THE ACQUISITION OF MUSIC READING SKILLS [In R. Colwell (ed.), Handbook of Research in Music Teaching and Learning, New York: Schirmer Books.

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1 THE ACQUISITION OF MUSIC READING SKILLS [In R. Colwell (ed.), Handbook of Research in Music Teaching and Learning, New York: Schirmer Books.] Donald A. Hodges The University of Texas at San Antonio Music reading is a process of converting special visual symbols music notation into sounds. These sounds may be silent, conceived internally, or they may be produced externally through the voice or musical instruments. From this rather simplistic definition there arises a number of more complex issues to be explored. It is the purpose of this chapter to review and synthesize the research on music reading and to comment on the extant research base. The remainder of this chapter is organized into the following sections: basic research, applied research, and commentary. BASIC RESEARCH ON MUSIC READING Some researchers have been interested in basic research on music reading and one of the most common areas of study has been eye movements. The sensation most of us experience in reading is one of fluid eye movements scanning a line of printed music. However, the actual mechanics of reading involve a rapid series of stops (fixations) and starts as the eye focuses on pertinent information and then sweeps (saccade) to the next focal point. Information is brought into the visual system at a fixation, when the eye is not moving and is focusing on a circular area about one inch in diameter. Fixations can last from less than 100 ms to 500 ms (half a second) (Goolsby, 1989). Several studies have been conducted on the saccadic or eye movement patterns during music reading. Evidence suggests that an individual's level of musical experience significantly influences eye movements. Experienced music readers read ahead of the point of performance in units or chunks. This "previewing" allows the eye to fixate on structurally important features, such as chords or melodic fragments, and to skip over less important details which may be filled in. It appears that saccadic movements alter to suit the music (Van Nuys and Weaver, 1943; Weaver, 1943). While sight playing piano music of a homophonic nature, the saccadic movements tend to consist of a vertical sweep down from treble to bass, then over to the next chord for another vertical sweep downward, and so on. Contrapuntal music elicits a horizontal sweep along an upper line for a unit, followed by a return for a parallel horizontal sweep along a lower line. It has also been found that better keyboard readers economize on eye movements, keeping their eyes focused on the music, while poorer readers engage in many needless shifts from the music to the hands (Fuszek, 1990). Researchers are beginning to learn more about the units of information that are perceived during fixations. Sloboda (1976b) found that musicians were superior to nonmusicians in the recognition of briefly exposed pitch notation patterns of more than

2 Music Reading, p. 2 three notes, if the exposure was longer than 150 ms. At exposure times of less than 100 ms, musicians were no better than nonmusicians at identifying specific pitches, but they were superior at retaining the contour of notational patterns (Sloboda, 1978). For isolated pitches, musical experience would not necessarily be advantageous, since the task would be more related to visual-spatial acuity. However, for longer patterns, musical experience would provide an advantage, since individual notes can be grouped into meaningful patterns (e.g., an arpeggio, scale-like passage, etc.). These results suggest that a time interval shorter than 150 ms is too brief for the eye, musically experienced or not, to obtain information. However, Goolsby (1989), using sophisticated equipment which determines eye positions 1000 times per second, discovered that skilled music readers use fixations of less than 100 ms. (Perhaps the difference in results is due to the fact that Sloboda's subjects viewed patterns flashed on a screen then transcribed what they saw to paper, while Goolsby's subjects were monitored during the act of vocalizing melodies.) How long are the units of previewed information? Sloboda (1974, 1977) asked instrumentalists to read a single line of music. At some point in the process the music was removed and the musicians continued to play as long as possible from memory. Poorer readers could produce only another three or four correct notes, while better readers could produce up to seven additional notes. The actual number of notes was somewhat conditioned by how many notes were left in a phrase unit. (It is interesting to note that this number corresponds to the magic number 7+2 which Miller, 1956, established as the average memory buffer for bits of information.) When the same task was given to keyboard players (Sloboda, 1977), it was found that structural markings (important chords or melodic fragments) increased eye-hand span and tended to extend the memory unit to a phrase boundary. There is an interesting phenomenon, similar to "proof-reader's error" in language reading, which corroborates the evidence that experienced musicians read in units. When reading a book, one reads in context and thus may skip over simple typographical errors. The mind infers the meaning of the sentence by taking in the key words and the eyes skip over less important details. Pianists were asked to sight-read a piece of musicwhich contained carefully implanted notational errors (Sloboda, 1976a). All subjects "corrected" some of the mistakes; that is, they played notes that would normally have been written rather than the errors that were implanted. On a second performance of the piece, the number of proof-reader's errors actually increased slightly as the subjects made even more "corrections;" this indicates that more familiarity with the music allowed for greater reliance on units rather than specific details. Also, notational errors were less likely to be detected in the middle of phrases, indicating that subjects made more inferences about middles of phrases than about beginnings or endings. These inferences were based on structural elements of the music. Taking a different approach, a number of researchers have been interested in discovering what relationships might exist between music reading skills and other related variables. Boyle (1970) obtained a correlation coefficient of.81 and Elliott (1982) a coefficient of.90 between total sightreading scores and sight reading rhythm patterns. Drake (1968) also reported a high positive correlation (r not given) between rhythm performance and general performance ability. A number of researchers have obtained correlations for other related variables that are positive but too low to be of predictive value. These include music reading correlated

3 Music Reading, p. 3 with standardized tests (Cooley, 1961; Erlings, 1977), tests of tonal memory and error detection (Kanable, 1969), sight reading skills and leadership status (Luce, 1965), socioeconomic and musical backgrounds (Daniels, 1986), I.Q. and reading achievement (Hutton, 1953; King, 1954; Luce, 1965). A summary of basic research on music reading indicates that eye movements are influenced by the nature of the music being read. Experienced music readers scan up to seven notes ahead of performance and are guided by structural elements in the music. They also tend to group notes in units that are viewed within the context of a musical style. Good keyboard readers exhibit an economy of eye shifts between the music and their hands. Relationships between music reading and rhythm reading provided the only correlation coefficients high enough to be of predictive value. Teaching Music Reading APPLIED RESEARCH ON MUSIC READING A moderate body of literature may be grouped under the rubric of teaching music reading. Unfortunately, these studies are so scattered as to render overall conclusions exceedingly difficult. In forty selected studies there are no replications and few that use similar strategies. Even where several studies can be grouped together, there is rarely enough consensus to lead to a broader conclusion. Due to the fragmentary nature of these studies and space limitations, descriptions are necessarily terse. Bebeau (1982), Colley (1987), Palmer (1976), and Shehan (1987) concluded that the use of syllables, or related mnemonic devices, is an effective pedagogical approach for teaching music reading skills. However, there is a decided lack of continuity among the approaches used and in the results obtained. It is not clear, for example, whether one particular approach has a distinct advantage, or whether the use of nearly any kind of syllabic or mnemonic device is sufficient. The results of three studies indicate that tonal pattern instruction is an effective technique for improving melodic sightreading (Grutzmacher, 1987; MacKnight, 1975; Richardson, 1972). Results were mixed in a group of studies that centered around the use of tape recorded aural models. Anderson (1981) and Hodges (1975) found them to be ineffective, while Barnes (1964), Heim (1976), Kanable (1969), Owen (1973) and Puopolo (1971) found that taped examples led to improvement in music reading. Christ (1966), DiFronzo (1969), and Hammer (1963) all found the tachistoscope to be an effective means of teaching music reading skills, while Stokes (1965) did not. From the dates of these studies it would appear that the tachistoscope is no longer popular equipment. In a study using computers, Willett and Netusil (1989) found that a drill program was effective in improving note (placement skills but not in note naming. Several researchers tested the effects of different notational systems, with varying results. The notational changes made by Bukspan (1979), notation based on a binary system, and Kyme (1960), shape notes, led to improvement in music reading. Notational schemes used by Byo (1988) and Gregory (1972) had no observed effect on music reading test scores. The use of body movements in music reading was effective in two experiments with instrumentalists (Boyle, 1970; Skornicka, 1972) but not in another (Salzburg and

4 Music Reading, p. 4 Wang, 1989). Neither Autry (1975) nor Klemish (1970) found hand signs and/or body movements to be helpful in sight singing. Class piano students who sang piano materials did not improve music reading skills (Hargiss, 1962) but similar students did have better rhythmic accuracy when they practiced accompaniments with tape recordings of soloists (Watkins and Hughs, 1986). Emphasizing vertical aspects of the score did not help class piano students to become better music readers (Lowder, 1973). Creative activities, such as composing, performing, and listening, led to improvements in music reading scores (Bradley, 1974; Hutton, 1953). Experiencing music reading activities prior to formal explanations produced higher music reading scores (Hewson, 1966). No significant differences were found among vocal, ukelele, or piano groups in auditory-visual discrimination skills (Colwell and Rundell, 1965). Placing song texts higher and lower in conjunction with higher and lower melodic pitches was found to facilitate music reading (Franklin, 1977). Noble (1971) demonstrated that conceptual teaching was effective. Sight singing practice with a specially-designed manual was helpful (Cutietta, 1979). Music reading films were not effective (Rea, 1954) nor was the use of imaged subdivisions (Drake, 1968) or a maximal speed pacing technique (Trisman, 1968). From this brief review of the basic research on music reading, it is apparent that the bulk of these studies are technique- or strategy-driven rather than based on any underlying theory of music reading. With the mixed results obtained and the lack of replications, it is difficult to draw any major conclusions about teaching music reading that are derived from research. Error Detection in Score Reading One of the areas which has received a certain amount of attention from researchers is the detection of errors in a musical performance while reading a score. Because younger musicians rarely have the opportunity to be involved in score reading, the subjects of these studies are primarily college students or music teachers. The research in error detection can be organized into two sub-categories: the improvement of error detection skills and the relationship of error detection skills to other variables. Recognizing the importance of score reading and error detection to ensemble conductors, a central question is: "what techniques might be effective in improving error detection?" Several researchers (Behmer, 1988; Costanza, 1971; Ramsey, 1979; Sidnell, 1971) demonstrated that programed instruction, using written musical scores and aural examples, was an effective technique for improving error detection skills. Deal (1985) found that a computerized version of Ramsey's programed instructional materials was equally as effective as the original, but not more so. DeCarbo (1982) found that programed instructional materials were equal to podium-based conducting experiences on a written error detection test, but not on an actual conducting test which included error detection. Forsythe and Woods (1983) found error detection scores were lower when the subjects were actually conducting than when they were only listening. These last two studies suggest that the use of programmed instructional materials needs to be integrated into conducting experiences.

5 Music Reading, p. 5 A second area of study related to error detection involves the correlation of error detection skills with other presumably relevant variables or the comparison of subjects with different demographic profiles. Several researchers started with the premise that various aspects of studies in music theory would be related to error detection. Ear training grades and dictation and sightsinging scores were highly related to error detection scores; for example, Larson (1977) obtained a correlation coefficient of.80 between error detection and dictation on tonal examples and Ottman (1965) obtained a coefficient of.73 between melodic sight singing and error detection. Also, students with two years of theory did better on an error detection test than students with only one year (Hansen, 1961) and "A" students did better than students with lower grades in music theory classes (Gonzo, 1971). Conversely, Brand and Burnsed (1981) found almost no relationship between error detection skills and music theory grades (r=-.19) or sightsinging and ear training and grades (r=.07). Music performance and teaching experiences have provided additional variables for study. Keyboard study was related positively to the ability to hear vertical aspects (chords) of the score (Pagan, 1973) and pianists performed better than instrumentalists on a test of error detection (Hansen, 1961). However, a lack of relationship was found between error detection skills and number of instruments played, ensemble experience, and years of private instruction (Brand and Burnsed, 1981). Also, mixed results were obtained when teachers were compared with students (Gonzo, 1971). Essentially, there were no differences between choral teachers and undergraduate students in their ability to detect pitch errors while reading a choral score. However, choral directors with six to ten years of experience did better than college seniors but not juniors. DeCarbo (1984) found that teachers with eleven years or more of teaching experience scored higher on an error detection test than did teachers who had less experience. He also found that a subject's principal instrument made no difference in error detection scores. Briefly, then, it appears that error detection skills might be improved through the use of programed instructional materials. These results have prompted the publication of at least two commercially-available sets of programed instructional materials, one choral (Grunow and Fargo, 1985) and one instrumental (Froseth and Grunow, 1979). However, such programs should be integrated into podium-based conducting experiences. Students who have good keyboard and music theory skills are more likely to perform better on error detection tests than other students, but the relationship between these skills and music reading is not yet clearly defined. COMMENTARY ON MUSIC READING RESEARCH When considering the research base in music reading, there is perhaps a natural tendency to want to make some comparisons with research in language reading. Laying aside for a moment the fundamental differences in the two different reading skills, there are at least three other major differences. One difference is in the amount of research. According to Singer (1983) more than 12,000 studies in language reading were conducted between 1879 and There are perhaps fewer than 250 such studies on music reading. Of those studies done on music reading, few can be grouped together to provide a core of research leading toward a solid grasp of a particular issue.

6 Music Reading, p. 6 A second major difference concerns the role of theory in reading research. The first major theory in language reading was proposed in 1953 and a significant amount of research has been conducted to test this theory out, along with the others that have since been proposed (Gentile, et. al, 1983). In music there is no theory devoted specifically to an explication of music reading; thus, the bulk of the research appears to be devoid of a theoretical underpinning. Music Learning Theory, proposed by Gordon (1984), includes music reading, but does not represent a comprehensive theory of music reading. Explicit theories of music reading, theories that would organize knowledge and research about music reading into a system of assumptions, principles, and procedures, do not exist. Such theories would be useful in predicting and explaining the phenomenon of music reading. Implicit theories, theories that one might construct based on observations of what teachers do, abound. Unfortunately, these are of lesser value in providing the solid grounding that is necessary to guide research. The third major difference has to do with the fact that as a profession, music educators seemingly have never fully decided whether music reading is necessary or not. Certainly, in traditional music performance experiences, music reading is deemed integral and necessary. But in general music, the issue of "rote versus note" is more than an historical curiosity since there is still disagreement over whether all children should engage in music reading activities as a basic part of music education. It is within this context that research on music reading must be viewed: there is much less research than is desirable, much of it is not guided by an overarching theory, and the music education profession has not made a clear statement regarding the role of music reading in general music. On the latter point, it would seem to be important for the profession to have a formal definition of music literacy, which includes a clear position statement on the value of music reading in general music education. Future research efforts might be guided toward two complementary goals: (1) basic research geared toward understanding the process of music reading, and (2) applied research designed to determine the most effective means of training proficient music readers. An important step toward reaching these goals would be a comprehensive theory of music reading. Although the use of theory in language reading research was held up as a role model, it should be noted that research in that area lacked a viable theory for seventy-five years (Singer, 1983). In looking through the diffuse database, several previously unrelated factors might be brought together as a beginning move toward the construction of a musicreading theory. One important factor might well be the basic research that indicates that good music readers read ahead in meaningful units and that structural units (e.g., phrases) are important signposts. This could be bolstered by the applied research in tonal pattern instruction. However, since rhythmic sight reading is a strong predictor variable, the focus should be broadened to include rhythm pattern instruction. Gordon's taxonomy of tonal and rhythm patterns might be important in this regard (Gordon, 1976). Basic researchers should take advantage of the latest in technological developments. Sophisticated equipment, such as the Stanford Research Institute Dual Purkinje-Image Eyetracker used by Goolsby (1989), provides enormous research potential. Continued improvements, such as presenting music notation on a computer screen, interfacing MIDI equipment, and converting programs to run on more accessible personal computers, will allow for data collections which have previously been

7 Music Reading, p. 7 impossible. Keeping abreast of developments in language reading research is particularly important for persons interested in doing basic research in music reading. Similarly, technological advances can be utilized by applied researchers. Early research using the tachistoscope could easily be replicated and extended on computers. Since this research yielded primarily positive results and it appears to support the previously-identified direction of tonal and rhythm patterns, it is a line of experimentation which should be pursued. One can imagine, for example, a beginning band student sitting at a computer and controlling the presentation of briefly-presented tonal and rhythm patterns (perhaps by means of a foot pedal). The student would play the pattern one of a series of carefully graded exercises receive immediate feedback on the performance, and hear a correct performance in response. Such a program could be adapted to group format by means of large screen projection. Research on music reading has provided some insights into what is a very complicated process. However, there is much yet to be learned. With creative theory construction and a focusing of research efforts on several key issues, exciting progress could be made. Critically important to the success of these efforts, at least in terms of sustaining an emphasis over a period of time, will be a strong philosophical stance on the part of the music education profession about the value of music reading in general music. REFERENCES Anderson, James N. (1981). Effects of tape-recorded aural models on sight-reading and performance skills. Journal of Research in Music Education, 29, Autry, Mollie R. (1975). A study of the effects of hand signs in the development of sight singing skills. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, The University of Texas at Austin. Barnes, Robert A. (1964). Programed instruction in music fundamentals for future elementary teachers. Journal of Research in Music Education, 12, Bebeau, Muriel J. (1982). Effects of traditional and simplified methods of rhythm-reading instruction. Journal of Research in Music Education, 30, Behmer, Carl F. (1988). The effect of a learning program on the ability of undergraduate music students to detect errors in performance. Rev. by Richard C. Sang in Council for Research in Music Education, 97, Boyle, J. David. (1970). The effect of prescribed rhythmical movements on the ability to read music at sight. Journal of Research in Music Education, 18, Bradley, Ian L. (1974). Development of aural and visual perception through creative processes. Journal of Research in Music Education, 22, Brand, Manny and Burnsed, Vernon. (1981). Music abilities and experiences as predictors of error-detection skill. Journal of Research in Music Education, 29,

8 Music Reading, p. 8 Bukspan, Yael. (1979). Introduction of musical literacy to children by means of a binary system of music notation: An experimental study. Council for Research in Music Education, 59, Byo, James. (1988). The effect of barlines in music notation on rhythm reading performance. Contributions to Music Education, 15, Christ, William B. (1966). The reading of rhythmic notation approached experimentally according to techniques and principles of word reading. Rev. by John W. Shepard in Council for Research in Music Education, 7, Colley, Bernadette. (1987). A comparison of syllabic methods for improving rhythm literacy. Journal of Research in Music Education, 35, Colwell, Richard J. and Rundell, Glenna. (1965). An evaluation of achievement in auditoryvisual discrimination resulting from specific types of musical experiences among junior high school students. Journal of Research in Music Education, 13, Cooley, John C. (1961). A study of the relation between certain mental and personality traits and ratings of musical abilities. Journal of Research in Music Education, 9, Costanza, A. Peter. (1971). Programed instruction in score reading skills. Journal of Research in Music Education, 19, Cutietta, Robert. (1979). The effects of including systemized sight-singing drill in the middle school choral rehearsal. Contributions to Music Education, 7, Daniels, Rose D. (1986). Relationships among selected factors and the sight-reading ability of high school mixed choirs. Journal of Research in Music Education, 34, Deal, John J. (1985). Computer-assisted instruction in pitch and rhythm error detection. Journal of Research in Music Education, 33, DeCarbo, Nicholas J. (1982). The effects of conducting experience and programmed materials on error-detection scores of college conducting students. Journal of Research in Music Education, 30, DeCarbo, Nicholas J. (1984). The effect of years of teaching experience and major performance instrument on error detection scores of instrumental music teachers. Contributions to Music Education, 11, DiFronzo, Robert F. (1969). A comparison of tachistoscopic and conventional methods in teaching grade three music sight-playing on a melody wind instrument. Rev. by Warren F. Prince in Council for Research in Music Education, 16,

9 Music Reading, p. 9 Drake, Alan H. (1968). An experimental study of selected variables in the performance of musical durational notation. Journal of Research in Music Education, 16, Elliott, Charles A. (1982). The relationships among instrumental sight-reading ability and seven selected predictor variables. Journal of Research in Music Education, 30, Erlings, Billie. (1977). A pilot investigation of relationships between elementary keyboard sightreading achievement by music majors in college and selected musical profile tests. Council for Research in Music Education, 50, Forsythe, Jere L. and Woods, Jon R. (1983). The effects of conducting on the error detection ability of undergraduate and graduate instrumental conductors. Contributions to Music Education, 10, Franklin, Erik. (1977). An experimental study of text notation. Council for Research in Music Education, 50, Froseth, James O. and Grunow, Richard F. (1979). MLR instrumental score reading program. Chicago: G.I.A. Publications, Inc. Fuszek, Rita M. (1990). Sight-reading sight-playing at the keyboard. California State University, Fullerton, Unpublished paper. Gentile, Lance M., Kanil, Michael L., and Blanchard, Jay S. (eds.). (1983). Reading Research Revisited. Columbus, OH: Charles E. Merril Pub. Co. Gonzo, Carroll L. (1971). An analysis of factors related to choral teachers' ability to detect pitch errors while reading the score. Journal of Research in Music Education, 19, Goolsby, Thomas. (1989). Computer applications to eye movement research in music reading. Psychomusicology, 8, Gordon, Edwin E. (1976). Tonal and rhythm patterns: An objective analysis. Albany: State University of New York Press. Gordon, Edwin E. (1984). Learning sequences in music: Skill, content, and patterns. Chicago: G.I.A. Publications, Inc. Gregory, Thomas B. (1972). The effects of rhythmic notation variables on sight-reading errors. Journal of Research in Music Education, 20, Grunow, Richard F. and Fargo, Milford H. (1985). The choral score reading program. Chicago: G.I.A. Publications, Inc.

10 Music Reading, p. 10 Grutzmacher, Patricia A. (1987). The effects of tonal pattern training on the aural perception, reading recognition, and melodic; sight-reading achievement of first-year instrumental music students. Journal of Research in Music Education, 35, Hammer, Harry. (1963). An experimental study of the use of the tachistoscope in the teaching of melodic sight singing. Journal of Research in Music Education, 11, Hansen, Louis A. (1961). A study of score reading ability of musicians. Journal of Research in Music Education, 9, Hargiss, Genevieve. (1962). The acquisition of sight singing ability in piano classes for students preparing to be elementary teachers. Journal of Research in Music Education, 10, Heim, Alyn J. (1976). An experimental study comparing self-instruction with classroom teaching of elementary rhythm reading in music. Council of Research in Music Education, 46, Hewson, Alfred T. (1966). Music reading in the classroom. Journal of Research in Music Education, 14, Hodges, Donald A. (1975). The effects of recorded aural models on the performance achievement of students in beginning band classes. Journal of Band Research, 12, Hutton, Doris. (1953). A comparative study of two methods of teaching sight singing in the fourth grade. Journal of Research in Music Education, 1, Kanable, Betty. (1969). An experimental study comparing programed instruction with classroom teaching of sightsinging. Journal of Research in Music Education, 17, King, Harry A. (1954). A study of the relationship of music reading and I.Q. scores. Journal of Research in Music Education, 2, Klemish, Janice J. (1970). A comparative study of two methods of teaching music reading to first-grade children. Journal of Research in Music Education, 18, Kyme, George H. (1960). An experiment in teaching children to read music with shape notes. Journal of Research in Music Education, 8, 3-8. Larson, Richard C. (1977). Relationships between melodic error detection, melodic dictation, and melodic sightsinging. Journal of Research in Music Education, 25, Lowder, Jerry E. (1973). Evaluation of a sight-reading test administered to freshmen piano classes. Journal of Research in Music Education, 21,

11 Music Reading, p. 11 Luce, John R. (1965). Sight-reading and ear-playing abilities as related to instrumental music students. Journal of Research in Music Education, 13, MacKnight, Carol B. (1975). Music reading ability of beginning wind instrumentalists after melodic instruction. Journal of Research in Music Education, 23, Miller, George A. (1956). The magic number seven, plus or minus two. Some limits on our capacity for processing information. Psychological Review, 53, Noble, Robert. (1971). A study of the effects of a concept teaching curriculum on achievement in performance in elementary school beginning bands. Rev. by Roger H. Edwards in Council for Research in Music Education, 26, 6-9. Ottman, Robert. (1965). A statistical investigation of the influence of selected factors on the skills of sight singing. Rev. by Merrell L. Sherburn in Council for Research in Music Education, 5, Owen, Norman L. (1973). Teaching music fundamentals to the seventh grade via programed materials. Journal of Research in Music Education, 21, Pagan, Keith A. (1973). An experiment in the measurement of certain aspects of score reading ability. Rev. by Carroll Gonzo in Council for Research in Music Education, 31, Palmer, Mary. (1976). Relative effectiveness of two approaches to rhythm reading for fourthgrade students. Journal of Research in Music Education, 24, Puopolo, Vito. (1971). The development and experimental application of self-instructional practice materials for beginning instrumentalists. Journal of Research in Music Education, 19, Ramsey, Darhyl S. (1979). Programmed instruction using band literature to teach pitch and rhythm error detection to music education students. Journal of Research in Music Education, 27, Rea, Ralph C. (1954). Music reading films. Journal of Research in Music Education, 2, Richardson, Helen V. (1972). An experimental study utilizing two procedures for teaching music reading to children in second grade. Rev. by Janice J. Klemish in Council for Research in Music Education, 30, Salzburg, Rita S. and Wang, Cecilia C. (1989). A comparison of prompts to aid rhythmic sight-reading of string students. Psychology of Music, 17,

12 Music Reading, p. 12 Shehan, Patricia K. (1987). Effects of rote versus note presentations on rhythm learning and retention. Journal of Research in Music Education, 35, Sidnell, Robert G. (1971). Self-instructional drill materials for student conductors. Journal of Research in Music Education, 19, Singer, Harry. (1983). A critique of Jack Holmes's study: The substrate-factor theory of reading and its history and conceptual relationship to interaction theory. In Reading Research Revisited (eds. Lance M. Gentile, Michael L. Kanil, Jay S. Blanchard). (Columbus, OH: Charles E. Merill Pub. Co. Skornicka, Joseph E. (1972). The function of time and rhythm in instrumental music reading. Rev. by Alan H. Drake in Council for Research in Music Education, 27, Sloboda, John A. (1974). The eye-hand span: An approach to the study of sight-reading. Psychology of Music, 2, Sloboda, John A. (1976a). The effect of item position on the likelihood of identification by inference in prose reading and music reading. Canadian Journal of Psychology, 30, Sloboda, John A. (1976b). Visual perception of musical notation: Registering pitch symbols in memory. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 28, Sloboda, John A. (1977). Phrase units as determinants of visual processing in music reading. British Journal of Psychology, 68, Sloboda, John A. (1978). Perception of contour in music reading. Perception, 7, Sloboda, John A. (1985). The musical mind: The cognitive psychology of music. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Stokes, Charles F. (1965). An experimental study of tachistoscope training in reading music. Rev. by William F. Wakeland in Council for Research in Music Education, 5, Trisman, Donald A. (1968). An experimental investigation of maximal speed pacing technique for teaching music reading. Rev. by Alan H. Drake in Council for Research in Music Education, 13, Van Nuys, K. and Weaver, H. E. (1943). Memory span and visual pauses in reading rhythms and melodies. Psychological Monographs, 55, Watkins, Alice and Hughes, Marie A. (1986). The effect of an accompanying situation on the improvement of students' sight reading skills, Psychology of Music, 14,

13 Music Reading, p. 13 Weaver, H. E. (1943). A study of visual processes in reading differently constructed musical selections. Psychological Monographs, 55, Willett, Barbara E. and Netusil, Anton J. (1989). Music computer drill and learning styles at the fourth-grade level. Journal of Research in Music Education, 37,