# Laplace Transform: basic properties; functions of a complex variable; poles diagrams; s-shift law.

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1 18.03 Lecture 26, April 14 Laplace Transform: basic properties; functions of a complex variable; poles diagrams; s-shift law. [1] The Laplace transform connects two worlds: The t domain t is real and positive functions f(t) are signals, perhaps nasty, with discontinuities and delta functions ODEs relating them convolution systems represented by their weight functions w(t) ^ L L^{-1} v The s domain s is complex beautiful functions F(s), often rational = poly/poly and algebraic equations relating them

2 ordinary multiplication of functions systems represented by their transfer functions W(s) The use in ODEs will be to apply L to an ODE, solve the resulting very simple algebraic equation in the s world, and then return to reality using the "inverse Laplace transform" L^{-1}. [2] The definition can be motivated but it is more efficient to simply give it and come to the motivation later. Here it is. We continue to consider functions (possibly generalized) f(t) such that f(t) = 0 for t < 0. F(s) = integral_0^\infty e^{-st} f(t) dt [to be emended] This is like a hologram, in that each value F(s) contains information about ALL values of f(t). Example: f(t) = u(t) : F(s) = integral_0^infty e^{-st} dt = lim_{t --> infty} e^{-st}/(-s) ^T_0 = (-1/s) (lim_{t --> infty} e^{-st} - 1). To compute this limit, write s = a + bi so e^{-st} = e^{-at} (cos(-bt) + i sin(-bt)) The second factor lies on the unit circle, so e^{-st} = e^{-at}. This goes to infinity with T if a < 0 and to zero if a > 0. Thus: F(s) = 1/s for Re(s) > 0 and the improper integral fails to converge for Re(s) < 0. [3] This is typical behavior: the integral converges to the right of some vertical line in the complex plane C, and diverges to the left, provided that f(t) doesn't grow too fast. Technically, there should exist a real number k such that for all large t,

3 f(t) < e^{kt} In the definition we should add: "for Re(s) large." The expression obtained by means of the integration makes sense everywhere in C except for a few points - like s = 0 here - and this is how we define the Laplace transform for values of s with small real part. [4] This computation can be exploited using general properties of the Laplace Transform. We'll develop quite a few of these rules, and in fact normally you will not be using the integral definition to compute Laplace transforms. Rule 1 (Linearity): L[af(t) + bg(t)] = af(s) + bg(s). This is clear, and has the usual benefits. Rule 2 (s-shift): (s-z). If z is any complex number, L[e^{zt}f(t)] = F Here's the calculation: L[e^{zt}f(t)] = integral_0^infinity e^{zt} f(t) e^{-st} dt = integral_0^infinity f(t) e^{-(s-z)t} dt = F(s-z). Using f(t) = 1 and our calculation of its Laplace transform we find L[e^{zt}] = 1/(s-z). (*) [5] Especially, we've computed L[e^{at}] for a real. This calculation (*) is more powerful than you may imagine at first, since z may be complex. Using linearity and we find cos(omega t) = (e^{i omega t} + e^{-i omega t})/2 L[cos(omega t)] = (1/(s - i omega) + 1/(s + i omega))/2 Cross multiplying, we can rewrite Using we find L[cos(omega t)] = s/(s^2 + omega^2) sin(omega t) = (e^{i omega} - e^{-i omega})/(2i)

4 L[sin(omega t)] = omega/(s^2 + omega^2). [6] The delta function: Something new about delta(t): If f(t) is continuous at b, f(t) delta(t-b) = f(b) delta(t-b). Therefore whenever a < b < c, integral_a^c f(t) delta(t-b) dt = f(b): integrating against delta(t) picks out the value of f(t) at t = b. Thus, for b >= 0, L[delta(t-b)] = integral_0^infty delta(t-b) e^{-st} dt In particular, L[delta(t)] = 1 = e^{-bs} This example shows that actually we should write L[f(t)] = integral_{0-}^infty f(t) e^{-st} dt to be sure to include any singularities at t = 0. [7] The relationship with differential equations: Compute: L[f'(t)] = integral_{0-}^infty f'(t) e^{-st} dt u = e^{-st} dv = f'(t) dt du = -s e^{-st} dt v = f(t) dt... = e^{-st} f(t) _{0-}^infty + s integral f(t) e^{-st} The evaluation of the first term at t = infty is zero, by our assumption about the growth of f(t), assuming that Re(s) is large enough. The evaluation at t = 0- is zero because f(0-) = 0. Thus:... = s F(s) Now, what is f'(t)? If f(t) has discontinuities, we must mean the generalized derivative. There is one discontinuity in f(t) that we can't just wish away: f(0-) = 0, while we had better let f(0+) be whatever it wants to be. We have to expect a discontinuity at t = 0. Just to keep the notation in bounds, lets suppose that f(t) is differentiable for t > 0. Then

5 (f')_r(t) is the ordinary derivative (f')_s(t) = f(0+) delta (t) and the generalized derivative is the sum. Thus L[f'(t)] = f(0+) + L[f'_r(t)] and so L[f'_r(t)] = s F(s) - f(0+).

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