A DREAM DEFERRED : JAZZ WRITING ACROSS THE BLACK ATLANTIC

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1 A DREAM DEFERRED : JAZZ WRITING ACROSS THE BLACK ATLANTIC by Eden Glasman Department of English McGill University, Montreal April 2015 A thesis submitted to McGill University in partial fulfillment of the requirements of the degree of Master of Arts. Eden Glasman, April 2015

2 ii TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract.... iii Acknowledgements... v Introduction: Jazz writing across the Black Atlantic... 1 Chapter 1: Musical re-construction: home-building in Toni Morrison s Jazz Chapter 2: Dominating silence: finding a Home Address in Mongane Serote s To Every Birth Its Blood Chapter 3: Learning to live in Accordionland : shaping chaos in Binyavanga Wainaina s One Day I Will Write About This Place Coda.. 90 Bibliography. 93

3 iii ABSTRACT This thesis examines jazz writing, in the double sense of writing about jazz and translating into prose the aesthetic strategies of this musical genre, in Toni Morrison s Jazz, Mongane Wally Serote s To Every Birth Its Blood and Binyavanga Wainaina s One Day I Will Write About This Place. It considers the subversive strategies deployed in these texts, exploring the ways in which, and to what degree of success, their authors have utilized the aesthetic and social characteristics of jazz music as a means of social resistance and struggle against various forms of racial and (neo)colonial oppression. In selecting case studies from the United States, South Africa and Kenya, this thesis comments on the dynamics of cultural borrowing of jazz forms across the Atlantic. Paying attention to the distinct social contexts of each text, and also to the complex ways in which they interrelate, it demonstrates the potentials and the limitations of a transatlantic jazz aesthetic as a postcolonial tool. Cette thèse examine l'écriture de jazz, dans le double sens de l'écriture sur le jazz et la traduction en prose des stratégies esthétiques de ce genre musical dans le livre Jazz de Toni Morrison, To Every Birth Its Blood de Mongane Wally Serote et One Day I Will Write About This Place de Binyavanga Wainaina. Cette thèse considère donc les stratégies subversives déployées dans ces textes, en explorant les moyens par lesquels, et à quel degré de succès, leurs auteurs ont utilisé les caractéristiques esthétiques et sociales de la musique de jazz comme moyen de résistance sociale et de la lutte contre les diverses formes de discrimination raciale et de l'oppression (néo)coloniale. Des études de cas sélectionnés des États-Unis, de l Afrique du Sud et du Kenya, démontrent la dynamique des emprunts culturels des formes de jazz à travers

4 iv l'atlantique. En prêtant attention aux contextes sociaux distincts de chaque texte aussi bien qu aux complexités dont elles sont tous liées, la thèse démontre les potentialités et les limites du jazz esthétique transatlantique comme un outil postcoloniale.

5 v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Primarily, I must thank my supervisor, Professor Monica Popescu, whose intelligence, energy, and warm encouragement made this thesis a pleasure to write. It has been not only immensely educational to work with her, but also consistently fun. I would also like to acknowledge the supportive and interested friends with whom I shared ideas, playlists and workspaces: Rory Williamson, Emily Halpert-Cole, Gueula Rabkin, Brendan Macdonald, Olivia Heaney, John Allaster, Liana Chase, Emily Parkinson, Zafer Mamilli and Anastasia Voitinskaia. As always, special thanks go to Joe Glasman and Dina Bennett.

6 1 Introduction: Jazz writing across the Black Atlantic Jazz seeps into words spelled out words, Langston Hughes remarked in a talk at the Newport Jazz Festival in 1956, prompting the question of whether jazz music evokes and encourages a specific kind of writing ( Jazz ). What aesthetic and political purposes might this cultural form serve for writers who adopt its forms and tropes? What influence has jazz had in the literary realm? Toni Morrison s 1992 novel Jazz, Mongane Serote s 1981 novel To Every Birth Its Blood, and Binyavanga Wainaina s 2011 work One Day I Will Write About This Place are texts that employ aspects of the jazz aesthetic or, to use the critic Lars Eckstein s term, jazzthetic modes in their fiction, infusing the sounds and structures of this musical form into their language, and also by taking up the genre s social and political objectives (272). Since jazz is a musical form born from social struggle, it is a useful lens through which to view texts that take such circumstances as their central concern. To what extent do both the aesthetic and political aspects of jazz writing serve what could be termed the postcolonial goals of these texts, as they attempt to witness, and to overcome, forces of racial and colonial oppression? I question how the subversive, innovative and potentially healing qualities of jazz converge with the aspects of struggle against old and new forms of colonialism that are evident in the three writers I have chosen. In this introduction, I will work through a definition of jazz music, examining its origins and characteristics (that is, insofar as they can be pinpointed at all). I will then address the question of the translatability of these musical features to textual form, considering whether, and in what ways, this transfer is a possible and/or appropriate way to approach these works. I will then situate the jazz aesthetic in the transatlantic context of the three case studies I have selected,

7 2 explaining the reasons for my choice, and the potential problems that arise from their comparison. In doing so, I demonstrate jazz s potential power as a postcolonial tool across the black Atlantic. In Sparrow s Last Jump, Elliot Grennard depicts jazz as something that is difficult to describe: Jazz musicians don t pop off a lot. Like when you ask them about jazz; they don t trust words to say what they feel, so they dummy up. If they don t like something and you ask them, they kind of turn away and say, Well. You know. If they like something, they ll grin and say, That s all right (107). Grennard s description exemplifies the difficulties of defining jazz, of putting its qualities into words. Indeed, writers who have taken jazz as their subject often portray its nature and origins as somewhat inexplicable. 1 Alongside these mysterious qualities, they note a compelling power. For Jeff Dyer, jazz can see things, draw things out of people that painting or writing don t see, and Eudora Welty, in her short story Powerhouse, frames her experience of listening to a jazz performance in similar terms: Powerhouse is so monstrous he sends everybody into oblivion [ ] don t people always come out and hover near, leaning inward about them, to learn what it is? What is it? Listen (Dyer 41-2; Welty 34). This desire to learn what it is but the inability to answer this question with anything other than a command to listen to the music itself indicates a powerful yet indescribable affect. What can jazz see that other art forms cannot? What makes it monstrous and unbearable, powerful and unspeakable? Such questions have occupied both musicologists and literary critics, who likewise have observed the genre s elusive qualities. For Reginald T. Buckner, jazz writing continues to 1 A few more examples of works which explore jazz as a subject of mystery include James Baldwin s Sonny s Blues, Jeff Dyer s But Beautiful, and Michael Ondaatje s Coming Through Slaughter.

8 3 mingle points of view and purposes. It still counts on strongly expressed personal engagement with the music or well-known performers to carry observations about the origins, structure, and functions of jazz (15). Yemisi Jimoh substantiates the idea that there is no one objective idea of the genre, arguing that there is not just one body of shared knowledge that informs Jazz (29). Instead, she describes it in poetic, contradictory terms: jazz is innovative, multifaceted, oblique and direct, deep and shallow. It expands, reshapes, and elaborates. It makes no claims on the permanence of its form, on its purity, or on its originality, terminology that indicates a response based on personal engagement rather than drawing upon a universally accepted notion of the genre (29). The idea of intentional elusiveness is reinforced by Dyer s opinion that in an elaborate critical kind of circular breathing, the form is always simultaneously explaining and questioning itself (192). Generally speaking, musical forms are abstract and to define them conceptually is difficult: but how can a form which resists precise definition, which selfconsciously revises and questions itself, function as a critical tool that illuminates literary texts? Defining jazz In order to formulate an argument about the potency of what I will call the jazz aesthetic as a framework through which these texts can be viewed, I will attempt to clarify the concept in terms of my own project of literary analysis. However, to arrive at such a definition requires reference to jazz history, jazz aesthetics, jazz theory, and critical work on literary appropriations of jazz forms. I will contextualize and delineate the characteristics of jazz writing, starting with an examination of the historical relationship between jazz and racial identity. Nina Simone s statement that jazz is not music. It s the definition of the Afro-American Black, and Black Arts Movement writer Amiri Baraka s notion that jazz music belongs uniquely to African Americans, suggest that the concept of jazz encompasses more than simply musical tropes (qtd.

9 4 Ryan and Majozo, 131). 2 The social history of the music, which I explore below, casts a light on Simone s and Baraka s views. Critics have tied the social inspiration for jazz to the oppression of African Americans, tracing its origins to slavery, the Middle Passage, and the plantation experience (Ryan, Post- Jazz 5; Jimoh 2). Jazz developed as a conglomeration of many cultures and influences, yet the primary factor was the importation of African slaves to a world dominated by European colonists; in other words, African traditions and new world conditions combined to create this new musical form. Gary Giddins and Scott Deveaux explain: In striving to keep African musical traditions alive [ ] slaves eventually found ways to blend them with the abiding traditions of Europe, producing hybrid styles in North and South America unlike anything in the Old World (43). African musical traditions such as rhythmic contrasts (a fixed layer of chord progression functioning as a chorus provides a foundation for an improvisatory layer over the top (Giddins and Deveaux 26)); antiphony (call and response); and oral history traditions (the idea of singing the lives of a people ) were imported to the United States to create specific combinations of sounds that characterise jazz as uniquely African American (Jimoh 1, Giddins and Deveaux 45). Thus, although it has been seen as a specifically American art form indeed, in 1987 the U.S. Congress passed a resolution naming jazz a valuable national American treasure it is nevertheless a music mediated through the African-American experience (Giddins and Deveaux 44); or, as Harlem Renaissance critic Joel A. Rogers put it, of negro origin, plus the influence of the American environment (qtd in Ogren, 120). 2 On the relationship between African American identity and jazz music, Baraka has written: Blues is the parent of all legitimate jazz, and it is impossible to say exactly how old blues is -- certainly no older than the presence of Negroes in the United States. It is a native American music, the product of the black man in this country (Blues 18), and Negroes who were responsible for the best music were always aware of their identities as black Americans (Black 12).

10 5 Jazz, then, is inevitably tied to African American history, a large part of which was the experience of slavery, and the forms of brutality that stemmed from it. Jimoh explains how many African American artists have overtly identified with these experiences, situating their aesthetic ideas within the contexts of a struggle for freedom from chattel slavery and from its reformulation under segregation, numerous unwilling separations (from ancestral home, from family, from the resident culture, etc), forced communalism, and other formative experiences in the New World (3). As jazz evolved into bebop and free jazz in the United States, musicians acknowledged and responded to the conditions of African American life. Rooted in these struggles, jazz musicians awareness of, and ability to comment on, histories of oppression and exclusion became part of the music s potential power. As Burton Peretti puts it, Charles Mingus came to characterize music making as an attack on racism; John Coltrane sought to recapture the sound of Africa in his saxophone; and Dizzy Gillespie [ ] used jazz to counter imperialistic Cold War rhetoric with a studiously apolitical, informal style of cultural diplomacy (91-92). Baraka provides another example of how jazz musicians used their instruments as rhetorical tools against various discourses, describing the playing of his contemporary John Coltrane in terms of the struggle against histories of racial oppression: [Coltrane] d play sometimes chorus after chorus, taking the music apart before our ears, splintering the chords and sounding each note, resounding it, playing it backwards and upside down trying to get to something else. And we heard our own search and travails, our own reaching for new definition (Autobiography ).

11 6 Coltrane was an important icon in the Black Arts Movement and strong supporter of the Civil Rights Movement; through him, music and politics fused (Early ). 3 Here, Coltrane s music functions as a social weapon. The ability to take the music apart before our ears that Baraka identifies in his free jazz style suggests a dismantling and re-articulation of American popular music, illustrating his music s ability to assert a politically subversive message in relation to a white-controlled culture industry (Muyumba 26-7). Tia Denora highlights how music can permit cultural innovation in non-musical realms. As music is seen to be organized, so too can people and institutions be organized (159). Baraka s description of Coltrane s playing demonstrates this musical-social connectivity and how jazz, inextricable from a history of social oppression, became part of the struggle both against these histories and racist environments such as America during the 1960s. Yet although Baraka s description of Coltrane s art focuses on the genre s destructive abilities in its splintering and taking apart, it also highlights its creative role. The reaching for new definition that he identifies, the artist s re-sounding of existing musical forms in an attempt to get to something else, represents a re-assessment of social norms; his pushing for new aesthetic definitions is also a search for new social definitions (Baraka, Autobiography ). Indeed, the search that Baraka identifies in Coltrane s playing, the notion of incessant movement and of constant renewal, is a feature of jazz music that has been noted by a number of critics. For Dyer, paralysis [is] the exact denial or contradiction of that movement of jazz, and Jimoh argues that jazz stresses variance over replication : the sense of constant, even urgent change that it evokes, its refusal to remain situated in a fixed position[,] allows it to collect 3 An example of the political nature of some of Coltrane s music can be found in the song Alabama, written in 1963 in response to the deaths of four black girls at Sixteenth Street Baptist Church in Birmingham in the same year (Early 377). In this track, the melody and phrasing mirrors the cadences of the speech that Martin Luther King made in memory of the victims.

12 7 African Americans lived experiences, which include early-twentieth-century moves against social and political injustice (Dyer 123; Jimoh 29-30). Jimoh s point provides another example of how musical qualities can have impact in the political realm: here, we see how variations in the music can convey a desire to vary or transform unjust social circumstances. Characterized as both creative and destructive, jazz s urgency and exploratory impulse challenges oppressive discourses whilst simultaneously enacting a search for new social realities. I examine these contradictory impulses as they are reflected in the works that I discuss. As well as through variance and momentum, jazz s ability to facilitate a transformatory process can be tied to its antiphonal aspects: the way in which the music negotiates between individual and group. Jimoh highlights the multiple and innovative personal styles of jazz, which distinguish it from its spirituals and blues ancestors (28). Its polyrhythmic sounds resonate from a Blues/Spiritual fragment/chord into a simultaneous expression of distinct, not harmonized voices, making its particular configuration of the personal-communal relationship musically unique (Jimoh 35). Ralph Ellison touched upon this idea, arguing that [T]rue jazz is an art of individual assertion within and against the group. Each true jazz moment [ ] springs from a contest in which each artist challenges all the rest; each solo flight, or improvisation, represents [ ] a definition of his identity: as individual, as member of a collectivity and as a link in the chain of tradition (qtd. Jackson 26). Whilst the notion of artists challenging one another places importance on the individual, Ellison s comment suggests that distinctness of voice does not sever the soloist from the ensemble; rather, it strengthens an overall sense of tradition and collectivity. In contrast to its spirituals and blues ancestors, the expression of one s identity should be framed in the context of negotiation between individual and group, as well as between past and present. Such notions

13 8 situate jazz as a social-communal cultural form, yet in which meaning is created through the collaboration of various distinct solo voices. In this thesis I explore the benefits of this particular individual-group dynamic, examining how jazz writers use antiphony both as a means of personal empowerment through jazz solo, and also as a way of constructing supportive and meaningful group structures. Such a negotiation also applies to the relationship between performers and audiences. The effect of jazz performance has been repeatedly defined in terms of its affective power on listeners, not only in terms of aesthetic impact, but also in its social implications. Poet Sonia Sanchez saw Coltrane s music as a vehicle for spiritual relief, claiming that his music kept a lot of people alive at a time when they wanted to be kept alive, and Rogers wrote that jazz music offered a psychological relief that was safer than drugs or alcohol (Ryan, Post-Jazz 60; Rogers qtd. Ogren 124). Both indicate a positive transformative power that extends beyond the performers themselves, an aspect of the music that offers strength, support and healing to its community of listeners. Following the idea that jazz can provide relief and keep people alive, in this thesis I comment on the ability of jazz to refigure individual and group identities in the wake of communal traumatic histories. In light of Jimoh s and Ellison s conception of jazz as both distinct individual voice and collectivity, I ask, what is the nature of the political community created by jazz? To what extent does it offer relief or provide a tonic in relation to the social conditions in which it was born? Occupying spaces between individual and group, tradition and innovation, present reality and future change, jazz offers healing potential through self-expression for individuals and communities with traumatic histories. Its occupation of these between spaces, however, has further implications. Here, I refer again to Jimoh:

14 9 Jazz philosophy embodies the idea that there is a space for one to go beyond the margin into the unknown in order to change the rules within the existing structure, to present the unpresentable, to say the unsanctioned. [ ] Through music, Jazz creates a space for this survival or triumph, even when these concepts seem impossible (29). To occupy the space beyond the margin that Jimoh describes here is liberating in that it allows for the creation of new aesthetic rules outside of established categories. Although jazz s marginal nature makes it difficult to define as a critical concept, this very quality seems to enhance its social capabilities, since it facilitates the envisioning of numerous possibilities that lie beyond what is clearly presentable. Walton Muyumba picks up on this idea, arguing that from the liminal space between laughter and crying, jazz musicians can communicate multiple claims about emotions, experience, and being in the world (21). He interprets poet Yusef Komunyakaa s argument that Charlie Parker s jazz expresses laughter and crying at the same time not in terms of jazz s dialectic oppositions, but rather, as its embodiment of a wide range of musical, intellectual, and psychological contingencies at work : in fact, Parker s improvisations are significant because they [reveal] more than the tensions of binaries (21). Rather than being a limitation, the liminal space which jazz occupies allows for complexity and multiplicity. Moreover, its ability to present the unpresentable prompts an exploration of jazz s capacity to facilitate the articulation of those traumatic experiences that may lie outside of the realm of the speakable, a question with which this thesis is concerned. Jimoh s interpretation of jazz as able to create a space for survival or triumph, even when those concepts seem impossible points to another key element of its aesthetic. A number of critics have identified the potentially transformative, even utopic nature, of jazz forms. For Denora, music has the power to serve as a resource for utopian imaginations, for alternate

15 10 worlds and institutions, and it may be used strategically to presage new worlds (159). Paul Gilroy comments on this notion specifically in relation to the utopian aspirations of black music, a countercultural form that considers the world critically from the point of view of its emancipatory transformation (37-9). This thesis asks, as Gilroy does, what is the relationship between a history of slavery and suffering and the commitment to a modified future? Gilroy draws a comparison between this history and Adorno s notion of the relationship between atrocity and a utopic future: The vernacular arts of the children of slaves gave rise to a verdict on the role of art which is strikingly in harmony with Adorno s reflections on the dynamics of European artistic expression in the wake of Auschwitz: Art s Utopia, the counterfactual yet-tocome, is draped in black. It goes on being a recollection of the possible with a critical edge against the real [ ] it is a freedom which did not pass under the spell of the necessity and which may well not come to pass ever at all (38). The notion that atrocity produces an art of the yet-to-come, with a double edge of necessity, but an awareness of its own impossibility, is characteristic of the way jazz is presented in the works I have chosen. It resonates explicitly with Langston Hughes s definition of jazz as a montage of a dream deferred. A great big dream yet to come and always yet to become ultimately and finally true ( Jazz ). This thesis will revisit the idea of utopia or a dream deferred in its examination of all the texts, as it aims to address the social impact or postcolonial politics of the jazz aesthetic, and its potential success or failure in overcoming traumatic histories and forces of oppression, whilst also envisioning a transformed, improved future. By acting as a weapon against racist discourses and a survival tool for marginalized peoples, by facilitating the establishment and articulation of both individual and collective racial

16 11 identity, in blurring boundaries and transcending binaries, jazz forms are an empowering means by which to construct histories, create discourses, and build communities, as well as to envision utopic futures (even if they are ultimately frustrated by the status quo) (Muyumba 18). I illustrate how the case studies I have chosen to different extents and in different ways use jazz to these ends. The music and the text The question arises, however, of how effectively the social and aesthetic qualities of jazz translate into literature. Is jazzthetic writing synonymous with the jazz aesthetic I have outlined? Does it involve specifically the literary appropriation of elements from the original musical form(s)? Morrison is described as musicalizing her fiction (Eckstein 273); Albert Murray calls Ellison s Invisible Man the literary extension of the blues (qtd. Callahan, xv). But is Langston Hughes s idea of jazz putting itself into words a seamless process of the music s characteristics transferring themselves over to linguistic form or is the process more troubled ( Jazz )? Does the impact of the jazz aesthetic change when read, instead of being received orally? Additionally, the question of whether clear social and political messages can really be read into the workings of an abstract musical form must also be addressed. I begin with the question of music s transferability to textual form. As I have shown, music can permit cultural innovation in non-musical areas; but in what ways does jazz music extend to and affect text? A number of critics have argued that the close ties between jazz music and African American experience mean that the former can be taken as metaphorical for the latter, that is, the jazz aesthetic functions intertextually, as a literary as well as a musical experience. Jürgen Grandt s claim that African American narratives are jazz in other words [ ] they attempt to wrest beautiful art from the terrors of American history, to improvise a

17 12 meaningful narrative of freedom over the dissonant sound clusters of the American experience, suggests that the metaphorical connection between music and social narrative is, arguably, an unavoidable one in relation to African American history (xiii). Jimoh makes the connection between the two forms explicit, arguing that the music of enslaved black people [ ] is one of the intertextual sites of artistic expression in the texts of many African American writers (1-2). She takes figures such as Ralph Ellison and James Baldwin as examples of writers who take music as a metaphor for black experience in a wider sense (21). For instance, Ellison s Invisible Man is filled with folk, Blues, and Jazz elements that use African American experiences as a starting point for interrogating issues of modernity and identity (20). She argues that such writers may directly mimic jazz musical techniques such as riffing an echoing effect that is used within a text to resound and often reformulate an important concept or key idea found within the narrative, or evoke the fictional equivalent of flattened thirds and sevenths/blue notes and flattened fifths/bebop sounds, by including the insights of incongruent voices in their writing (37, 38). In doing so, the multivocal expressions of jazz in fiction reveal a space for infinite options, radical change, resistance, and revolution, capabilities comparable to those identified earlier in the playing of John Coltrane (Jimoh 35). I argue that Morrison s Jazz, Serote s To Every Birth Its Blood, and Wainaina s One Day I Will Write About This Place are other prime examples of works which to some extent take jazz music as a metaphor for the lived experiences of their protagonists and in their narratives as a whole, making use of jazz s musical characteristics in a literary context. The process of translating musical forms into writing is not, however, watertight. Whilst drawing upon musical tropes in literature presents a number of potentials in terms of aesthetic and social agency, this relationship is often uneven, the process of translation imperfect, and the

18 13 literary access to the status of the music limited. If, according to Cameron Bushnell, literature that uses music to convey its points engages the methodologies of translation, aspects of the original musical form are inevitably modified or even lost as it transforms from one to another (22). Furthermore, the aspects of the music that cannot be translated are not necessarily obvious. Bushnell goes on to argue that music is a submerged discourse or embedded aesthetic within literature, one that gestures to a certain irrationality, to the unexplainable (20, 25). This suggests that there are elements that are not fully comprehensible about the role of music within a written text. I have already demonstrated the liminal and ineffable qualities of jazz when examining its occupation of new and experimental spaces. Adding Bushnell s notion of the submerged discourse of music in writing to this already unexplainable musical form pushes jazz writing further into the realm of unknown critical territories. That translating music into written form creates new discursive states is suggested by Morrison herself, who describes how the sound of the novel, sometimes cacophonous, sometimes harmonious [becomes] an inner ear sound or a sound just beyond hearing, infusing the text with a musical emphasis that words can do sometimes even better than music can ( Unspeakable 160). For Morrison, then, novels do not simply mirror sonic qualities, directly translating them to written form. Instead, she suggests that linguistic media operate outside and beyond the way music does. Whilst it obfuscates the exact nature of jazz writing, the imperfect translation between music and text is not necessarily a limitation in terms of assessing jazz writing as a tool of social transformation. In fact, Bushnell s idea of music s unexplainable status in literature is in some senses useful. For one, its discursive evasiveness is arguably appropriate in relation to the telling of traumatic narratives. Since jazz was born in a context of social oppression, the necessarily traumatic histories, the stories it tells of atrocity, dehumanization and pain, cannot always be

19 14 conveyed through rational means. Could the elements of text (that is, the musical elements) that are beyond discursive limits be in relationship with, and/or able to facilitate the unspeakability of some of these potentially submerged, traumatic narratives? In addition, the language that Bushnell uses in relation to the status of music in literature is significant in terms of jazz s postcolonial properties. She interprets the so-called irrationality of music in text as a foreignness, calling it an alien presence between the boundaries of the literary work (25). Taking up a minority or subjugated narrative stance, it can be said to have a postcolonial function: Music, being always necessarily partial in a text that is, without sound or source hypothesizes a subject position that is without voice or written expression (21). The unexplainability and foreignness of a musical presence in the text, coincides with both the difficulties of recounting unspeakable events and with the partiality of socially marginalised voices in postcolonial contexts. Taking into account the uneven intertextual nature of the relationship between music and text, jazz writing can never be simply taken as writing about jazz. Rather, it is better defined as writing that (attempts to) translate the formal and, therefore, social qualities of jazz into written form, thereby capturing some of its political potential. However, in doing so, it enters a yet more mysterious mode of discourse, one that seems appropriate in relation to a musical form that utilises the very qualities of unknowability and unspeakability as part of its experimental power. Across the Black Atlantic My study begins in the United States, the birthplace of jazz, yet I do not limit my research to America. Starting from Paul Gilroy s conception of the complex networks of communication and cultural exchange that define the black Atlantic, yet transcending reductive views of the diverse African cultures and their historical contexts, I trace jazz writing across the Atlantic.

20 15 Viewing South African and Kenyan jazzthetics in conversation with Morrison s American version, I examine how they inform and relate to one other. Whilst a jazz aesthetic can be identified in the works of numerous writers from the United States, the West Indies and the Caribbean diaspora (for instance, in E. L. Doctorow s Ragtime, Michelle Cliff s No Telephone to Heaven, or Sam Selvon s The Lonely Londoners), I focus on two African writers that completed their work in starkly different historical contexts (apartheid South Africa and a seemingly prosperous and stable postcolonial Kenya) in order to identify a truly transatlantic exchange. African oral traditions and musical techniques such as antiphony and rhythmic contrast may be parents of jazz, but how, after having evolved in the cultural context of the United States, does this musical form manifest itself in these two African novels? Nina Simone s notion of jazz as the definition of Afro-American black and Baraka s idea that the music belongs uniquely to African Americans (to which I referred earlier) both posit an innate association between racial identity and a cultural product. Although the connection between African American identity and jazz music is vital to its understanding, such claims essentialize and simplify the relationship. Ellison challenged Baraka on this very point, refuting the idea that there is a rigid correlation between color, education, income and the Negro s preference in music (qtd. Jackson, 25). Indeed, Baraka s argument does not take into account the changes and transformations that the music underwent through processes of cultural exchange and transfer in different contexts. In The Black Atlantic, Gilroy suggests that the development of black music should not be seen as an expression of an essential, unchanging, sovereign racial self, nor should it be seen as effluent from a constituted subjectivity that emerges contingently from the endless play of racial signification (36). Taking into account the common features and characteristics of the cultural products of the black Atlantic, yet also

21 16 stressing its plurality and multiplicity, Gilroy asks how we are to think critically about artistic products and aesthetic codes which, though they may be traceable back to one distinct location, have been changed, either by the passage of time or by their displacement, relocation, or dissemination through networks of communication and cultural exchange? (79). It is impossible to synchronise the multiple movements of black peoples and black music, when these artistic products fragment and subdivide into an ever-increasing proliferation of styles and genres (101). Thus, Gilroy prompts a thorough comparative study between discrete black cultures across the Atlantic, illustrating their distinctness, yet interconnectedness, aiming for a perspective that is both transnational and intercultural (15). Jazz may have been born in the United States under certain social conditions, yet the complexity of the cultural exchange of black music(s) invalidates a racially essentialist approach to these cultural forms. The struggle against African American oppression may be a key message in many performances of jazz; however, it cannot be said to be the singular message. How does this interconnectivity map out onto the black Atlantic in terms of jazz? To illustrate the transnational perspective that he aims to attain, Gilroy asks: [how] was the course of the black vernacular art of jazz changed by what happened to Quincy Jones in Sweden and Donald Byrd in Paris? [ ] both men played powerful roles in the remaking of jazz as a popular form in the early 1970s (18). That musicians in different parts of the world can contribute to the remaking of a particular musical form illustrates its transnational and adaptable nature. Caribbean writer and contemporary of Jones and Byrd, Edward Kamau Brathwaite, in 1967 made a similar point in discussing the aesthetic influences on Caribbean literature, making connections between the aesthetics of black American jazz and those of his fellow black Caribbean writers (Peretti 89). According to Peretti, Brathwaite saw Caribbean literature as part

22 17 of the general movement of New World creative process of which he regarded jazz as the archetype and working model (89-90). Whilst Brathwaite acknowledges that there is no West Indian jazz, he maintains that the region and music shared certain fundamental elements with the jazz genre as a whole (59, 61). Though they are clearly distinct cultural forms in distinct contexts, the interrelatedness of American jazz and Caribbean literature can be viewed in terms of Gilroy s model of the black Atlantic as one single, complex unit of analysis (15). Brathwaite s comments thus help us with a further Creole understanding of our literary expression ; that is, to recognize the interconnectedness (yet distinctness) of American jazz, and black Atlantic literature (Peretti 90). In light of this transcultural context, jazz can labelled as both an African American and an international cultural product. Giddins and Deveaux s view that through jazz, the whole country, the whole world, becomes more African American and the claim of Rogers that jazz resides within a worldwide folk culture both hold true (Giddins and Deveaux 45; Ogren 121). Rogers suggested that jazz characteristics have always existed in world wide dance forms: It is in the Indian war dance, the Highland fling, the Irish jig, the Cossack dance, the Spanish fandango, the Brazilian maxixe, the dance of the whirling dervish, the hula of the South Seas, the dance du ventre of the Orient, the carmagnole of the French Revolution, and the ragtime of the Negro (qtd. Ogren 120). Revealing the multiple allegiances and creoleness of jazz as a musical product, it further demonstrates how, as Petteri puts it, jazz s racial etiquette is exceedingly complex (96). In choosing to examine two African novels as examples of jazz writing, I not only illustrate its transnational nature in relation to Gilroy s model of the black Atlantic, but also challenge many scholars conceptions of the continent as either a distant place of origin or

23 18 contemporary recipient of African-American innovation (Goyal 10). Yogita Goyal contests the notion of Africa as a utopian horizon in relation to the construction of a global black imagined community (10). Tim Brennen also points out that Africa has become the ethical destination of those who want to flee all associations with the transatlantic slave trade (3). These notions trouble the idea of a simultaneously local and global black homeland that can be generated through the examination of the exchange of cultural forms across the Atlantic. Focussing on Serote and Wainaina allows me to demonstrate the potentially different dynamics of cultural borrowing and the creation of new circuits. I draw attention to aspects of the relationship between my North American and African case studies that potentially undermine Gilroy s notion of the black Atlantic as one single, complex unit of analysis (15). Related to this discussion is my use of the term postcolonial. I have used the label in reference to three different writers who all respond to racial oppression and cultural domination. However, Wainaina s is the only truly postcolonial text in the sense that it is set in Kenya, post- British rule; in Serote s apartheid work, the term post is somewhat uneasy in the sense that it evokes resistance politics, yet acknowledges the continued grip of the special type of colonialism represented by apartheid; 4 and Morrison has commonly been defined as a postcolonial writer despite being American, a label which integrates her into larger patterns of racial oppression and an acknowledgement of slavery. 5 Although these writers commonly resist cultural domination, can this term be legitimately applied to all three texts? What are the implications of using the word postcolonial from a global perspective? Here I refer to Crystal Bartolovich, who identifies some problems in defining transatlantic postcoloniality: 4 Colonialism of a special type is an SACP concept that explains apartheid as a continuation of traditional colonial exploitation based on economic domination (The Road to South African Freedom 5). 5 See, for instance, Sam Durrant; Mary Jane Suero Elliot; James M. Ivory.

24 19 It will only be possible to think globally as a matter of course when the current global asymmetries, economic, political, institutional, ideological, have been eliminated. The persistence of these asymmetries today, however, makes it doubly important to situate all cultural works and forms in their specificity, with reference to their conditions of production and circulation at their point of origin as well as in wider circles (14). I take into account these global asymmetries in this thesis and aim to acknowledge the specific, local, material conditions of the texts that I have chosen. 6 I advocate, as Michael Chapman does, for permitting particular postcolonial histories to interrupt the unidirectional narrative of globalization, and examine these texts as particular locales with particular struggles and particular jazz aesthetics, with attention to the actual lives of people as opposed to ideology or philosophy (66, 68). These writers may, through jazz, possess a common toolkit, but their differences (in terms of social context, writing style, and their place within a gobal transcultural genre) are vast. In light of these issues, I examine the problems of utilizing a transatlantic jazz aesthetic alongside an exploration of the limits of the jazz aesthetic itself. USA, South Africa, Kenya, and beyond Chapter 1 focuses on Toni Morrison s Jazz, where Morrison draws together the aesthetic qualities and social contexts of jazz music in order to acknowledge histories of colonialism, slavery, and racial oppression, and to (attempt to) re-claim versions of those histories for the 6 An example of the asymmetries to which Bartolovich refers includes that way in which students in North American and European academic institutions have been socially trained to think of the third World in terms of Rainforest Crunch cereal, Body Shop soaps and potions, ecotourism, the dance beats of Deep Forest, salsa or Afropop, will not necessarily abandon the habits of a lifetime when confronted by the work of a Carpentier or a Ngugi (14). Texts and cultural artifacts can also be considered consumable products or playthings. Neil Lazarus agrees that postcolonial literary studies have not paid sufficient attention to the local: To read across postcolonial literary studies is to find, to an extraordinary degree, the same questions asked, the same methods, techniques, and conventions used, the same concepts mobilized, the same conclusions drawn about the work of a remarkably small number of writers (773).

25 20 African American people. I mark how Morrison s jazzthetic techniques constitute her musical/literary project of discourse creation and community building, and her quest for artistic and social freedom. 7 She uses themes and variations and a call-and-response style of storytelling, rendered through self-consciously unreliable narrators, and positions the reader as co-creator of meaning. At the same time, elements of self-referential free-jazz musical patterns in her writing style aim to circumvent the racism inherent in language. Yet for Morrison, the relationship between musical and literary forms is uneven, and the question of creating a redemptive language is one that is aesthetically and politically unresolved ( Home 5). Therefore I will investigate the extent to which jazz writing is able to fully recover traumatic histories. Morrison s negotiation of the tensions between sound and silence, between the speakable and the unspeakable, will provide an insight into the potentials and limitations of the jazz aesthetic in relation to experiences of racial oppression. Chapter 2 discusses Serote s novel To Every Birth Its Blood, in which jazz writing reflects the political realities of South Africa in the turbulent and violent late 1970s and early 1980s. South African jazz was heavily influenced by the American movement, and as in the United States, it allowed writers to engage with the potentials and limits of acoustic and aesthetic, and thus social, possibility (Titlestad, Travelling, 79). Serote repeatedly refers to the music of American jazz figures such as Miles Davis, John Coltrane, and Nina Simone, as well as South African musicians such as Dollar Brand and Miriam Makeba, in order to conjure an auditory experience that pushes at the discursive limits of language whilst embodying the characters suffering and struggle against apartheid. Here, Coltrane s beating, beating. Kneeling, Coiling. Curling. Searching, digging, digging, performs an imaginative journey into a 7 I use the / between musical and literary terms often in this thesis to demonstrate the interconnected nature of jazz music and writing in the three texts.

26 21 painful past and towards an unknown future (Birth 39). Such jazzthetic strategies draw fruitful comparisons with Morrison s. However, I also aim to address how the specific context of South African political reality changes the impact and effect of jazz in To Every Birth Its Blood. Although there is clearly a jazz-soloistic impulse to create new discourses in the novel, the text s disjunct binary structure interrupts this improvisatory momentum. Moreover, the overpowering sense of silence also suggests a failure of the music to enact political change. Addressing such formal attributes, I ask whether this borrowed jazz genre can remain an instrument of social transformation in apartheid South Africa and whether, vice versa, the South African context can shed new light on the social position of African Americans, as well as on the dynamics of cultural borrowing between the US and South Africa. Chapter 3 addresses Wainaina s One Day I Will Write About This Place, a work that one reviewer has described as jazzy (Fuller). In this chapter, I explore the implications of Wainina s use of jazz beyond simply a description of his writing style. I examine the relationship between the work s autobiographical elements and the jazz process, observing how the speaker s musical narration is interlinked with his sense of self. Through the profoundly sonic texture of the novel, the narrator jazz-solos or patterns his narrative in relation to and in order to potentially overcome the traumas of Kenya s colonial past and politically unstable present (One Day 4). Wainaina s direct references to music also bear examination. He draws upon uniquely Kenyan musical forms, which constitute Kenyan social identities; specific sounds and acoustic registers carry cultural and political import. The jazz trumpet, for instance, embodies the meeting of different identities in the country: the musical styles it combines (Cuban, Congolese, choral singing, and military tunes) are associated with the multilingual clash of Kenya, thus representing us, me (One Day 77, 51). The metallic music from D.R. Congo, placed

27 22 emphatically in contrast to a pre-colonial, acoustic past, speaks to the postcolonial experience of a new metallic people (One Day 78). I assess to what extent these at times terrifying, exhilarating, and inspiring forms of jazz function as modes of exploration, postcolonial struggle, and healing in a contemporary Kenyan context. All of these writers use jazz as a tool of social struggle (in accord with the context and history I have outlined). Their aims, their methods, and the obstacles they encounter are comparable, while their greatly contrasting contexts add vital and insightful dimensions of difference. My comparison attempts to illuminate the usages, commonalities and effects of jazz writing and the various ways that it functions (or fails to function) as a postcolonial tool, whilst taking into account the complex processes of cultural borrowing in a transnational context. I investigate to what extent their various jazzthetic writings give voice to the struggles of marginalised peoples and allow for invaluable journeys into new aesthetic and social territories, a question that is complicated and enriched through the exploration of the cultural exchange of jazz forms across the Atlantic.

28 23 Chapter 1: Musical re-construction: home building in Toni Morrison s Jazz In her essay Home, Morrison refers to the literary canon as a racial house, where to write is to negotiate the imprisoning boundaries of racialized language (4). She sets out a desire to change this environment in her own writing: If I had to live in a racial house, it was important, at the least, to rebuild it so that it was not a windowless prison into which I was forced, a thick-walled, impenetrable container from which no cry could be heard, but rather an open house, grounded, yet generous in its supply of windows and doors. Or, at the most, it became imperative for me to transform this house completely (4). In this chapter, I will consider the fact that if the house s keeper, whose keys tinkled always within earshot, was race, then jazz music, whose social and aesthetic qualities Morrison harnesses, is the toolkit by which this new house can be built (Morrison, Home 3). Morrison has been deliberate about connecting her literary aims to musical ones, specifically black American musical ones: If my work is faithfully to reflect the aesthetic tradition of Afro-American culture, it must make conscious use of the characteristics of its art forms and translate them into print: antiphony, the group nature of art, its functionality, its improvisational nature, its relationship to audience performance, the critical voice which upholds traditions and communal values and which also provides occasion for an individual to transcend and/or defy group restrictions ( Memory 388-9). In her 1992 novel Jazz, Morrison draws upon these Afro-American aesthetic traditions to create a blueprint for a new cultural home. A call-and-response style of storytelling, rendered through

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