Light-Emitting Diodes
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1 Light-Emitting Diodes 3rd edition E. Fred Schubert Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute Troy, New York, USA ISBN: Publisher: E. Fred Schubert Year: 2018 E. Fred Schubert, all rights reserved Introduction 1
2 Light-Emitting Diodes 3rd edition E. Fred Schubert Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute Troy, New York, USA The 1st edition of the book Light-Emitting Diodes was published in The 2nd edition was published in The current 3rd edition of the book is a substantial expansion of the second edition and has 37 chapters. The book includes a thorough discussion of white light-emitting diodes (LEDs), phosphor materials used in white LEDs, packaging technology, and the various efficiencies and efficacies encountered in the context of LEDs. The background of light, color science, and human vision is provided as well. The fully colored illustrations of the 3rd edition are undoubtedly beneficial given the prominent role of light and color in the field of LEDs. The book is a comprehensive discussion of the LED, particularly its semiconductor physics, electrical, optical, material science, thermal, mechanical, and chemical foundations. The 3rd edition is published in electronic format in order to make the book affordable and easily accessible to a wide readership. Introduction 2
3 Table of contents 1 History of SiC light-emitting diodes Silicon carbide (SiC) Henry Round s demonstration of the first LED Oleg Lossev s research on SiC LEDs Kurt Lehovec s explanation of electroluminescence from p-n junctions Post 1950s developments in SiC LEDs LED centennial in References History of III V light-emitting diodes Compound semiconductors The first III-V compound semiconductor LED History of GaAsyP1 y alloy semiconductors and LEDs History of GaAs and AlGaAs infrared and red LEDs History of GaP and GaAsP LEDs doped with optically active impurities History of AlGaInP visible LEDs History of GaN metal semiconductor emitters History of GaInN p-n junction LEDs References History of white light-emitting diodes The advent of the white LEDs Transition from LEDs to LED-based lighting LEDs entering new fields of applications LED replacement light bulbs References Radiative and non-radiative recombination Radiative electron hole recombination Radiative recombination for low-level excitation Radiative recombination for high-level excitation Bimolecular rate equations for quantum well structures Luminescence decay Shockley Read Hall non-radiative recombination Auger non-radiative recombination Non-radiative recombination at surfaces Competition between radiative and non-radiative recombination Recombination in direct-gap and indirect-gap semiconductors References Theory of radiative recombination Quantum mechanical model of recombination The van Roosbroeck Shockley model Temperature and doping dependence of recombination The Einstein model References Introduction 3
4 6 Recombination modeled by the ABCCD-model Relation between optical and electrical carrier generation Free carrier concentrations in the active region Recombination expressed in terms of the A, B, and C coefficients and f(n) term Determination of the A, B, and C coefficients in absence of carrier leakage Carrier leakage and the ABCCD model References Current voltage characteristics Diode current voltage characteristic based on Shockley equation Diode forward voltage Diode ideality factor Diode parasitic resistances Measurement of diode parasitic resistances Diagnosis of potential problems in the current-voltage characteristic Ohmic contacts Physics of ohmic contacts Multilayer ohmic contacts References Carrier transport effects in the active region Carrier distribution in p-n homojunctions Carrier distribution in p-n heterojunctions Effect of heterojunctions on device resistance Carrier loss in double heterostructures Carrier overflow in double heterostructures Electron-blocking layers Effect of heterojunctions on diode voltage References Design of current flow Current-spreading layer Theory of current spreading Current crowding in LEDs on insulating substrates Buried contact design Lateral injection schemes Current-blocking layers Surface-leakage current References Alternating-current (AC) and high-voltage (HV) LEDs Simple circuits for AC-driven LEDs LED bridge rectifier configurations for AC-driven LEDs Analysis of pulsed drive current in AC-driven LEDs Challenges associated with AC-driven LEDs High-voltage (HV) LEDs References Introduction 4
5 11 Basic optical properties Emission spectrum The light escape cone Emission pattern The lambertian emission pattern Encapsulants Temperature dependence of emission intensity References Reflectors Metallic reflectors, reflective contacts, and transparent contacts Total internal reflectors Distributed Bragg reflectors Omnidirectional reflectors Specular, diffuse, and mixed reflectors References Definition of Efficiencies Radiative efficiency (RE) of active region Injection efficiency (IE) of carriers into active region Internal quantum efficiency (IQE) Light-extraction efficiency (LEE) External quantum efficiency (EQE) Forward-voltage efficiency (Electrical efficiency) Power efficiency Luminous efficacy of radiation (LER) Luminous efficacy of a source (LES) Efficiency of wavelength-converter materials (phosphors) References Designs for high internal quantum efficiency Double heterostructures Doping of active region p-n junction displacement Doping of the confinement regions Non-radiative recombination Lattice matching References Designs for high light-extraction efficiency Absorption of below-bandgap light in semiconductors Double heterostructures Shaping of LED dies Textured semiconductor surfaces GaN thin-film LEDs Cross-shaped contacts and other contact geometries Transparent substrate technology Anti-reflection optical coatings References Introduction 5
6 16 Spontaneous emission from resonant cavities Modification of spontaneous emission Fabry Perot resonators Optical mode density in a one-dimensional resonator Spectral emission enhancement Integrated emission enhancement Experimental emission enhancement and angular dependence References Resonant-cavity light-emitting diodes Introduction and history RCLED design rules GaInAs/GaAs RCLEDs emitting at 930 nm AlGaInP/GaAs RCLEDs emitting at 650 nm Newer developments in RCLED devices References Photonic crystal light-emitting diodes The photon recycling concept for LEDs Thresholdless laser or single-mode LED Photonic crystals LEDs using photonic crystals References Visible-spectrum LEDs The GaAsP, GaP, GaAsP:N, and GaP:N material systems The AlGaAs/GaAs material system The AlGaInP/GaAs material system The GaInN material system Optical characteristics of high-brightness LEDs Electrical characteristics of high-brightness LEDs Wavelength dependence of the efficiency in the visible spectrum References The AlGaInN material system The AlGaInN bandgap Crystal structure of III V nitrides and origin of polarization Consequences of polarization effects in III V nitrides P-type doping in III V nitrides Epitaxial growth of GaN on sapphire Dislocations in III V nitrides References Introduction 6
7 21 Ultraviolet light emitters The ultraviolet (UV) spectral range UV and violet LEDs emitting at wavelengths longer than 360 nm UV devices emitting at wavelengths shorter than 360 nm Alternative approaches for UV emitters References The efficiency droop Introduction to the efficiency droop The ABC model The ABC + f(n) model The function f(n) for drift-induced leakage Role of polarization charges and associated electric fields Role of thermal roll-over Role of carrier de-localization Role of Auger recombination Strategies to overcome the efficiency droop References Human eye sensitivity and photometric quantities Light receptors of the human eye Basic radiometric and photometric units Eye sensitivity function Luminous efficacy Surface brightness Circadian rhythm and circadian sensitivity References Colorimetry Colors of near-monochromatic emitters Color-matching functions and chromaticity diagram Color purity LEDs in the chromaticity diagram Relationship between chromaticity and color The CIE Lab color space The CIE UVW and CIE Luv color spaces References Black-body radiation and color temperature Incandescence (heat glow) The planckian spectrum The solar spectrum Planckian radiation in the chromaticity diagram Color temperature and correlated color temperature Standardization of white light by means of color-temperature binning References Introduction 7
8 26 Color mixing Subtractive color mixing Additive color mixing Calculation of color mixing Implementation of color mixing References Color rendering Color rendering of physical objects CIE uniform color space Color-rendering index for planckian-locus illumination sources Color-rendering index for non-planckian-locus illumination sources Criticism of the CRI and alternative approaches References White-light sources based on LED chips Generation of white light with LED chips Generation of white light by dichromatic sources Generation of white light by trichromatic sources Temperature dependence of trichromatic LED-based white-light source Generation of white light by tetrachromatic and pentachromatic sources References Phosphors Introduction to phosphors Types of phosphor materials Phosphors used with LED chips Phosphor body color Phosphor structure and synthesis Quenching by temperature and activator concentration Phosphor particle size Phosphor deposition Phosphor sedimentation Quantum-splitting phosphors Location of phosphors in the CIE chromaticity diagram References White LEDs based on phosphors Efficiency of wavelength-converter materials Wavelength-converter materials White LEDs based on YAG:Ce phosphor White LEDs based on phosphor blends White LEDs using two LED chips and one phosphor White LEDs using violet excitation sources White LEDs using UV excitation sources White LEDs based on semiconductor converters (PRS-LED) White LEDs based on other methods Spatial phosphor distributions References Introduction 8
9 31 Packaging: Types of packages for LEDs The 3 mm and 5 mm round LED package The SMD LED injection molded package The SMD LED package fabricated by using a resin-molded body Ceramic-base LED package The side-view LED package Other examples of LED packages Chip-on-board LED packages (COBs) Chip-scale LED packages (CSPs) References Packaging: Materials used in packaging Resin materials Types of resins Modification of resins by fillers Epoxy resins Silicone resins Advanced resin structures Degradation of resins under harsh operating conditions References Packaging: Protection against electrostatic discharge (ESD) The human body model and the IEC standard The electrostatic discharge process ESD-protection circuits ESD-protection circuits integrated with the LED References Packaging: Junction and carrier temperatures Carrier temperature and high-energy slope of spectrum Junction temperature and peak emission wavelength Theory of temperature dependence of diode forward voltage Measurement of junction temperature using forward voltage Thermal considerations for pulsed measurements Constant-current and constant-voltage DC drive circuits References Communication: Optical communication Types of optical fibers Attenuation in silica and plastic optical fibers Modal dispersion in fibers Material dispersion in fibers Numerical aperture of fibers Coupling with lenses Free-space optical communication References Introduction 9
10 36 Communication: Communication LEDs LEDs for free-space communication LEDs for fiber-optic communication Surface-emitting Burrus-type communication LEDs emitting at 870 nm Surface-emitting communication LEDs emitting at 1300 nm Communication LEDs emitting at 650 nm Edge-emitting superluminescent diodes (SLDs) References Communication: LED modulation characteristics Rise and fall times, 3-dB frequency, and bandwidth in linear circuit theory Rise and fall time in the limit of large diode capacitance Rise and fall time in the limit of small diode capacitance Voltage dependence of the rise and fall times Carrier sweep-out of the active region Current shaping dB frequency Eye diagram Carrier lifetime and 3-dB frequency References Appendices A-1 Appendix 1 Frequently used symbols... A-1 Appendix 2 Physical constants... A-5 Appendix 3 Room temperature properties of III V arsenides... A-6 Appendix 4 Room temperature properties of III V nitrides... A-7 Appendix 5 Room temperature properties of III V phosphides... A-8 Appendix 6 Room temperature properties of Si and Ge... A-9 Appendix 7 Periodic system of elements... A-10 Index... A-11 Introduction 10
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