected journals. Generic narrative inquiry Author Year Title Journal Carrillo, et al The influence of professional identity on teaching practice: Experiences of four music educators. International Journal of Music Education De Vries, P Generalist teachers' self-efficacy in primary school music teaching. Music Education Research Roels, J.M. & Van Petegem, P Children composing and their visual-spatial approach to the keyboard. Music Education Research Salazar, R. & Randles, C Connecting ideas to practice: The development of an undergraduate student s philosophy of music education. International Journal of Music Education Stakelum, M 2014 Boundaries and bridges: The influence of James Cooksey Culwick on the development of the teaching and learning of music in 19th-century Ireland. International Journal of Music Education Narrative analysis Author Year Title Journal Freer, P.K Perspectives of European boys about their voice change and school choral singing: Developing the possible selves of adolescent male singers. British Journal of Music Education Zandén, O. & Thorgersen, C. F Teaching for learning or teaching for documentation? Music teachers perspectives on a Swedish curriculum reform. British Journal of Music Education Learning stories Author Year Title Journal Nyland, B. & Acker, A Young children s musical explorations: The potential of using learning stories for recording, planning and assessing musical experiences in a preschool setting. International Journal of Music Education 238

267 Learning stories Author Year Title Journal Roels, J.M. & Van Petegem, P The integration of visual expression in music education for children. British Journal of Music Education Critical storytelling Author Year Title Journal Brewer, W.D Searching for community: The role-identity development of a dually nontraditional music education student enrolled in a traditional degree program. Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education Nichols, J. 2013b Rie s story, Ryan s journey: Music in the life of a transgender student. Journal of Research in Music Education Life history Author Year Title Journal Baker, D Visually impaired musicians insights: narratives of childhood, lifelong learning and musical participation. British Journal of Music Education Of the twelve narrative inquiry studies examined in five selected journals, only five studies were acknowledged by the authors as qualitative studies. Five studies did not differentiate between the different types of narrative inquiry and were identified as generic narrative inquiry. The first generic narrative inquiry (Stakelum, 2014) followed a narrative interpretive approach and was published in the IJME. The second and third generic narrative inquiry studies (Carrillo et al., 2015; De Vries, 2013) employed a narrative inquiry methodology, published in the IJME and MER respectively. The next generic narrative inquiry selected a narrative reflection (Salazar & Randles, 2015), published in the IJME, and the last generic narrative inquiry (Roels & Van Petegem, 2015) followed a narrative, descriptive and interpretive approach, which were published in the MER. A total of seven out of twelve narrative inquiry studies clarified the type of narrative inquiry conducted in the five selected journals. Two studies were identified as narrative analyses, both of which were published in the BJME. Another narrative inquiry, identified as a life history, was 239

268 also published in the BJME. Two studies were defined as learning stories, published in the BJME and the IJME, and the remaining two studies were identified as critical storytelling, published in the JRME and the BCRME. No narrative inquiry studies were conducted in combination with other qualitative strategies of inquiry. Although it may not be explicitly named, all research has an underlying worldview. In this instance, only three narrative inquiry studies discussed a philosophical worldview. These worldviews include interpretivism and constructivism. An interpretive framework guided two generic narrative inquiry studies (Roels & Van Petegem, 2015; Stakelum, 2014), and a constructivist lens informed one generic narrative inquiry (Carrillo et al., 2015). Of the twelve narrative inquiry studies, four studies explicitly discussed a theoretical framework within which the study was based on. One generic narrative inquiry study employed teacher self-efficacy (De Vries, 2013), and one narrative analysis study was guided by possible selves theory (Freer, 2015). The theoretical frames that guided critical storytelling included the following: - symbolic interactionism (Brewer, 2014); - lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) identity development (Nichols, 2013b). The examining of student and professional identities in narrative inquiry studies were the most popular topics under study, while the remaining studies focused on visual expression Student and professional identity construction The following four studies focused on student and professional identity construction, with specific 240

269 reference to: - the influence of professional identity in music education teaching practice in one generic narrative inquiry (Carrillo et al., 2015); - developing identities of boys during their voice change and choral singing in one narrative analysis (Freer, 2015); - the role-identity development of a nontraditional music education student in one critical storytelling (Brewer, 2014); - the role of music in the lives of transgender students in one critical storytelling (Nichols, 2013b) Visual expression Two studies concentrated on visual expressions, with the emphasis on: - the visual-spatial approach to the keyboard when composing at the piano in a generic narrative inquiry (Roels & Van Petegem, 2015); - the integration of visual expression and envisioning of music-theoretical elements in a learning story (Roels & Van Petegem, 2014) Other fields of interest The remaining three generic narrative inquiry studies focused on the following: - generalist teachers self-efficacy in primary school music teaching (De Vries, 2013); - the reflections of a pre-service music teacher on entering the music education profession (Salazar & Randles, 2015); - the contribution of James Cooksey Culwick to music education in Ireland (Stakelum, 2014). The other narrative analysis examined the following: - music teachers perspectives on curriculum reform (Zandén & Thorgersen, 2015). The remaining learning story focused on: - the music experiences of children in early childhood in formal education settings (Nyland & Acker, 2012). The life history investigated the following: - the analysed life histories of visually impaired musicians (Baker, 2014). 241

270 The action verb indicate the research purpose, and the focus and expected outcomes of the studies. All the narrative inquiry studies disclosed a research purpose, with examine and explore being the most popular verbs to express the research purpose. In some narrative inquiry studies, more than one research purpose verb per study was selected, while others employed only one research purpose verb. The research purpose verb examine was selected in one learning story (Nyland & Acker, 2012) and one critical storytelling (Brewer, 2014). Two generic narrative inquiry studies (Carrillo et al., 2015; De Vries, 2013) selected explore as the purpose verb The remaining generic narrative inquiry studies were conducted with address (Stakelum, 2014); reflect (Salazar & Randles, 2015); identify (De Vries, 2013); and contribute (Roels & Van Petegem, 2015) as research purpose verbs. The narrative analysis studies selected analyse (Freer, 2015) and investigate (Zandén & Thorgersen, 2015) as research purpose verbs. The two learning stories used design and compare (Baker, 2014); and describe (Nyland & Acker, 2012) as the research purpose verbs, while the remaining critical storytelling (Nichols, 2013b) selected represent as the selected research verb Research question Three of the twelve narrative inquiry studies were guided by a research question. The research studies of one generic narrative inquiry, one narrative analysis and one leaning story were informed by a research question. The research questions were: Generic narrative inquiry - How do children use their own drawings as a composition plan and how do children visualise music-theoretical concepts? (Roels & Van Petegem, 2014:300). Narrative analysis - How, according to the teachers, has the new syllabus changed their teaching activities, and how do they value these changes? What dilemmas and goal-conflicts are present in the teachers descriptions? (Zandén & Thorgersen, 2015:38). Learning story - How differentiated are the thought processes and strategies children elicit from the structure of the keyboard? (Roels & Van Petegem, 2015:383). 242

271 It is interesting to note that all three research questions focused on teaching and learning strategies which were presented in a narrative form with quotations from the participants. Participants in elementary school, specifically elementary school learners, were the most popular researched group in narrative inquiry. Other participant groups included: elementary and secondary school participants, adult participants, secondary school participants, higher education participants, and early childhood participants. In some narrative inquiry studies, more than one participant group per study was selected, while others focused only on one participant group. Elementary school Participants in elementary school were the selected participant group in three studies. - Elementary school learners Elementary class music learners were selected in one learning story (Roels & Van Petegem, 2014) and one generic narrative inquiry (Roels & Van Petegem, 2015). - Elementary school teachers Elementary class music teachers were the participants in one generic narrative inquiry (De Vries, 2013). Elementary and secondary school Elementary and secondary participants were selected in three studies. Elementary and secondary school class music teachers were the participants in two generic narrative inquiry studies (Carrillo et al., 2015; De Vries, 2013) and one narrative analysis (Zandén & Thorgersen, 2015). Adult participants Adult participants were selected in two studies. A young adult was chosen as the participant in one critical storytelling (Nichols, 2013b), and visually impaired adult musicians were used as research participants for the life history (Baker, 2014). Secondary school Participants in secondary school were selected in one study. 243

272 Secondary school male singers were chosen as the participant group in one narrative analysis (Freer, 2015). Higher education Participants in higher education were the selected participant group in one study. A higher education undergraduate student was the selected participant in one critical storytelling (Brewer, 2014). Early childhood One study selected an early childhood participant group. Early childhood children were the focus in the other learning story (Nyland & Acker, 2012) Sampling strategies Purposeful sampling was selected in one learning story (Nyland & Acker, 2012) to select participants in a particular age range. Three generic narrative inquiry studies (Carrillo et al., 2015; De Vries, 2013; Roels & Van Petegem, 2015), one critical storytelling (Brewer, 2014) and two narrative analysis studies (Freer, 2015; Zandén & Thorgersen, 2015) discussed the selection of participants without defining a selected sampling strategy Sampling size Sample sizes varied considerably, depending on whether interviews, focus group interviews or observations were used. In many cases studies combined these data collection strategies, but below they are discussed separately to provide clarity on the numbers of participants that are typically used for each data collection strategy. In some cases the same study will therefore be mentioned under more than one heading below. In narrative inquiry, the selected sampling sizes ranged from one participant to eighty-five participants. Individual interviews The selected sampling sizes in narrative inquiry for individual interviews ranged from one participant to eighty-five participants, and included the following: - Generic narrative inquiry: four participants (Carrillo et al., 2015); five participants (De Vries, 2013); and an unspecified number (Roels & Van Petegem, 2015); 244

273 - Narrative analysis: ten participants (Zandén & Thorgersen, 2015) and eight-five participants (Freer, 2015). From the sample size of eighty-five participants, interviews with eight participants were conducted in pairs due to time constraints; - Life history: five participants (Baker, 2014); - Critical story telling: one participant (Brewer, 2014; Nichols, 2013b). Although the critical storytelling (Nichols, 2013b) only selected one participant, additional informal interviews were conducted with people related to the study for an added perspective. Observations In narrative inquiry, the selected sampling size for observations was seventeen participants, and included the following: - Generic narrative inquiry: an unspecified sampling amount was used, as the exact number of participants from a piano class was not specified (Roels & Van Petegem, 2015); - Learning stories: seventeen participants (Nyland & Acker, 2012); and an unspecified sample size from a piano class (Roels & Van Petegem, 2014). Documents The two remaining generic narrative inquiry studies (Salazar & Randles, 2015; Stakelum, 2014) selected a sample size of one document each. Data were collected mainly through individual interviews in narrative inquiry research. Other data collection techniques included observations, researcher s journals, participant s journals, and documents. Individual interviews In eight narrative inquiry studies individual face-to-face interviews were conducted. The two generic narrative inquiry studies (De Vries, 2013; Roels & Van Petegem, 2015) described the interviews as semi-structured and open-ended. Individual interviews were conducted in the following studies: - three generic narrative inquiry studies (Carrillo et al., 2015; De Vries, 2013; Roels & Van Petegem, 2015). The interviews were initially conducted telephonically in one of the generic narrative inquiry studies (De Vries, 2013), after which the participants agreed to in-depth face-to-face interviews to expand on matters that were raised in the initial interviews; 245

274 - two narrative analysis studies (Freer, 2015; Zandén & Thorgersen, 2015). In one narrative analysis (Freer, 2015) some of the participants were interviewed in pairs because of time constraints, but the possibility of peer influence prevented the author from quoting these interview excerpts; - two critical storytelling (Brewer, 2014; Nichols, 2013b). Both studies were recorded and transcribed, and the individual interviews were in the form of conversations; - one life history (Baker, 2014), which was audio recorded and transcribed. Observations Observation techniques were employed in three of the narrative inquiry studies. Audio-visual recordings were made during observations in one generic narrative inquiry (Roels & Van Petegem, 2015) and one learning story (Nyland & Acker, 2012). Observations were used as a data collection technique in: - one generic narrative inquiry (Roels & Van Petegem, 2015); - two learning stories ( Nyland & Acker, 2012; Roels & Van Petegem, 2014). In one learning story (Nyland & Acker, 2012) one researcher took the role of participant-observer, while the other researcher was the nonparticipant observer by taking photographs. Researchers journal Researchers journals were used in three narrative inquiry studies as a data collection technique in: - one generic narrative inquiry (Roels & Van Petegem, 2015); - one learning story (Roels & Van Petegem, 2014); - one critical storytelling (Nichols, 2013b). Participants journal The participants journals were part of the data collection in one critical storytelling (Brewer, 2014). Documents Documents such as academic sources (Stakelum, 2014) and symposium contents (Salazar & Randles, 2015) were used in two generic narrative inquiry studies. Documents such as photo albums, school records, concert programmes, and original compositions were selected in a critical storytelling (Nichols, 2013b). 246

275 Five narrative inquiry studies selected a strategy of data analysis, which included the following: - the problem-solution approach in one generic narrative inquiry (De Vries, 2013); - content analysis in one narrative analysis (Zandén & Thorgersen, 2015); - grounded theory strategy in one narrative analysis (Freer, 2015); - a music-theoretical and compositional perspective, with the addition of a musicpsychological reflection, in one learning story (Roels & Van Petegem, 2014); - analytical induction in one life history (Baker, 2014) Coding techniques Coding techniques were followed in four narrative inquiry studies. The thematic coding approach was the most used coding technique employed in narrative inquiry. Other coding techniques included open coding, selective coding and theoretical coding techniques. Computer-assisted qualitative data analysis software programs such as Nvivo and HyperRESEARCH were selected to assist in coding narrative inquiry. Thematic coding Thematic coding was selected in the following three studies: - one generic narrative inquiry (Carrillo et al., 2015); - one narrative analysis (Zandén & Thorgersen, 2015); - one life history (Baker, 2014). Open coding, selective coding and theoretical coding As the other narrative analysis (Freer, 2015) followed a grounded theory approach, data analysis included open coding, selective coding and theoretical coding techniques. Computer assisted qualitative data analysis software Only two narrative inquiry studies discussed the use of a qualitative data analysis software program to assist in data analysis, and included: - HyperRESEARCH in one narrative analysis (Freer, 2015); - NVivo in one life history (Baker, 2014). Validation strategies that were explicitly discussed were identified in six narrative inquiry studies. Member checking was the primary validation technique for ensuring trustworthiness in narrative inquiry. Since participants were personally involved in the construction of their narrative accounts, and to ensure a trusting rapport, member checking was done regularly throughout the research 247

276 process, including the final publication copy. The other validation strategy was intercoder reliability. Member checking Member checking was used in the following five studies: - two critical storytelling (Brewer, 2014; Nichols, 2013b); - two generic narrative inquiry (Carrillo et al., 2015; De Vries, 2013); - one life history (Baker, 2014). Intercoder reliability Intercoder reliability was employed in one narrative analysis (Freer, 2015). Ethical procedures were explicitly discussed in six of the twelve narrative inquiry studies. In narrative inquiry, ethical procedures included obtaining ethical approval and consent, and anonymising of qualitative data by removing or changing identifying details by using generic names. In some studies, pseudonyms were used to protect the privacy and confidentiality of participants. Some ethical procedures were employed in combination with other ethical procedures, while others were used exclusively. It is important to note that although not all narrative inquiry studies discussed ethical procedures, the identities of the participants were protected to maintain anonymity in all the studies. Ethical approval and consent Procedures for obtaining ethical approval and consent were followed in six studies: - two critical storytelling (Brewer, 2014; Nichols, 2013b); - two narrative inquiry studies (Carrillo et al., 2015; De Vries, 2013); - one narrative analysis (Freer, 2015); - one life history (Baker, 2014). Anonymising of qualitative data Privacy protection and anonymity procedures were applied in five studies: - one critical storytelling (Nichols, 2013b); - the life history (Baker, 2014); - two narrative inquiry studies (Carrillo et al., 2015; De Vries, 2013); - one narrative analysis (Freer, 2015). Pseudonyms were used in three studies: - two generic narrative inquiry studies (Carrillo et al., 2015; De Vries, 2013); 248

277 - one life history (Baker, 2014), participants were informed that total anonymity could not be guaranteed as they belonged to a small group of people active in their field of interest. Action research The three types of action research used by music education researchers in five selected journals from 2012 to 2015 were identified as collaboration action research, participatory action research and reflective action research. The fourth type, emancipatory action research, was not identified in any action research. Figure 4 18 illustrates the three types of action research identified in the five selected journals. Collaboration action research Reflective action research ACTION RESEARCH Participatory action research Emancipatory action research Figure 4 18: Action research types identified in five selected journals. Action research is the fifth most used qualitative strategy of inquiry in music education research. There were six action research studies out of 233 qualitative studies, which is a total of 3.43% of the qualitative research done in the five selected journals. Figure 4 19 illustrates the three action research types (collaboration action research; participatory action research; reflective action research) identified in the five selected journals. 249

278 Action research (8) Participatory action research (1) Collaborative action research (1) Reflective action research (6) Reflective action research (6) Collaborative action research (1) Participatory action research (1) Figure 4 19: Total number of action research types identified in five selected journals. Most of the action research studies were published between 2012 and 2015 in the BJME, with a total of four articles. The second highest number was published by the IJME, with three articles, while the BCRME produced the least number of articles, with one published study. The MER and JRME did not publish any action research between 2012 and Because the number of published qualitative research articles differs between the journals, percentages were added to place the differences in perspective (Figure 4 20). The distribution of action research published in the selected five journals by music education researchers is shown in Table

279 Table 4 19: The distribution of action research in five selected journals. ACTION RESEARCH IJME MER BJME JRME BCRME TOTAL Reflective action research Collaborative action research Participatory action research TOTAL The total use of action research in five selected journals is illustrated in Figure % Action research in five selected journals 6.90% 5.88% % % IJME MER BJME JRME BCRME Figure 4 20: The total use of action research in five selected journals. 251

280 The articles analysed and identified in the five selected journals from 2012 to 2015 as action research are shown in Table Table 4 20: Action research articles in five selected journals. Reflective action research Author Year Title Journal Andrews, K Standing on our own two feet : A comparison of teacher-directed and group learning in an extracurricular instrumental group. British Journal of Music Education Davis, S.G Informal learning processes in an elementary music classroom. Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education Elgersma, K First year teacher of first year teachers: A reflection on teacher training in the field of piano pedagogy. International Journal of Music Education Lewis, R Composing the curriculum: teacher identity. British Journal of Music Education McPhail, G.J. 2013b Developing student autonomy in the one-to-one music lesson. International Journal of Music Education Wallace, K When instrumentalists sing. International Journal of Music Education Collaborative action research Author Year Title Journal Chadwick, S Working towards educational transformation through action research with Botswana's music teachers. British Journal of Music Education Participatory action research Author Year Title Journal Park, H. & Kim, M Affordance of braille music as a mediational means: significance and limitations. British Journal of Music Education 252

281 Of the eight action research studies examined in the five selected journals, two reflective action research studies and the participatory action research study were acknowledged by the authors as qualitative studies. One action research study was described as collaborative action research, and published in the BJME, while another study was defined as participatory action research, also published in the BJME. Six studies were identified as reflective action research, of which three studies were published in the IJME, two studies in the BJME and one study in the BCRME. No combinations of action research were conducted with other qualitative strategies of inquiry. All research has an underlying worldview, even if it is not always explicitly stated, but only two of the reflective action research studies were framed by an explicit philosophical worldview. These worldviews include constructivism and interpretivism. A social constructivist frame informed the first reflective action research study (Davis, 2013), while an interpretive framework guided the second reflective action research study (McPhail, 2013b). None of the action research studies explicitly discussed a theoretical framework. Reflections on learning and teaching practices were the most popular topic under study, while the rest of the studies focused on educational transformation Learning and teaching practices Six reflective action research studies reflected on learning and teaching practices, with specific reference to: - the comparing of teacher-directed and group learning lessons for an instrumental group (Andrews, 2013); 253

282 - the value and role of popular music and informal learning processes (Davis, 2013); - effective student teaching experiences (Elgersma, 2012); - the role of teacher identity as teachers of creative composing in the classroom (Lewis, 2012); - the developing of student autonomy and informal learning approaches in individual instrumental lessons (McPhail, 2013b); - the choral experiential learning environment created for instrumentalists (Wallace, 2014) Educational transformation The focus in two action research studies related to educational transformation was on: - a critical reflection on transformative processes in music education in the collaborative action research (Chadwick, 2012); - the availability and effectiveness of Braille music for classroom teaching in the participatory action research study (Park & Kim, 2014). The action verb indicates the research purpose, and the focus and expected results of the studies. All the action research studies mentioned a research purpose with reflect being the most popular research purpose verb. Other verbs included: describe and explore. In some action research studies, more than one research purpose verb per study was selected, while others employed only one research purpose verb. The research purpose verb reflect was selected for three reflective action research studies (Elgersma, 2012; Lewis, 2012; McPhail, 2013b). Describe was the research purpose verb in the collaborative action research study (Chadwick, 2015) and one reflective action research study (Davis, 2013). Two studies selected explore as a research purpose verb: the collaborative action research study (Chadwick, 2015) and one reflective action research study (Andrews, 2013). The other reflective action research studies (Lewis, 2012; McPhail, 2013b; Wallace, 2014) used discuss, identify and investigate as research purpose verbs, while the participatory action research study (Park & Kim, 2014) was conducted with analyse as the research purpose verb Research question Only six of the eight action research studies were guided by a research question. The research studies of the participatory action research study and five reflective action research studies were 254

283 informed by a research question. The research questions were: Participatory action research - How do MVI learn and utilise Braille music? How does the affordance of Braille music suit the needs of MVI? What are the conditions that make Braille music more affordable than now? (Park & Kim, 2014:137). Reflective action research - To what extent can group learning be considered to increase learner autonomy in extracurricular instrumental groups? How does pupils learning behaviour differ between teacher-directed and group learning lessons? In what ways can peer support facilitate learning? (Andrews, 2013:126). - How will children engage in learning popular music in the classroom? What pedagogical approaches used by the teacher support the children s use of informal learning approaches in the elementary general music classroom? (Davis, 2013:27). - Can composing be a personal, creative and valuable activity for the school student? (Lewis, 2012:153). - How might curriculum and pedagogy be enhanced and made more horizontal within a necessarily vertical knowledge discourse? (McPhail, 2013b:161). - How does the choral experience impacts instrumental musicians? (Wallace, 2014:500). Congruent with most of the action research studies in the five selected journals focusing on reflective practice, the research questions were related to concerns in the field of music teaching practice. Participants in secondary school, specifically secondary school learners, were the most popular researched group in action research. Other participant groups included: higher education participants, elementary school participants, and adult participants. Secondary schools Participants in secondary school were selected in three studies. - Secondary school learners A secondary school string instrumental student was the participant in one reflective action research study (McPhail, 2013b), and secondary school composing students were the selected participants in another reflective action research study (Lewis, 2012). 255

284 - Secondary school teachers Class music teachers in secondary schools were selected as participants in one collaborative action research study (Chadwick, 2015). Higher education Participants in higher education were the selected participant groups in two studies. Higher education undergraduate students were chosen as participants for the following two reflective action research studies: piano students (Elgersma, 2012), and instrumental and piano students (Wallace, 2014). Elementary school Participants in elementary school were selected in two studies. - Elementary school teachers and learners Elementary school class music teachers and learners were the focus in one reflective action research study (Davis, 2013). - Elementary school learners Elementary school instrumental learners were the participants in one reflective action research study (Andrews, 2013). Adult participants Adult participants were the selected participant group in one study. Visually impaired music teachers and adult music students of Braille music were the participants in one participatory action research study (Park & Kim, 2014) Sampling strategies Five of the reflective action research studies (Andrews, 2013; Davis, 2013; Elgersma, 2012; McPhail, 2013b; Wallace, 2014) discussed the selection of participants without stating the sampling strategy used. As these reflective studies were practitioner-based in their own classroom practices, it can be inferred that the sample selection was purposive Sampling size Sample sizes varied considerably, depending on whether interviews, focus group interviews or observations were used. In many cases the studies combined these data collection strategies, 256

285 but below they are discussed separately to provide clarity on the numbers of participants that are typically used for each data collection strategy. In some cases the same study will therefore be mentioned under more than one heading below. In action research, the sampling sizes ranged from one participant to twenty-four participants. Observations The selected sampling sizes in action research for individual interviews ranged from one participant to twenty-four participants, and included the following: - Collaborative action research: five participants (Chadwick, 2015). - Reflective action research studies: one participant (McPhail, 2013b), six participants (Elgersma, 2012), twelve participants (Andrews, 2013) and twenty-four participants (Davis, 2013). The reflective study with twelve participants was conducted in two phases, where the participants were observed as a group in one phase, and divided into two groups in the second phase. Individual and focus group interviews The selected sampling sizes in action research for focus group interviews ranged from one participant to twenty-four participants, and included the following: - Participatory action research: sixteen participants (Park & Kim, 2014). - Reflective action research study: twenty-four participants (Davis, 2013). This study mentioned small focus group interviews and large groups interviews, but the sizes of the different groups were not specified. Documents The reflective action research study (Lewis, 2012) with compositions as data collection had a sample size of twenty participants. Survey The reflective action research study (Wallace, 2014) selected twenty-three selected participants for the survey. In action research data were mainly collected through observations. Other data collection techniques included individual and focus group interviews, researchers journals, documents, and open-ended questionnaires. 257

286 Observations Observation techniques were employed in fifty-eight of the case studies and included: - one collaborative action research study (Chadwick, 2015); - four reflective action research studies (Andrews, 2013; Davis, 2013; Elgersma, 2012; McPhail, 2013b), which were video-recorded and transcribed; - three reflective action research studies (Andrews, 2013; Elgersma, 2012; McPhail, 2013b). In one study (McPhail, 2013b) an individual music lesson as part of the research study, was observed by a group of instrumental music teachers as a means allowing for discussion and feedback; in another study (Elgersma, 2012) participants had to complete self-evaluations based on the recorded observations, which were followed by informal discussions with the researcher; and in the third study (Andrews, 2013), the researcher was the participant-observer during observations followed by semi-structured interviews. Individual and focus group interviews In three action research studies individual and focus group interviews were conducted. These studies were semi-structured, open-ended, video-recorded and transcribed. The individual and focus-group interviews included: - one participatory action research (Park & Kim, 2014); - two reflective action research studies (Andrews, 2013; Davis, 2013). Researchers journal A researcher s journal was used as a data collection technique in one reflective action research study (Davis, 2013). Documents Learners compositions were collected as data which were recorded on a CD with 20 unique tracks in one reflective action research study (Lewis, 2012). Open-ended questionnaires Open-ended questionnaires were selected to answer self-reflective questions on learning experiences in another reflective action research study (Wallace, 2014). None of the action research studies was based on a data analysis approach. 258

287 Coding techniques Only one reflective action research study specified coding techniques, while two other reflective action research studies stated that they organised the data into themes. The reflective study (Davis, 2013) discussing the coding strategies initially applied a priori codes which led to thematic coding. No qualitative data analysis software programs were identified in action research to assist in the analysis process. Validation strategies that were explicitly discussed were identified in three action research studies. Member checking and peer debriefing were the primary validation technique for ensuring trustworthiness in action research. The other validation strategy was data collection triangulation. Member checking and peer debriefing Member checking and peer debriefing were used in two reflective action research studies (Davis, 2013; McPhail, 2013b). Data collection triangulation Data collection triangulation was selected for one reflective action research study (Andrews, 2013). Ethical procedures were explicitly discussed in four of the eighty action research studies. In action research, ethical procedures included obtaining ethical approval and consent, and anonymising of qualitative data by removing or changing identifying details by using generic names. Some studies used pseudonyms to protect the privacy and confidentiality of participants. It is important to note that although not all action research studies disclosed ethical procedures, the identities of the participants were protected to maintain anonymity in all the studies. Ethical approval and consent Procedures for obtaining ethical approval and consent were followed in the participatory action research study (Park & Kim, 2014). Anonymising of qualitative data Privacy protection and anonymity procedures were applied in the collaborative action research study (Chadwick, 2015). Pseudonyms were used in two reflective action research studies (Andrews, 2013; McPhail, 2013b). 259

288 Historical research No specific type of historical research was identified in the five selected journals from 2012 to 2015, as illustrated in Figure Historical events research HISTORICAL RESEARCH Cross-sectional comparative research Comparative historical research Figure 4 21: Historical research types identified in five selected journals. Historical research was the second least used qualitative strategy of inquiry in music education research. They were five historical studies out of 233 qualitative studies which is a total of 2.15% of the qualitative research done in the five selected journals. Figure 4 22 illustrates one unspecified type (generic historical studies) and one combined historical type (history with narrative inquiry) identified in the five selected journals. 260

289 Historical research (5) Generic historical research (2) History with narrative inquiry (3) Generic historical research (2) History with narrative inquiry (3) Figure 4 22: Total number of historical types and combinations identified in five selected journals. In the comparative analysis ( ) it emerged that the JRME published most of the historical studies with a total of four articles, while the BJME produced the lowest amount with one published article. The IJME, MER and BCRME did not publish any historical research between 2012 and Because the number of published qualitative research articles differs between the journals, percentages were added to place the differences in perspective (Figure 4 23). The distribution of historical studies by music education researchers published in the five selected journals is shown in Table

290 Table 4 21: The distribution of historical research in five selected journals. HISTORICAL RESEARCH IJME MER BJME JRME BCRME TOTAL Generic historical studies Historical research with narrative inquiry TOTAL The total use of historical research in five selected journals is illustrated in Figure Historical research in five selected journals IJME MER BJME JRME BCRME Figure 4 23: The total use of historical research in five selected journals. 262

291 The articles analysed and identified as historical research in the five selected journals from 2012 to 2015 are listed in Table Table 4 22: Historical research in five selected journals. Generic historical research Author Year Title Journal Meyers, B.D The national solo and ensemble contest Journal of Research in Music Education Seybert, J.M A history of the North American band directors coordinating committee, Journal of Research in Music Education Historical research with narrative inquiry Author Year Title Journal Burke, H Marching backwards into the future: The introduction of the English creative music movement in state secondary schools in Victoria, Australia. British Journal of Music Education Hash, P.M George F. Root s normal musical institute, Journal of Research in Music Education Hash, P.M Music education at the New York institution for the Blind, Journal of Research in Music Education None of the five historical research studies was acknowledged by the authors as qualitative studies. Two studies did not differentiate between the different types of historical research and were identified as generic historical studies. The researchers described their studies as a historical investigation (Meyers, 2012; Seybert, 2013), and both studies were published in the JRME. 263

292 Three historical research studies were conducted in combination with other qualitative strategies of inquiry, and they were all conducted in combination with narrative inquiry. Two studies were published in the JRME, and one study was published in the BJME. Although all research is guided by an underlying worldview, even though it may not be explicitly defined, none of the historical studies discussed a philosophical worldview. None of the historical research studies explicitly discussed a theoretical framework. The documentation of the history of musical institutions and associations was the most popular topic under study, while the remaining studies focused on the history of music contests and festivals, and curriculum developments Musical institutions and associations The following three history research studies examined institutional histories, with specific reference to: - a band association in one generic history study (Seybert, 2013); - a musical institute in relation to its influence on music education in one combined history and narrative study (Hash, 2012); - an institute for the blind in a combined history and narrative study (Hash, 2015) Music contests and festivals The other generic history study investigated the following: - the history and effects of a solo and ensemble contest and festival movement (Meyers, 2012) Curriculum developments The remaining combined history and narrative study focused on: - the history of curriculum developments in state secondary schools (Burke, 2014). 264

293 The action verb indicates the research purpose, and the focus and expected outcomes of the studies. All the historical studies stated a research purpose, with investigate being the most popular research purpose verb. In some historical studies, more than one research purpose verb per study was selected, while others employed only one research purpose verb. Two generic history studies (Meyers, 2012; Seybert, 2013) were conducted with investigate as the research purpose verb, while the three combined history and narrative studies employed document (Hash, 2015); examine (Hash, 2012); and contextualise (Burke, 2014) as the research purpose verb Research question Only four historical studies were guided by a research question. Two of the generic history studies and two combined history and narrative studies were informed by a research question. The research questions were: Generic history studies - Who was responsible for the formation and organization of the National Solo and Ensemble Contests? How did the rules of the contest evolve during its history? In what ways did the format, qualifications, and adjudication of the contest change? What, if any, were the lasting effects of the Solo and Ensemble Contest on today s solo and ensemble events? (Meyers, 2012:44). - Research questions related to the development of the NABDCC, important events in its history, and the specific issues in music education examined by the committee (Seybert, 2013:430). Historical research with narrative inquiry - Research questions related to the school s origin, details of operation, pedagogy and curriculum, prominent students and faculty, and influence on music education (Hash, 2012:269). - Research questions related to the school s origin and operation and to its music curriculum, pedagogy, faculty, ensembles, and resources (Hash, 2015:362). It is interesting to note that only one history study clearly stated each research question separately, while the other history study and the two combined studies referred to the research question in relation to certain research areas without providing a well-defined and structured research question. 265

294 Former elementary and secondary class music teachers were selected as participant group to assist in documenting curriculum developments in music education in one combined historical and narrative inquiry (Burke, 2014) Sampling strategies The history research studies provided no discussion of sampling techniques Sampling size One combined history and narrative inquiry (Burke, 2014) selected participants, but mentioned only that a number of interviews were conducted without specifying the number of participants. Data were collected mainly through documents. Other data collection techniques included individual interviews. Both generic history studies (Meyers, 2012; Seybert, 2013) and two combined history and narrative studies (Hash, 2012, 2015) selected primary documents such as letters, minutes of meetings, instrumental compositions, music journals, articles from periodicals and newspapers, pamphlets, catalogues, and annual reports from the institutions and associations to describe foundational information gather data. These studies used secondary sources in the form of dissertations, research articles, related books and biographies to gather additional data. One combined history and narrative study (Burke, 2014) used individual interviews to provide insight and fill the historical gaps. The combined history and narrative study (Hash, 2015) was the only historical study to follow a data analysis approach by organising the diverse material chronologically to compose a chronological narrative Coding techniques Although none of the history research studies discussed any coding techniques, one history study (Seybert, 2013) provided a synthesis of the emergent themes, implying that a thematic coding technique could have been followed. No qualitative data analysis software programs were identified in historical research to assist in the analysis process. 266

295 Validation strategies that were explicitly mentioned were identified in only one combined historical and narrative study (Hash, 2012). Data triangulation was the validation technique employed by selecting several sets of primary and secondary data, varying from different times and places. No ethical procedures were discussed in any of the history research studies. It is important to note that although not all history studies disclosed ethical procedures, the identities of the participants were protected to maintain anonymity in all the studies. Grounded theory The only type of grounded theory study used by music education researchers in five selected journals from 2012 to 2015 was identified as systematic grounded theory. The other two types, emergent grounded theory design and constructivist grounded theory, were not identified in any grounded theory study. Figure 4 24 illustrates the one type of grounded theory identified in the five selected journals. Systematic grounded theory GROUNDED THEORY Constructivist grounded theory Emergent grounded theory design Figure 4 24: Grounded theory types identified in five selected journals. 267

296 Grounded theory, along with arts-based research and conceptual studies, was the least used qualitative strategy of inquiry in music education research. There were four grounded theory articles out of 233 qualitative studies which is a total of 1.72% of the qualitative research done in the five selected journals. Figure 4 25 illustrates one grounded theory type (systematic grounded theory) and one unspecified type (generic grounded theory) identified in the five selected journals. Grounded theory (4) Generic grounded theory (2) Systematic grounded theory (2) Generic grounded theory (2) Systematic grounded theory (2) Figure 4 25: Total number of grounded theory types identified in five selected journals. In the comparative analysis ( ) it emerged that the IJME, MER, BJME and the JRME published one grounded theory article each, making a total of four articles. Because the number of published qualitative research articles differ between the journals, percentages were added to place the differences in perspective (Figure 4 26). The distribution of phenomenological studies published in the five selected journals by music education researchers is shown in Table

297 Table 4 23: The distribution of grounded theory in five selected journals. GROUNDED THEORY IJME MER BJME JRME BCRME TOTAL Generic grounded theory Systematic grounded theory TOTAL The total use of grounded theory in five selected journals is illustrated in Figure Grounded theory in five selected journals 3.57% % 1.72% 1.45% IJME MER BJME JRME BCRME Figure 4 26: The total use of grounded theory in five selected journals. 269

298 The articles analysed and identified as grounded theory research in the five selected journals from 2012 to 2015 are listed in Table Table 4 24: Grounded theory articles in five selected journals. Generic grounded theory Author Year Title Journal Ballantyne, J. & Grootenboer, P Exploring relationships between teacher identities and disciplinarity. International Journal of Music Education Carlisle, K A study of teacher formative influence upon and student experience of social emotional learning climate in secondary school music settings. British Journal of Music Education Systematic grounded theory Author Year Title Journal Mateos-Moreno, D. & Alcaraz-Iborra, M Grounded theory as a methodology to design teaching strategies for historically informed musical performance. Music Education Research Parker, E.C The process of social identity development in adolescent high school choral singers: A grounded theory. Journal of Research in Music Education Of the four grounded theory studies examined in five selected journals, all four were acknowledged by the authors as qualitative studies. Two studies did not differentiate between the different types of grounded theory research and were identified as generic grounded theory. The first generic grounded theory followed a grounded theory approach (Carlisle, 2013) and was published in the BJME, while the second generic grounded theory (Ballantyne & Grootenboer, 2012) employed grounded theory techniques, published in the IJME. The other two grounded theories were identified as systematic grounded theory studies, published in the MER and the JRME respectively. No grounded theory studies were conducted in combination with other qualitative strategies of inquiry. 270

299 Although not explicitly named, all research has an underlying worldview, but only one systematic grounded theory study discussed a philosophical worldview, namely constructivism and interpretivism. A constructivist, interpretive framework guided the systematic grounded theory (Mateos-Moreno & Alcaraz-Iborra, 2013). All four grounded theory studies explicitly discussed a theoretical framework on which the study was based. Generic grounded theory studies were guided by the following theoretical frames: - professional identity (Ballantyne & Grootenboer, 2012); - lleris s theory of learning processes (Carlisle, 2013). The theoretical frames that informed systematic grounded theory studies included: - symbolic interactionism (Mateos-Moreno & Alcaraz-Iborra, 2013); - social identity theory (Parker, 2014). The developing of student and professional identities, and learning and teaching strategies were the most popular topics under study in grounded theory research Student and professional identity Two studies focused on student and professional identity, with specific reference to: - the defining of teacher identity, the interaction of teacher and musician identities, and the implication of these identities on music education practice in one generic grounded theory study (Ballantyne & Grootenboer, 2012); - the social identity development process of young choral singers within high school mixed choirs in a systematic grounded theory study (Parker, 2014) Learning and teaching strategies The following two studies examined learning and teaching strategies, considering: - the formative influence of the teacher on informal learning practices in formal music education in a generic grounded theory study (Carlisle, 2013); - the design of new teaching strategies for interpreting and performing music from different historical periods in the other systematic grounded theory study (Mateos-Moreno & Alcaraz-Iborra, 2013). 271

300 The action verb indicates the research purpose, and the focus and expected results of the studies. All the grounded theory studies disclosed a research purpose with explore being the most popular research purpose verb. In some grounded theory studies, more than one research purpose verb per study was selected, while others employed only one research purpose verb. Both generic grounded theory studies (Ballantyne & Grootenboer, 2012; Carlisle, 2013) were conducted with explore as the research purpose verb, while one grounded theory study (Carlisle, 2013) also selected examine as the purpose verb. One systematic grounded theory study (Parker, 2014) used describe as the selected research verb, while the other systematic grounded theory study (Mateos-Moreno & Alcaraz-Iborra, 2013) employed develop as the research verb Research question Three of the four grounded theory studies were guided by a research question. The research processes of the two generic grounded theory studies and one systematic grounded theory study were informed by a research question. The following research questions were asked: Generic grounded theory studies - How are teachers perceptions of their professional identity, their abilities as discipline specialists, and their pedagogy interrelated? (Ballantyne & Grootenboer, 2012:369). - What are the formative and experiential dimensions of the social-emotional climate in three secondary school music programmes integrating informal learning practices? (Carlisle, 2013:227). Systematic grounded theory study - Research questions related to how high school students describe their social identity development, what actions or interactions influence their development, what strategies the use to develop social identity, what intervening conditions get in the way, and what consequences result from high school students social identity development (Parker, 2014:20). It is interesting to note that congruent with grounded theory research in the five selected journals focused on developing identities or designing learning strategies, the research questions were directly related to the creating and developing of these areas of interest in music education. 272

301 Participants in secondary school, especially secondary school learners, were the most popular researched group in grounded theory research. Secondary school Secondary school participants were the selected participant group in two studies. One grounded theory study (Carlisle, 2013) selected secondary class music learners as participants; and one systematic grounded theory study (Parker, 2014) selected secondary school choir members and an additional group of secondary school choir teachers as research participants. Elementary and secondary school Participants in elementary and secondary school were selected in one study. The selected participant group in the other grounded theory study (Ballantyne & Grootenboer, 2012) were elementary and secondary teachers, with an additional participants group of a few learners, selected by the teacher, for an added student perspective on the research study Sampling strategies Theoretical sampling was the most popular sampling strategy employed in grounded theory. Both systematic grounded theory studies (Mateos-Moreno & Alcaraz-Iborra, 2013; Parker, 2014) selected theoretical sampling strategies, while one systematic grounded theory study (Parker, 2014), applied both criterion and intensity sampling to identify certain participants Sampling size Sample sizes varied considerably, depending on whether interviews, focus group interviews or observations were used. In many cases the studies combined these data collection strategies, but below they are discussed separately to provide clarity on the numbers of participants that are typically used for each data collection strategy. In some cases the same study will therefore be mentioned under more than one heading below. In grounded theory, the selected sampling sizes ranged from six to thirty-six participants. 273

302 Individual and focus group interviews The selected sampling sizes in grounded theory for individual interviews ranged from twelve participants to thirty-six participants, and included the following: - Generic grounded theory studies: twelve participants (Carlisle, 2013) and thirteen participants (Ballantyne & Grootenboer, 2012), In the study with thirteen participants (Ballantyne & Grootenboer, 2012), an additional informal group interview was conducted with an unspecified number of participants to gain another perspective; - Systematic grounded theory studies: forty-nine interviews were conducted with a total of thirty-six participants (Parker, 2014). The interviews were conducted in three phases: the first phase was individual interviews with fifteen participants, the second with twenty-one selected participants, and the third with thirteen participants of the initial group of thirtysix. An additional group of three participants as a secondary data source was selected for individual interviews. Observations The selected sampling sizes in grounded theory for individual interviews ranged from twelve participants to sixteen participants, and included the following: - Generic grounded theory studies: twelve participants (Carlisle, 2013) and thirteen participants (Ballantyne & Grootenboer, 2012); - Systematic grounded theory study: sixteen participants (Parker, 2014). Documents The sample size in the other systematic grounded theory study (Mateos-Moreno & Alcaraz-Iborra, 2013) was documents and recordings of six selected compositions. Survey In one generic grounded theory study (Carlisle, 2013), a qualitative survey was completed by a total of 281 participants as a secondary analysis to supplement the individual and focus group interviews. Data were collected mainly through individual and focus group interviews and observations in grounded theory research. Other data collection techniques included researchers journals, documents, and surveys. 274

303 Individual interviews Individual interviews were conducted in one systematic grounded theory study (Parker, 2014), which were audio-recorded and transcribed. Individual and focus group interviews Individual and focus group interviews were in-depth, semi-structured, recorded and transcribed, and were conducted in two generic grounded theory studies (Ballantyne & Grootenboer, 2012; Carlisle, 2013). Focus group interviews Focus group interviews were conducted in two grounded theory studies. The interviews were indepth, semi-structured, recorded and transcribed. Focus group interviews were conducted in the following studies: - Two generic grounded theory studies ( Ballantyne & Grootenboer, 2012; Carlisle, 2013). One study (Carlisle, 2013) conducted both semi-structured focus group interviews and informal focus group discussions during group work interactions. In the other grounded theory study (Ballantyne & Grootenboer, 2012) photographs of an observation session were discussed during an informal focus group interview. Observations Observation techniques were employed in three grounded theory studies and included: - Both generic grounded theory studies (Ballantyne & Grootenboer, 2012; Carlisle, 2013). In one study (Carlisle, 2013) the researcher took the role of a participant-observer for an in-depth study, and in the other study (Ballantyne & Grootenboer, 2012), the observations were photographed to be discussed during focus-group interviews; - One systematic grounded theory study (Parker, 2014). Researchers journals Researchers journals were used by both generic grounded theory studies (Ballantyne & Grootenboer, 2012; Carlisle, 2013) and one systematic grounded theory study (Parker, 2014). Documents Documents such as academic sources, sound and video recordings, and instrumental compositions were selected for one generic grounded theory study (Ballantyne & Grootenboer, 2012) and one systematic grounded theory study (Mateos-Moreno & Alcaraz-Iborra, 2013). 275

304 Survey A survey which gathered qualitative responses from the participants was employed in one generic grounded theory study (Carlisle, 2013). A constant comparative analysis approach was followed in one generic grounded theory (Carlisle, 2013) and both systematic grounded theory studies (Mateos-Moreno & Alcaraz-Iborra, 2013; Parker, 2014) Coding techniques Coding techniques were followed in three grounded theory studies. A wide variety of coding techniques were employed in grounded theory, including inductive coding, open coding and selective coding. Computer assisted qualitative data analysis software programs such as Nvivo and MAXQDA were selected to assist in coding case study research. One generic grounded theory study (Carlisle, 2013) coded the data by hand before organising them in word-processing files. Coding techniques Coding techniques were selected in three grounded theory studies: - combination of inductive coding with open coding to identify initial categories, and followed by selective coding in one systematic grounded theory study (Parker, 2014); - inductive and deductive coding to develop themes in one generic grounded theory study (Ballantyne & Grootenboer, 2012); - open coding in another generic grounded theory study (Carlisle, 2013). Computer assisted qualitative data analysis software The following two studies selected a computer assisted qualitative data analysis software program to assist in data analysis: - NVivo in one generic grounded theory study (Ballantyne & Grootenboer, 2012); - MAXQDA in one systematic grounded theory (Mateos-Moreno & Alcaraz-Iborra, 2013). Validation strategies that were explicitly mentioned were identified in three grounded theory studies. The primary validation technique for ensuring trustworthiness in grounded theory research was peer debriefing. The other validation strategies were member checking, data collection triangulation and data source triangulation. 276

305 Peer debriefing was employed in one generic grounded theory study (Ballantyne & Grootenboer, 2012) and one systematic grounded theory study (Parker, 2014). Member checking, data collection triangulation and data source triangulation were applied in the systematic grounded theory study (Parker, 2014). Ethical procedures were explicitly discussed in three of the four grounded theory studies. In grounded theory research ethical procedures include obtaining ethical approval and consent, and anonymising of qualitative data by removing or changing identifying details by using generic names. Some studies used pseudonyms to protect the privacy and confidentiality of participants. It is important to note that although not all grounded theory studies discussed ethical procedures, the identities of the participants were protected to maintain anonymity in all the studies. No ethical approval was necessary for the systematic grounded theory study (Mateos-Moreno & Alcaraz- Iborra, 2013), since the data used in the study were published manuscripts, documents and recordings in the public domain. Procedures for obtaining ethical approval and consent were followed in the generic grounded theory study (Carlisle, 2013). Privacy protection and anonymity procedures were applied in one generic grounded theory study (Ballantyne & Grootenboer, 2012). Pseudonyms were used in one systematic grounded theory study (Parker, 2014). Arts-based research The one type of arts-based research used by music education researchers in the five selected journals from 2012 to 2015 was identified as practice-based research. The other three types, performative inquiry, research-led practice and a/r/tography were not identified in any arts-based research study. Figure 4 27 illustrates the one type of arts-based research identified in the five selected journals: 277

306 Performative inquiry A/r/tography ARTS-BASED RESEARCH Practice-based research Research-led research Figure 4 27: Arts-based research types identified in five selected journals. Arts-based research, along with grounded theory and conceptual studies, was the least used qualitative strategy of inquiry in music education research. There were four arts-based studies out of 233 qualitative studies, which is a total of 1.72% of the qualitative research published in the five selected journals. Figure 4 28 illustrated one arts-based type (practice-based research) and two combined types (practice-based research with ethnography; arts-based research with narrative inquiry) identified in the five selected journals. 278

307 Arts-based research (4) Arts-based research with narrative inquiry (1) Practicebased research (2) Practice-based research with ethnography (1) Practice-based research (2) Practice-based research with ethnography (1) Arts-based research with narrative inquiry (1) Figure 4 28: Total number of arts-based research types and combinations identified in five selected journals. In the comparative analysis ( ) it emerged that the IJME and the BJME each published two arts-based studies each, giving a total of four articles. Because the number of published qualitative research articles differs between the journals, percentages were added to place the differences in perspective (Figure 4 29). The distribution of arts-based research published in the selected five journals by music education researchers is shown in Table

308 Table 4 25: The distribution of arts-based research in five selected journals. ARTS-BASED RESEARCH IJME MER BJME JRME BCRME TOTAL Practice-based research Practice-based with ethnography Arts-based research with narrative inquiry TOTAL The total use of arts-based research in five selected journals is illustrated in Figure Arts-based research in five selected journals % % IJME MER BJME JRME BCRME Figure 4 29: The total use of arts-based research in five selected journals. 280

309 The articles analysed and identified in the five selected journals from 2012 to 2015 as arts-based research are listed in Table Table 4 26: Arts-based research articles in five selected journals. Practice based research Author Year Title Journal Rea, K What classical musicians can learn from working with actors: Conceptual and pedagogic foundations and outcomes of bringing musicians to integrate in a drama training environment. British Journal of Music Education Viney, L. & Blom, D Preparing stylistically challenging contemporary classical repertoire for performance: Interpreting kumari. International Journal of Music Education Practice based research with ethnography Author Year Title Journal Johnston, P Teaching improvisation and the pedagogical history of the Jimmy Giuffre 3. International Journal of Music Education Arts-based research with narrative inquiry and auto-ethnography Author Year Title Journal Mackinlay, E An ABC of drumming: Children's narratives about beat, rhythm and groove in a primary classroom British Journal of Music Education None of the arts-based research studies examined in five selected journals was acknowledged by the authors as a qualitative study. Both arts-based studies were identified as practice-based research studies. One practice-based research study was published in the BJME, and the other was published in the IJME. 281

310 Two arts-based research studies were conducted in combination with other qualitative strategies of inquiry, and none of them was acknowledged by the authors as a qualitative study. One practice-based study was combined with ethnography and published in the IJME, and in one study, arts-based research was used in combination with narrative inquiry and auto-ethnography, and published in the BJME. All research has an underlying worldview, even if it is not always explicitly acknowledged, yet none of the arts-based research studies discussed a philosophical worldview. Only the combined practiced-based and ethnography study (Johnston, 2013) explicitly discussed a theoretical frame on which the study was based, namely the Jimmy Giuffre 3. Exploration of teaching and learning strategies, and collaborative learning were the most popular topics under study in arts-based research Teaching and learning strategies The following two studies focused on teaching and learning strategies, with specific reference to: - the learning processes of a contemporary repertoire in a practice-based study (Viney & Blom, 2015); - alternative approaches to teaching improvisation in the combined practice-based and ethnography study (Johnston, 2013) Collaborative learning Two studies examined collaborative learning, concerning: - collaborative learning between musicians and actors in the other practice-based study (Rea, 2015); - children s experience of learning together in and through a drumming circle in the combined arts-based, narrative and auto-ethnographic study (Mackinlay, 2014). 282

311 The action verb indicates the research purpose, and the focus and expected outcomes of the studies. All the arts-based studies mentioned a research purpose, with explore being the most popular research purpose verb. One practice-based research study (Rea, 2015) and the combined arts-based, narrative and autoethnographic study (Mackinlay, 2014) were conducted with explore as the research purpose verb; the other practice-based study (Viney & Blom, 2015) employed describe as the research purpose verb. The combined practice-based and ethnography study (Johnston, 2013) used argue as the selected research purpose verb Research question Two of the four arts-based studies were guided by a research question. One practice-based study and the combined arts-based, narrative and auto-ethnographic study were informed by a research question. The research questions were: Practice-based research - What were the important actions undertaken by the two pianists learning Kumari by which an interpretation was formed? What commonalities of experience could be extracted and developed into a model for establishing an interpretation platform when learning a contemporary or stylistically challenging piece of music? (Viney & Blom, 2015:68). Combined arts-based, narrative and auto-ethnographic study - What makes children s experience in a drumming circle meaningful, and how do they make sense of such meaning? (Mackinlay, 2014:209). It is interesting to note that although the field of interests mostly concentrate on the exploring of teaching and learning approaches, both research questions focus on the experience of the participants in examining the phenomenon. Two groups of participants were selected in arts-based research, namely undergraduate drama students and music instrumentalists for one practice-based study (Rea, 2015); and elementary school children for the combined practice-based research and ethnography study (Johnston, 2013). 283

312 Sampling strategies None of the arts-based research studies discussed any sampling strategies Sampling size Sample sizes varied considerably, depending on whether interviews, focus group interviews or observations were used. In many cases studies combined these data collection strategies, but below they are discussed separately to provide clarity on the numbers of participants that are typically used for each data collection strategy. In some cases the same study will therefore be mentioned under more than one heading below. In the arts-based research the selected sampling sizes ranged from one participant to twenty-two participants. Individual and focus group interviews The selected sampling sizes in arts-based research for individual interviews ranged from two participants to twenty-two participants, and included the following: - Practice-based studies: the selection of two participants for the individual interviews was specified, but not the number of participants for the focus group interviews (Rea, 2015). In the other practice-based study (Viney & Blom, 2015) the two authors selected a secondary participant to generate understanding and insight; - Arts-based research with narrative inquiry and auto-ethnography: twenty-two participants (Mackinlay, 2014). Observations The selected sampling sizes in arts-based research for individual interviews ranged from two participants to twenty-two participants, and included the following: - Practice-based studies: Although two participants were selected for the study (Rea, 2015), the number of participants for the observations were not specified. In another practicebased study (Viney & Blom, 2015), the two authors were also the participants in the study as they described the learning processes of musicians; - Arts-based research with narrative inquiry and auto-ethnography: twenty-two participants (Mackinlay, 2014). Documents One practice-based study (Viney & Blom, 2015) and the combined practice-based and ethnography study (Johnston, 2013) each selected one document to analyse. 284

313 Data were collected mainly through documents in arts-based research. Other data collection techniques included individual interviews, focus group interviews and observations. Documents Documents such as 20th-century piano music, recording of a jazz trio and children s visual and textual expressions were selected as data for the following three arts-based studies: - one practice-based study (Viney & Blom, 2015) selected 20th-century piano music; - the combined practice-based and ethnography study (Johnston, 2013) used the recording of a jazz trio; - the arts-based research combined with narrative inquiry and auto-ethnography study (Mackinlay, 2014) selected children s visual and textual expressions. Individual and focus group interviews Individual and focus-group interviews were selected for two practice-based studies (Rea, 2015; Viney & Blom, 2015). Focus group interviews Focus-group interviews were conducted in the form of a brainstorming session in the arts-based study combined with narrative inquiry and auto-ethnography (Mackinlay, 2014). After that individual student interviews followed where each student chose three questions from the brainstorming session and interviewed another student. This data collection technique is interesting as it motivates the participants to collect ideas and understandings from the opinions of students themselves about their different experiences. Observations Observation techniques were employed in two arts-based research studies and included: - one practice-based research study (Rea, 2015); - the arts-based research combined with narrative inquiry and auto-ethnography study (Mackinlay, 2014). The only arts-based study that discussed strategies of data analysis was the arts-based research in combination with narrative inquiry and auto-ethnography (Mackinlay, 2014). The creative analytical process is followed, which combined auto-ethnographic and narrative approaches to assist in the analysis and writing processes. 285

314 Coding techniques It is interesting to note that none of the arts-bases research studies discussed any coding techniques. Although the only arts-based study discussing strategies of data analysis was the arts-based research in combination with narrative inquiry and auto-ethnography (Mackinlay, 2014), no explanation of coding strategies was included. No direct reference to an validation strategies was made in any of the arts-based studies, although one practice-based research (Rea, 2015) discussed the involvement of a music improvisation specialist, two research assistants and a research adviser to assist in the research process. Ethical procedures were explicitly discussed in two of the four arts-based research studies. In the arts-based research, ethical procedures included obtaining ethical approval and consent, and anonymising of qualitative data by removing or changing identifying details by using generic names to protect the privacy and confidentiality of participants. Some ethical procedures were employed in combination with other ethical procedures, while others were used exclusively. It is important to note that although not all arts-based research studies disclosed ethical procedures, the identities of the participants were protected to maintain anonymity in all the studies. Ethical approval and consent Procedures for obtaining ethical approval and consent were followed in the arts-based research in combination with narrative inquiry and auto-ethnography (Mackinlay, 2014); it was necessary to publish individual textual and visual data and images collected from the participants during the research project for publication. Anonymising of qualitative data Privacy protection and anonymity procedures were applied in one practice-based study (Rea, 2015) and the arts-based research study in combination with narrative inquiry and autoethnography (Mackinlay, 2014). Conceptual studies The two types of conceptual studies used by music education researchers in five selected journals from 2012 to 2015 were identified as concept analysis and document analysis. The other four types, content analysis, conversation analysis, meta-analysis and discourse analysis, were not 286

315 identified in any conceptual studies. Figure 4 30 illustrates the two types of conceptual studies identified in five selected journals. Content analysis Discourse analysis Document analysis CONCEPTUAL STUDIES Conversation analysis Concept analysis Meta-analysis Figure 4 30: Conceptual studies types identified in five selected journals. Conceptual studies, along with grounded theory and arts-based research, were the least used qualitative strategy of inquiry in music education research. There were four conceptual studies out of 233 qualitative studies, which is a total of 1.72% of the qualitative research done in the five selected journals. Figure 4 31 illustrated the two conceptual study types (concept analysis; document analysis) identified in the five selected journals.. 287

316 Conceptual studies (4) Document analysis (1) Concept analysis (3) Concept analysis (3) Document analysis (1) Figure 4 31: Total number of conceptual studies identified in five selected journals. In the comparative analysis ( ) it emerged that the IJME published the most conceptual studies with a total of two articles, while the MER and JRME both published the least articles with one article each. The BJME and BCRME did not publish any conceptual studies between 2012 and Because the number of published qualitative research articles differs between the journals, percentages were added to place the differences in perspective (Figure 4 32). The distribution of conceptual studies published in the selected five journals by music education researchers is shown in Table

317 Table 4 27: The distribution of conceptual studies in five selected journals. CONCEPTUAL STUDIES IJME MER BJME JRME BCRME TOTAL Concept analysis Document analysis TOTAL The total use of conceptual studies in five selected journals is illustrated in Figure % Conceptual studies in five selected journals 3.57% % IJME MER BJME JRME BCRME Figure 4 32: The total use of conceptual studies in five selected journals. 289

318 The articles analysed and identified in the five selected journals from 2012 to 2015 as conceptual studies are listed in Table Table 4 28: Conceptual studies articles in five selected journals. Concept analysis Author Year Title Journal Burwell, K Apprenticeship in music: A contextual study for instrumental teaching and learning International Journal of Music Education Randles, C A theory of change in music education. Music Education Research Schmidt, P NGOs as a framework for an education in and through music: Is the third sector viable? International Journal of Music Education Document analysis Author Year Title Journal Van der Merwe, L. & Habron, J A conceptual model of spirituality in music education. International Journal of Music Education Of the four conceptual studies examined in five selected journals, only the document analysis was acknowledged by the authors as a qualitative study. Three studies were identified as concept analysis studies and one study was defined as a document analysis. The IJME published one concept analysis, the MER published the other concept analysis, and the JRME published the document analysis. No combinations of conceptual studies were conducted with other qualitative strategies of inquiry. 290

319 Although all research has an underlying worldview, even though it is not explicitly acknowledged, only two of the three conceptual studies were framed by a philosophical worldview. These worldviews include interpretivism and poststructuralism. An interpretivist worldview informed the document analysis (Van der Merwe & Habron, 2015), while poststructuralism guided one concept analysis (Randles, 2013). Only the document analysis (Van der Merwe & Habron, 2015) explicitly discussed the theoretical frame on which the study was based, namely a hermeneutic phenomenological theoretical framework. In four conceptual studies, the developing of conceptual models was the most popular field of interest under study, with specific reference to: - apprenticeship in music is explored in order to gain insight and understanding into the practice of instrumental teaching and learning in a concept analysis (Burwell, 2013); - a theory of curricular change is provided by introducing a conceptual model of change in music education in another concept analysis (Randles, 2013); - the development of non-governmental organisations as a conceptual model for educating in and through music in the third concept analysis (Schmidt, 2014); - four lifeworld existentials were used to develop a hermeneutic phenomenological model for spirituality in music education in the document analysis (Van der Merwe & Habron, 2015). The action verb indicates the research purpose, and the focus and expected results of the studies. All the conceptual studies employed a research purpose verb to guide the research. One concept analysis (Burwell, 2013) was conducted with explore as the research purpose verb; another concept analysis (Schmidt, 2014) selected investigate as the purpose verb; and in the other concept analysis (Randles, 2013) theorise informed the research. In the document analysis (Van der Merwe & Habron, 2015) the aim was to describe the phenomenon. 291

320 Research question One concept analysis and the document analysis were informed by a research question. The research questions were: Concept analysis - What opportunities and pathways for teaching and learning in music education can NGOs provide? In what ways may current NGO practices inform alternative conceptualisations for an education in and through music? (Schmidt, 2014:31). Document analysis - What theoretical framework provides a foundation to study spirituality in music education? (Van der Merwe & Habron, 2015:50). Congruent with most of the conceptual studies in the five selected journals focusing on the developing of conceptual models, these research questions refer to the development and implementation of a theoretical framework. One concept analysis (Schmidt, 2014) selected teachers, leaders, and administrators of nongovernmental organisations as participants, and in the other two concept analyses (Burwell, 2013; Randles, 2013) and the document analysis (Van der Merwe & Habron, 2015), no participant groups were selected since the data collection included only the selection of documents Sampling strategies Purposeful sampling was used in one concept analysis (Schmidt, 2014) to select sites for the research study based on their variability and accessibility. The document analysis (Van der Merwe & Habron, 2015) described certain criteria when selecting documents, such as spirituality in music education, which were the chosen keywords for the literature search, and the selection of primary sources published after 2000 for the data collection reflected the increase of research in the field of spirituality Sampling size In the conceptual studies, the selected sampling sizes ranged from seven to forty-one, and included the following: - Concept analysis: varied between seven and forty-one as different sites were selected to observe musical programs (Schmidt, 2014). The other two concept analyses (Burwell, 2013; Randles, 2013) did not discuss the selection of a sampling size; 292

321 - Document analysis: twenty-two primary documents in the form of academic sources (Van der Merwe & Habron, 2015). Data were collected through individual interviews, observations and documents in conceptual studies. Individual interviews Individual interviews were semi-structured and recorded in one concept analysis (Schmidt, 2014). Observations Audio-video documentation of selected workshops, lessons, rehearsals and presentations was used in one concept analysis (Schmidt, 2014). Documents Academic sources were selected as data in the document analysis (Van der Merwe & Habron, 2015). Two of the four conceptual studies were guided by a data analysis approach. One concept analysis (Schmidt, 2014) was based on place-centred education methodology to examine music education as an educative space; and the document analysis (Van der Merwe & Habron, 2015) followed the NCT (noticing, collecting, and thinking) model for systematic and constant comparison of the data Coding techniques Coding techniques were applied in two conceptual studies (Schmidt, 2014; Van der Merwe & Habron, 2015). The same studies discussed the use of a qualitative data analysis software program to assist in data analysis. One concept analysis (Schmidt, 2014) selected axial coding to generate themes, and used the Nvivo software to assist in the analysis of the data. The document analysis (Van der Merwe & Habron, 2015) followed the inductive coding approach, and was guided by iterative and thematic coding techniques. This study selected ATLAS. ti 7 to assist in the analysis process. 293

322 Validation strategies explicitly mentioned were only identified in the document analysis (Van der Merwe & Habron, 2015). This study provided validation strategies, namely prolonged engagement through persistent document analysis, review between the two authors, thick description of the phenomenon, and external audits by other researchers not involved in the project to validate the data. Ethical procedures were explicitly discussed in two of the four conceptual studies. In conceptual studies, ethical procedures included obtaining ethical approval and consent. It is important to note that although not all the conceptual studies disclosed ethical procedures, the identities of the participants were protected to maintain anonymity in all the studies. Only two studies discussed ethical procedures, namely one concept analysis (Schmidt, 2014) obtained cooperation from the stakeholders and gatekeepers before entering the different research sites; and the document analysis (Van der Merwe & Habron, 2015) mentioned that no ethical approval was necessary since the data used in the study were published academic literature. Conclusion Each one of the articles in the five selected journals makes an important contribution to the body of literature in music education. By using the heuristic model as a framework to analyse the data for each qualitative strategy of inquiry, the intent was not to evaluate or assess the articles conducted by music education researchers, but the studies were used as examples to explore the recent use of qualitative strategies of inquiry as applied in the five selected journals from 2012 to

323 CHAPTER 5 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION Introduction In this chapter I discuss the findings in the context of the scholarly literature. This final chapter is a synthesis of the reviewed literature in Chapter 2, and the analysed data and emergent themes in Chapter 4. Not only literature from Chapter 2 but also new literature related to the themes in Chapter 4 were added to this conclusion. Since the start of this comparative case study, additional material has been incorporated into this chapter to keep abreast of recent developments in research methodology (Abramo, 2015; Birk & Shindledecker, 2014; Colwell, 2015; Coyle and Olsen, 2011; Gartner et al., 2012; Gaunt & Westerlund, 2016; Hannula, 2004; Juntunen, 2004; Kratus, 2015, 2016; Lala & Kinsella, 2011; Loftus et al., 2011; McNiff, 2013; Morrow & Richards, 1996; Niglas, 2006; Pedersen, 2016; Randles, 2015; Titchen & Horsfall, 2011). This chapter will compare the findings of this study with previous research, bring recent studies into perspective and suggest future directions. The limitations and implications of this study will also be discussed, as well as recommendations for further possible research. During the analysis process, a higher level of exploration shaped the recognition of patterns in the use of qualitative strategies of inquiry in music education, while the analysed data revealed significant information that related to previous studies and confirmed findings from the studies discussed in the literature review. Furthermore, additional literature added new perspectives on and insights into the possible future directions of qualitative strategies of inquiry in music education. This final chapter discusses the growth, use and future directions of qualitative strategies of inquiry in music education research in response to the guiding research question: How have qualitative strategies of inquiry been used in five accredited music education journals between 2012 and 2015, and what future directions does this analysis suggest? 295

324 Discussion The three discussion points that emerged from the findings are the growth of qualitative research, the recent use of research methodology, and the future directions of qualitative strategies of inquiry in music education, shown in Figure 5 1. Growth of qualitative reseach Proportional comparison Recent use of research methodology Evaluation Critique Discussion Future directions Setting boundaries Crossing boundaris Pushing boundaries Figure 5 1: Three discussion points that emerged from the findings. The findings from previous studies (Killian et al., 2012; Lane, 2011; Yarbrough, 1984, 1996, 2002; Zelenak, 2015) on qualitative strategies of inquiry in music education research, as discussed in the literature review, revealed a noticeable increase in the proportion of qualitative studies over the periods under investigation. A systematic comparison to measure the growth of qualitative research in music education is not possible, since the studies had different focal points, time periods and selection of journals. Despite these differences, a significant growth in qualitative research in music education is clearly noticeable, as seen in Table

325 Table 5 1: Proportional comparison of the growth in qualitative research in music education. RESEARCH TIME JOURNALS* FOCUS OF STUDY QUALITATIVE TOTAL STUDY PERIOD STUDIES % Yarbrough (1984) JRME Research designs; research topics; research participants 0 out of % Yarbrough (1996) JRME Research designs; research topics; research participants 8 out of % Yarbrough (2002) JRME Research designs 8 out of % Lane (2011) JRME,BCRME Qualitative strategies of inquiry 65 out of % Killian et al. (2012) JRME, BCRME Research designs; research topics 29 out of % Zelenak (2015) JRME, BCRME, POM Research designs 88 out of % Current study (2016) BJME, BCRME, IJME, JRME,MER Qualitative strategies of inquiry 233 out of % *The journals shown in Table 5 1 are as follows: British Journal of Music Education (BJME) Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education (BCRME) International Journal of Music Education (IJME) Journal of Research in Music Education (JRME) Music Education Research (MER) Psychology of Music (POM) Table 5 1 shows that no qualitative research was identified in music education in the study by Yarbrough (1984) between 1953 and 1983 in the JRME, but findings in her next study (Yarbrough, 1996) from 1984 to 1996 showed that 3,10% of the studies were qualitative studies. In her third study (Yarbrough, 2002) articles were examined from 1953 to 2002 in the JRME, and she reported a small increase in the use of qualitative research with 3.85% of the studies published in the JRME. Lane (2011), Killian et al. (2012) and Zelenak (2015) also examined the JRME as part of their investigation, and although the focus of study and time periods differed, they showed that the presence of qualitative research in music education had strengthened noticeably. In this study 297

326 the JRME was one of the five selected journals, and the time period for examination was from 2012 to 2015 with a qualitative research presence of 48.54%, which confirms that qualitative research in music education is well, developed and established Introduction With qualitative research well recognised in music education, it was necessary to determine the use of these qualitative research procedures in music education by music education researchers. By creating a heuristic model of qualitative research procedures in this study, a foundation for indepth analysis was provided which was based on the data collected from the research articles published in the five selected music education journals from 2012 to During the detailed examination of the use of each separate qualitative strategy of inquiry in Chapter 4, general concerns related to methodological procedures have emerged which correspond with the findings of previous reviews and analyses (Flinders & Richardson, 2006:330; Reimer, 2006:6). Burnard (2006:143) argued that although the growth of qualitative work in music education could be seen as a strength, there are also various concerns over the quality and appropriate use of music education research procedures. Similar to the concerns expressed by Burnard (2006:149), the findings of this study have shown a lack of transparency and accountability regarding methodological procedures such as the defining, disclosure and justification of methodological choices, which were not always clearly discussed and in some cases even omitted. An overview of these concerns from the detailed analysis of the five selected music education journals in Chapter 4 follows below Strategies of inquiry Through the data analysis of the strategies of inquiry in the qualitative articles of the five selected journals from 2012 to 2015, it became clear that while there were studies in each strategy of inquiry that were aligned with research processes, some studies had deficiencies regarding the clarity of the research design and research procedures. Although some music education researchers situated their studies within a specific qualitative strategy of inquiry and the appropriate methodological procedures, there were still a substantial number of researchers who did not specify the selected qualitative strategy of inquiry. Of the 233 qualitative articles examined, 177 articles did specify the selected strategy of inquiry which is 75.97% of the total number of qualitative studies, while 56 of the articles or 24.03% of the qualitative studies did not discuss any selected qualitative strategy of inquiry. In each strategy of inquiry, the strategy was named, but the type of strategy was not always clearly defined. It 298

327 would be helpful if the author could provide definitions and references to academic sources that exemplify the specific type of strategy of inquiry that was being employed, for example, hermeneutic phenomenology instead of the generic term phenomenology. The findings in the present study are similar to those of previous studies discussed in the literature review, where some of the researchers did not discuss the qualitative strategy of inquiry, or define the specific type of strategy of inquiry employed in the study (Kantorski, 1995; McCarthy, 1999) Combined strategies of inquiry The findings of this thesis show that qualitative strategies of inquiry conducted in combination with other strategies of inquiry were in the minority, namely case studies, ethnography, historical research and arts-based research. The motivation and rationale for choosing a combined strategy of inquiry was not always made explicit by the researchers, and the reason for adopting the specific research method and analytical procedure of each separate strategy of inquiry was not always explained. Music education researchers should therefore define more explicitly to which of the combined strategies of inquiry each of the research methods and procedures belongs, and also specify how each has been incorporated into the study. Similar to my findings, Conway (2014a) also concludes that the focus, features and benefits of the second incorporated research lens must be made more explicit Philosophical worldview Through the data analysis of the five selected journals, it became clear that only a few studies in each strategy of inquiry discussed a philosophical worldview, while none of the studies in historical studies and arts-based research mentioned a philosophical worldview. It is important to note that, although not explicitly acknowledged, all research has an underlying philosophical worldview and therefore all researchers need to disclose the different philosophical worldviews as they influence and inform the choice of research procedures (Creswell, 2013:18) Fields of interest Although the focus on areas of interest in each strategy of inquiry varied, the most popular fields of interest which emerged from the data analysis were the development of teaching and learning strategies, music teacher education, curriculum transformation, and student and teacher identity construction. John Kratus (2016) examined the most highly influential articles from 2001 to 2010 and concluded that although topics in journals change over time, they change very slowly. In this study I also found this to be true, since some of the most prominent areas of interest corresponded with the findings of previous studies, such as learning and teaching strategies (Nichols, 2013a; Yarbrough, 1984, 1996) and curriculum studies (Hall, 1998; Killian et al., 2012; McCarthy, 1999). 299

328 Although there is a complex and diverse range of research topics available within the broad spectrum of interests in music education, the lack of diversity in the choice of topics could be a result of representing only the personal interests of music education researchers, rather than identifying the priorities and needs within the music education research community. Reimer (2006:11) noted that the selected topics are usually the researchers present interests, and these random choices should be replaced with research interests within a broader and purposeful structure. To open up possibilities of ways in which the totality of music education needs to be conducted, Jorgensen (2008: ) proposes a systematic examination of all interest areas, including marginal fields, to obtain a more comprehensive understanding of the breadth and complexity of music education Strategies of data analysis In the findings of this thesis the most popular strategies of data analysis in the selected five journals were content analysis and constant comparison analysis. Fewer than half of the studies discussed strategies of data analysis. Although most researchers describe how their studies were conducted, some of them only mentioned the strategy of data analysis and remained vague when describing how the analysis process was applied during the research process. I strongly believe that it would be beneficial if music researchers could discuss the analytical process since the systematic explanation and justification of the different steps of the data analysis strategy ensures the validity and credibility of the research report. According to Boeije (2002:392), researchers often describe in detail how their research was carried out, but are vague about the research procedures. He explained that without an accurate account of a systematic approach to the data analysis process, the credibility and trustworthiness of a qualitative report are diminished and more questionable Research participants The findings in the literature review (Chapter 2) revealed concern about selected participation groups based on the convenience to the researchers, such as higher education students (Diaz & Silveira, 2014; Draves et al., 2008; Ebie, 2002; Yarbrough, 1984, 1996), and elementary school learners (Kratus, 1992). Similar to these findings, the most popular participant groups in this study were selected from higher education, and secondary and elementary school. Research involving children and young people who are in a dependent relationship with the researcher, as in a music studio or classroom, or students in hierarchical organisations which are associated with the researchers, are vulnerable populations. Over-reliance on these participant groups may be considered an unethical practice if the differential power relationship between researcher and participant is not valued and respected. In some cases researchers take participants participation 300

329 for granted, or researchers do not represent the findings accurately, as the participants are powerless to challenge the interpretation of findings (Morrow & Richards, 1996:99 100). Researchers should not restrict themselves to institutional boundaries, but also include situated practice and learning in a diversity of communities in music education in order to involve a variety of participants. Therefore, researchers should first decide on the research problem and then select participants relevant to the research question to ensure a varied and balanced participant group Sampling strategies The most popular selected sampling strategy which emerged from the research, was purposeful and criterion sampling. My own view is that music education researchers could be more transparent in their sampling strategies as most researchers stated the sampling technique without explaining the purpose or rationale for their sampling strategy, and failed to provide a detailed discussion of the sampling procedures employed to identify and select the specific participants. In her findings Conway (2014a) concluded that researchers did not always justify the sampling strategies, nor explain why specific participants were chosen rather than others Validation strategies The findings revealed that the most popular validation strategies were data collection triangulation, member checking and peer debriefing. Fewer than half of the studies discussed validation techniques, which raises questions about the quality and accuracy of the research. Information on validation strategies was inadequate and vague, and could be more comprehensive to provide greater transparency, credibility and rigour. Validation strategies are applicable to all qualitative strategies of inquiry, and researchers need to employ and document validation strategies to ensure reliability and trustworthiness (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016:238) Ethical procedures Although only half of the studies in Chapter 4 discussed ethical rules and guidelines, the identities of the participants were protected to maintain anonymity and confidentiality in all the studies. My view is that, though the protection of the identity, privacy and anonymity of participants is central to music education research, research participants who wish to be recognised and acknowledged in published research must be given the opportunity to make an informed judgement to maintain ownership of their contributions. Ethical concerns and procedures are implicit during all the phases of the research process, and researchers need to acknowledge, disclose and discuss these procedures comprehensively (Creswell, 2013:56). 301

330 Conclusion To reduce these concerns related to research methodology in music education, researchers in music education should strive to progress towards meaningful outcomes. Harden (2007: ) proposed a progression model in four dimensions, which can serve as a model for music education researchers: 1. increased breadth : extending knowledge to include new fields of interest, practice contexts or research procedures; 2. increased difficulty : applying more in-depth or advanced understanding of research topics; 3. increased utility : applying knowledge and theoretical understanding of research procedures in practice and writing; 4. increased proficiency : conducting rigorous and trustworthy research by disclosing and justifying all research procedures. This model can serve as a framework for all music education researchers to broaden their knowledge and enhance methodological rigour. Colwell and Richardson (2002:vii) argue that there continues to be a lack of appreciation for rigorous research in music education despite a century of sporadic efforts. The recent use of qualitative strategies of inquiry in music education research revealed a similar lack of appreciation of the need for rigorous research. Music education is located in three different domains, namely music, education and people, which form part of a complex interrelated entity. Reimer (2006:13) explained that music education researchers do not always have sufficient knowledge to combine their individual and intellectual strengths in order to develop structured and systematic research guidelines for music education research. Another underlying factor is pressure from universities or research boards to produce a high level of research output, which leads to piecemeal publications and a decline in professional ethics and norms (Gartner et al., 2012:24). These problems could be transformed into solutions, such as the decision by music education journals to publish specialised interest group articles dedicated to problem areas in music education research to advance knowledge and understanding in the music education profession (Reimer, 2006:32). Music educators need to be encouraged to become researchers, and not merely practitioners, in order to work towards a shared research goal of enhancing knowledge in the music education profession. Reimer (2006:3) proposes that a philosophical foundation for music education research needed to be constructed in order to improve systematic research. Such a philosophical foundation can provide guidelines on issues such as research questions 302

331 and topics, the influence of music education research on practices of learning and teaching music, and the relevance of music education research to the great majority of music educators. Although qualitative research is well established in music education, the recent use of qualitative strategies of inquiry offered valuable insights into navigating the future directions of music education research Introduction Music education is a complex, diverse and multidimensional discipline with a broad spectrum of interest areas in music education and including interdisciplinary fields such as education, sociology, psychology, anthropology, history and philosophy (Jorgensen, 2008:338). Research should be undertaken across the entire spectrum of music education and across other disciplinary fields to be reflective of all the values and perspectives in music education. A unique approach in qualitative strategies of inquiry in music education is needed to fulfil the creative and diverse needs of music education research. Music education researchers should also be responsive to challenges such as changing trends towards a globalised and digitised society, which results in new research questions being asked, and in turn requires collaborative, innovative and creative research procedures. To keep abreast of dominant developments in music education research, a selection of comprehensive and dynamic strategies of inquiry is required to examine problem areas in music education. To accommodate change and growth, and to broaden our knowledge and range of interests in music education, various factors should be taken into consideration, as illustrated in the future directions model in Figure

332 Figure 5 2: Future directions model. 304

333 This future directions model illustrates that in music education research it is equally important to set boundaries, cross boundaries and push boundaries. Firstly, it is important to note that in order for the boundaries to be crossed, or pushed, they first have to be set properly. Various concerns over the appropriate use of music education research procedures, as seen in the literature reviewed in Chapter 2, and the findings from the five selected journals, emphasise the need for boundaries to be set with elements such as proper methodological procedures, computerassisted qualitative data analysis software, and scientific integrity. In order to adhere to the required guiding principles on research procedures of the respective leading publishing journals, novice and experienced music education researchers need to be well informed about the proper research processes. After that boundaries can be crossed with interdisciplinary collaboration and creative partnerships by engaging in existing interdisciplinary humanities and social sciences programmes (Pedersen, 2016), or creating new integrative environments as discussed in this chapter. Only then, with a solid foundation and sufficient knowledge of research procedures, will music education be ready to push boundaries by adding concepts such as creativity, communities of practice, creative and collaborative research tools, methodological innovation and creative research methodologies to music education research. The ideal would be an effective continuum available to music education researchers ranging from systematic and rigorous research procedures within set boundaries, to crossing boundaries with interdisciplinary collaboration, to pushing boundaries with creative and transdisciplinary collaborative research approaches Setting boundaries In setting boundaries, a structure with specified research processes is created within which researchers can systematically construct a methodological and procedural foundation upon which to conduct their research. Several concerns related to methodological procedures (see 5.2.2) have emerged from the detailed examination in Chapter 4 of the use of each separate qualitative strategy of inquiry, which corresponded with the findings of previous reviews and analyses considered in Chapter 2. The disclosure and justification of methodological procedures were not always clearly discussed, and in some cases were even omitted. It is important for music education researchers to describe how they understand and conduct the research processes in order to strengthen the research purpose and present a clear argument. Burnard (2006:149) stated that the most important implication for research in music education is to explicitly articulate each separate research process, as each step forms part of an interrelated research unit. When music education researchers disclose and justify their research procedures, other researchers will be able to make valid inferences, references and judgments. 305

334 Novice researchers in the field of music education, as well as seasoned researchers new to a specific research method, first have to be well educated in research processes and methodological procedures related to the specific strategy of inquiry in order to disclose and apply these techniques and strategies. The selected research method and research procedures should be made explicit by including citations, justifications of selected choices, and detailed explanations and discussions of processes and techniques (Conway, 2014a). To improve accuracy and reliability, and assist the researcher to systematically categorise the data, computerassisted qualitative data analysis software (CAQDAS) has been designed to support, analyse and organise qualitative content-analytical processes. Various tools such as retrieving texts based on codes and keywords, renaming or merging existing codes, generating network views of existing codes and categories, and their relationship to one another, support the researcher to interpret the results (Friese, 2014:1 3). Scientific integrity is a key aspect of research ethics, and ethical norms in research support the aims of research, such as knowledge, truth and rigour. With these principles and standards, and aiming for a deeper understanding and providing contextual value, research in music education can inform decisions to develop and enhance the music education profession. In order to maintain the unique and flexible qualities of music education, qualitative music education researchers should maintain the ethical and regulatory requirements to participants and organisations and adhere to the standards of research conduct and accountability (Birk & Shindledecker, 2014:589; Bresler, 1995a:38; Elliott, 2007:150). Another form of integrity is authenticity, and therefore music education researchers should always be true and faithful to the actual research project at hand, and must not reject it for the sake of pleasing stakeholders from which they can benefit personally, professionally or financially. The music education research community must take care not to be influenced by agendas external to the research, such as those of research councils or funding organisations, but need to identify and examine problem areas in music education in order to enhance the value and quality of the music education profession (Burnard, 2006: ). Researchers have to plan research that simultaneously satisfies their intellectual interests, the ethical standards of their music education practice, and their institutional research ethics boards. In music education, integrity in research is important for maintaining the highest standards of scientific excellence, honesty and trustworthiness Crossing boundaries Music education research need to embrace interdisciplinary collaboration. New and emergent strategies of inquiry should be developed across boundaries as researchers need to move beyond their own disciplinary boundaries to develop their research interests and produce new knowledge by borrowing and adapting research procedures, or creating new combinations. 306

335 Music education researchers can draw upon interdisciplinary knowledge from a diverse range of disciplines in the social sciences such as education, art, sociology, health, anthropology, psychology, history, theology and philosophy. A multifaceted approach to research is embedded in the multidisciplinary nature of music education and there is no need for a research methodology limited only to music education. The complex combination of the different interrelated levels of music, people and education in music education research cannot be balanced and enhanced by a single research approach. The acceptance of multiple epistemologies and techniques of inquiry from other disciplines contributes to the understanding and broadening of the body of knowledge that identifies music education as a discipline (Reimer, 2006:10; Sidnell, 1972:27). Gaunt and Westerlund (2016:1 3) stress the importance of growing bodies of literature outside music since interdisciplinary collaboration is central to the development of new knowledge in music education research. Meeting the challenge of maintaining flexibility and collaboration in the music education profession will open up new possibilities within extended perspectives and contexts. Collaboration between various researchers from other disciplines applying various types of research procedures will improve the value and quality of exciting research methods in music education, and strengthen the growing possibilities of creative strategies of inquiry (Roulston, 2006:154). Forming creative partnerships by implementing cross-boundary sharing and collaborative research between artists and researchers can build knowledge and expertise, enhance collective understanding and meaning, and stimulate the various research methodologies and practice disciplines by sharing multidisciplinary perspectives Pushing boundaries Once researchers have learned to adhere to systematic and rigorous research procedures to meet certain quality criteria and to deepen their understanding of the research process, and explore creative and collaborative research landscapes, they will have accrued sufficient knowledge and experience to be able to push boundaries. Music education researchers need to identify new possibilities, strategies and approaches to conduct original, creative and innovative research in order to develop meaningful knowledge, perspectives and understanding. Therefore, the role of creativity has to be explored with respect to its significance to music education and its strengthened prominence in research. Eisner (1966: ) identified four different types of creative behaviour: boundary pushing, inventing, boundary breaking and aesthetic organising, while Coyle and Olsen (2011:174) related them to research specifically. In boundary pushing, researchers need to identify and adopt to new ways of practice and understanding. Invention occurs when researchers generate new approaches, knowledge and perspectives, while creative thinking leads to boundary breaking; aesthetic organising takes place when new outcomes are created from differing perspectives. With 307

336 boundaries being pushed, new knowledge, understandings and innovative outcomes can be achieved that add to the field of knowledge. Creative strategies and innovatively designed research procedures should always be characterised by a systematic and rigorous approach. In order to achieve meaningful research in music education, balancing creativity with systematic research procedures will enhance the quality and trustworthiness of music education research. A growing interest has emerged for creatively opening up intellectual spaces to explore and articulate the world of practice (Loftus et al., 2011:5). A scientific explanation of the research problem is not necessarily the only reliable and accurate description, but creative interpretations in response to the research question and purpose communicate music education practice in various expressive ways. It is importance that communities of practice are formed where music education researchers and practitioners can interact regularly to engage in a process of a collective learning situation (Amin & Roberts, 2008:360). To conduct a practice effectively and meaningfully, music education researchers and practitioners should collaborate and share resources such as research proposals and findings, teaching and learning strategies and experiences in order to enrich music education practices. There is a range of creative tools available to assist music education researchers to enhance the unique language of expression in music education. By combining artistic and research components in applying creative and collaborative tools, interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary collaboration will add to the growing nature of qualitative inquiry in music education research. The unique and distinctive qualities of artistic research, such as art as research, contribute to the body of knowledge in music education research. By combining artistic practice and theoretical approaches with the aim of generating new knowledge and understanding, music education researchers can discover new strategies, concepts and processes. This transdisciplinary collaboration will reach an extended audience, exposing them to other areas of knowledge and different modes of perspectives (Hannula, 2004:70; McNiff, 2013:13 14). Embodiment is a tool that can enhance qualitative research practices in music education, as rhythmic movement and bodily experience are an integral part of musical learning and understanding (Lala & Kinsella, 2011:77 79). Music education researchers need to recognise the significance of embodied perspectives in the design of the research process to enhance and improve embodied learning (Juntunen, 2004:211). Embodied research practices such as the Laban/Bartenieff Movement Analysis (Fernandes, 2015:10 12; Hamburg & Clair, 2008:30 32), BeSound (Volpe et al., 2012:172) and Body Mapping (Griffin, 2015:261) lead to new and additional insights, understandings and perceptions drawn from findings beyond the textual accounts. The use of another tool, sound studies, (Abramo, 2015: ), is an interdisciplinary field where the role of sound and listening is integrated into the unique framework of music education. By incorporating sound in collecting, analysing and interpreting data, researchers will be able to 308

337 explore new avenues in music education research to present the findings more meaningfully. The interpretation derived from different types of sounds, either for communication, teaching or learning, opens innovative ways to enhance the sonic experience and understanding (Colwell, 2015:294 5). I-poems, which refer to data analysis strategy tool constructed on a narrative, offer a unique way of understanding complex and multi-layered data (Gilligan et al., 2003:162). By representing different facets of meaning and understanding in the form of the I-poem, music education researchers will be able to engage in new levels of thinking, analysing and presenting intricate data. Butler-Kisber (2010:149) refers to creative and performative inquiry as a craft of representation when exploring new and innovative tools and avenues for presenting research through a creative lens. More possibilities and opportunities for methodological innovation should be available to the music education research community. Some funding organisations, or academic departments, prefer to support research projects that are situated within a certain research design, or are guided by traditional research problems and research procedures, and are resistant to new and emergent strategies of inquiry (Hesse-Biber & Leavy, 2010c:11). These financial and academic institutions need to be challenged with the re-evaluation of old opinions and standards by pushing the boundaries to explore new ways of knowledge construction and research procedures (Hesse- Biber & Leavy, 2010c:12). In addition to traditional research methodologies, methodology courses need to be restructured in order to include and explore different views, perspectives and procedures. In doing so, music education students could already be exposed at tertiary level to push boundaries and not become set in specific ways (Butler-Kisber, 2010:150). When music education researchers encounter paradigm shifts, developments in theory and theoretical perspectives, or new conceptions in knowledge building, they need to explore creative ways of thinking about research, ask innovative research questions to frame and generate knowledge, and develop new research procedures for accessing and analysing data. By crossing and pushing boundaries, the music education research community will be able to develop new and emergent strategies of inquiry to produce new types of data that can inform the unique and creative needs of music education. Researchers need to generate opportunities for creative and innovative research strategies. Although all research attempts to create new knowledge and understanding, they do not necessarily follow creative research methodologies. The creative researcher needs to develop and employ a creative methodology, congruent with the philosophical and theoretical framework as well as the assumptions, research purpose and research questions (Titchen & Horsfall, 2011). Similar to strategies of inquiry such as action research, which originated in psychology (Lewin, 1946), or grounded theory from sociology (Glaser & Strauss, 1967), or arts-based research from education (Barone & Eisner, 1997), or phenomenology from philosophy (Husserl, 1913), a new 309

338 strategy of inquiry can originate in music education that would adhere to the unique needs of music education. It is the nature and complexity of the research problem that determines the strategy of inquiry to be selected, but with the boundaries that are being pushed, these research procedures can became part of an inclusive continuum instead of being classified as discrete units. Niglas (2006:4) does not classify research methodology into separate methodological paradigms or movements, but views methodology as a qualitative-quantitative continuum, where qualitative and quantitative research designs are complementary to each other and not mutually exclusive. Music education research can benefit from this broad methodological approach of a qualitativequantitative continuum, as it will enhance the way future researchers integrate creative research processes by enriching research practice in music education. In Figure 5 3 this continuum combines two main dimensions, namely the quantitative-qualitative continuum from left to right, and the philosophy-methodology continuum from top and bottom to the centre. Figure 5 3 illustrates the clear overlap between and mutual influence of the different philosophical worldviews and research procedures: 310

339 . Figure 5 3: Relationship between philosophy and methodology in social science and educational research (Niglas, 2006:14). 311

340 In order to conceptualise and navigate future directions in music education research, positive change has to be implemented. Randles (2015:334) proposes a theory of change based on his conceptual model of change in music education. He illuminates two components, namely innovation and adaptation, as both are an integral part of the cultural creative process to enact change in music education. He explains that music education research may gain from innovation as the focus is on doing things differently, and from adaptation as the focus is on doing things better. Randles (2015:337) concluded that navigating the future is connecting the processes of problem finding and problem solving in order to transform music education research. Kratus (2015: ,346), however, points to the limitations in Randles s model (2015:334), as the changes proposed by Randles could be negatively viewed as existential risks by some stakeholders and institutions, since these changes are initiated from the perspective of the researcher. To include all role players, Kratus (2015:345) proposes a change in music education through small acts of subversion, where modest and meaningful changes occur in order to reach certain goals. Kratus (2015: ) argues that the combination of his small-scale changes and Randles s large-scale changes may create the perfect opportunity for transformation in music education research. To enact positive change towards future directions in music education research, I propose a combination of the changes offered by Kratus (2015:345) and Randles (2015:334) as illustrated in Figure

341 Figure 5 4: Positive change in music education research as adapted from Kratus (2015:345) and Randles (2015:334). Limitations Music education articles published between 2012 and 2015 in five journals were chosen because each journals has music education in the title, and each is acknowledged by the South African Department of Higher Education and Training (DHET) as accredited for the purposes of research subsidy payments to South African researchers as listed in the Thomas Reuters Web of Science: Arts and Humanities Citation Index and Social Sciences Index. Three music education journals, namely the Journal of Music, Technology and Education, the Journal of Music Teacher Education, and Research Studies in Music Education, were added to the South African list of accredited journals only on 1 January 2016 as listed in the Scopus and Norwegian databases, and do not form part of this study. Given the number of 480 published music education articles selected, the accredited status of the journals used, as well as the substantial number of 233 articles included 313