Corpus Approaches to Critical Metaphor Analysis
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1 Corpus Approaches to Critical Metaphor Analysis
2
3 Corpus Approaches to Critical Metaphor Analysis Jonathan Charteris-Black
4 Jonathan Charteris-Black, 2004 Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of this publication may be made without written permission. No paragraph of this publication may be reproduced, copied or transmitted save with written permission or in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, or under the terms of any licence permitting limited copying issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency, 90 Tottenham Court Road, London W1T 4LP. Any person who does any unauthorised act in relation to this publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages. The author has asserted his right to be identified as the author of this work in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act First published 2004 by PALGRAVE MACMILLAN Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 6XS and 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, N.Y Companies and representatives throughout the world PALGRAVE MACMILLAN is the global academic imprint of the Palgrave Macmillan division of St. Martin s Press, LLC and of Palgrave Macmillan Ltd. Macmillan is a registered trademark in the United States, United Kingdom and other countries. Palgrave is a registered trademark in the European Union and other countries. ISBN ISBN (ebook) DOI / This book is printed on paper suitable for recycling and made from fully managed and sustained forest sources. A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Charteris-Black, Jonathan, 1955 Corpus approaches to critical metaphor analysis / Jonathan Charteris-Black. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. 1. Metaphor Data Processing. 2. Discourse analysis Data processing. I. Title. P301.5.M48C dc
5 Contents List of figures List of tables Preface Acknowledgements Style conventions ix x xii xiv xv Introduction 1 Part I Metaphor Background and Theory 5 1 Metaphor and Thought Metaphor, ideology and thought Metaphor and pragmatics Cognitive semantics and conceptual metaphor Conventional and creative metaphor Defining metaphor Metaphor and theory construction Summary 23 2 Critical Approaches to Metaphor Introduction Critical Discourse Analysis Corpus linguistics A critical approach to researching metaphors Metaphor identification Metaphor interpretation Metaphor explanation Summary 41 Part II Metaphor in Political Discourse 45 3 The Metaphors of New Labour Introduction Metaphor and Europe 48 v
6 vi Contents 3.3 Metaphor in New Labour manifestos Introduction Analysis of the 1997 New Labour manifesto Metaphor in New Labour speeches Summary 63 4 Metaphor in British Party Political Manifestos Introduction Researching political manifestos Metaphor in Labour and Conservative manifestos Overview Conflict metaphors Building metaphors Journey metaphors Plant metaphors Religious metaphors Diachronic metaphor shifts Summary 84 5 Metaphor in American Presidential Speeches Introduction Researching American political discourse Metaphor in the US Inaugural Corpus Conflict metaphors Journey metaphors Building metaphors Light and fire metaphors Physical environment metaphors Religious metaphors Body part metaphors Comparison of British Manifesto and US Inaugural Corpora Summary 109 Part III Metaphor in Press Reporting Metaphor in Sports Reporting Introduction Sports metaphors in war reporting Researching sports metaphors in the British press 116
7 Contents vii 6.4 Qualitative analysis of metaphors of conflict in press sports reporting Metaphors of war Analysis of metaphors of survival in press sports reporting Summary Metaphor in Financial Reporting Introduction The evolution of biological and mechanistic metaphor in economics Researching financial reporting Overview of findings The economy is human Market trading is physical conflict Market trading is a state of mental health The state of market trading is a state of physical health Economic problems are natural disasters Downward market changes are disasters A very bad market is a nuclear disaster A bad market is an earthquake The behaviour of the market is the behaviour of gas Market changes are physical movements Market changes are ways of moving on the ground Market changes are ways of moving in the water or nautical conditions Market changes are ways of moving in air Summary 167 Part IV Metaphor in Religious Discourse Metaphor in the Bible Introduction: metaphor and religion Researching metaphor in the Bible Biblical metaphors Overview Animal metaphors in the Old and New Testaments 182
8 viii Contents Light metaphors in the Old and New Testaments Plant metaphors in the Old and New Testaments Evaluation of plant metaphors Food and drink metaphors in the Old and New Testaments Summary Metaphor in the Old Testament Introduction Building metaphors in the Old Testament Journey metaphors in the Old Testament Conflict metaphors in the Old Testament Weather metaphors in the Old Testament Fire metaphors in the Old Testament Summary Metaphor in the Koran Introduction: socio-cultural context of the Koran Researching metaphor in the Koran Overview of findings Productive sources of metaphor in the Koran Journey metaphors in the Koran Weather metaphors in the Koran Light and fire metaphors in the Koran Plant metaphors in the Koran Unproductive metaphor source domains in the Koran Food and drink metaphors in the Koran Animal metaphors in the Koran Summary 238 Part V A Discourse Theory of Metaphor Critical Metaphor Analysis Introduction Cognitive semantics and Critical Metaphor Analysis Metaphor and subliminal meaning Critical Metaphor Analysis and personal empowerment 251 Bibliography 254 Index 259 Index of Conceptual Metaphors and Conceptual Keys 262
9 List of Figures 2.1 Conceptual metaphor and ideology: contrasting rhetorical conceptualisations of terrorism Conceptual map for metaphors of conflict and survival Conceptual metaphors and conceptual keys for financial reporting Inheritance hierarchy for biblical light metaphors Inheritance hierarchy for biblical darkness metaphors Conceptual map for HUMANS ARE PLANTS/SPIRITUAL IS NATURAL Inheritance hierarchy for biblical plant metaphors Conceptual metaphors for building in the Bible Conceptual metaphors for journeys in the Bible A hierarchical cognitive model of metaphor A discourse model for metaphor 248 ix
10 List of Tables 3.1 Distribution of metaphors in New Labour s 1997 manifesto Metaphor in the first section of the 1997 Labour manifesto The discourse of Blair s 2001 Labour Party conference speech Ethical discourse in Gordon Brown s Civic Society in Modern Britain speech, July Metaphor source domains in early and recent post-war manifestos Summary of conceptual metaphors in British party political manifestos Summary of source domains and resonance in the US Inaugural Corpus Comparison of metaphor types in British party political manifestos and American presidential inaugural speeches Fire and light metaphors in American English sections of the Bank of English Summary of conceptual metaphors in the US Inaugural Corpus Conflict lexicon in the Bank of English Use of conflict lexicon in sports contexts in the first 100 lines of the Bank of English sub-corpora for The Times and The Sun The conflict lexicon in The Times Frequency of conflict lexicon in sports sections of The Times and The Sun Overview of conceptual metaphors of financial reporting Conceptual motivation of metaphor in financial reporting Metaphor source domains in the Bible sample Metaphors of dark and light in the gospels Distribution of dark and light metaphors in the gospel of John 188 x
11 List of Tables xi 8.4 Biblical tree metaphors and positive evaluation Biblical plant metaphors and negative evaluation Summary of conceptual keys and conceptual metaphors in the Bible sample Productive metaphor source domains in the Koran Unproductive metaphor source domains in the Koran Summary of conceptual keys and conceptual metaphors in the Koran 239
12 Preface This book has been written at a turbulent time of international affairs. On the one hand certain processes such as the movement of people about the globe, access to technology and the growth of the world wide web seem to be bringing people closer together, while on the other there are forces driving people further apart. There are advocates of modernity who see technology and the free movement of capital and people leading to a better, wealthier world, while there are others who resist what they see as the corrupting influences of modernity because it divides people into winners and losers. This is leading to a world in which violence whether by non-governmental or governmental agents seems to be on the increase. This is also a time when because more and more people have access to more and more information, the media seem to have an increasing influence on our beliefs about this world. It is this growth of information and media that enables acts of violence to become acts of terrorism in the first place, because we can only be afraid of what the media have brought to our attention. So there is a symbiosis between the forces that are bringing the world closer together the world wide web, the growth of cable television, mobile phones, etc. and those that are pulling it apart: fear and the manipulation of fear. What I have aimed to do in this book is to try to explain how a better understanding of the relationship between language and thought can help us to be more in control of the apparently overwhelming forces of modernity. I have tried to demonstrate that a critical approach to the language of those who hold power in society politicians, media barons and theocrats will show us what sort of factors influence their choice of emotive words and phrases. Metaphors are usually influential because they persuade us of certain ways of viewing the world. I hold the belief that a better understanding of language is the basis of creating a better society. The stance that I argue is a critical one in which people are educated so that they are able to analyse and evaluate the ideas offered to them by those who aspire to positions of power; without this there can be no democracy because there is no choice. It is not a new approach to the analysis of language and was traditionally known as the study of rhetoric: however, at no time has it been a more crucial area of investigation than today. xii
13 Preface xiii I describe this approach as Critical Metaphor Analysis; readers will find out that this is a perspective that aims to bring together perspectives from critical discourse analysis, corpus analysis, pragmatics and cognitive linguistics. It is my belief that the tendency for separate subschools of linguistics to emerge has more to do with the exigencies of career building and a drawing of boundaries of academic territory than any real inconsistency between these approaches. Nor do I see linguistic analysis as separate from other social sciences such as political science, sociology, media studies and history because when powerful opinion makers make particular linguistic selections this is with the specific purpose of being persuasive. I see an approach that integrates linguistic analysis with cognitive understanding and social insight as valuable in explaining why a metaphor rather than some alternative mode of expression was chosen in a particular type of discourse. Finally, though, since the start of modern metaphor studies, there has been an awareness that metaphor has both linguistic and cognitive aspects it concerns both words and thoughts however, I don t think it is productive to give primacy to either one of these perspectives. Metaphor is always going be about both thought and about language forms it is therefore primarily about meaning (the relationship between the world, linguistic forms and underlying mental representations); therefore understanding more about metaphor can only assist us in understanding more about what we mean by meaning. I would like to thank colleagues at the conferences on Researching and Applying Metaphor and Cognitive Linguistics whose limitless passion for language has given me the enthusiasm to write this book. I would also like to thank those who have allowed me the time to write while providing the inspiration to do so: Fadila, Sara and Tanya. Jonathan Charteris-Black, July 2003
14 Acknowledgements The author would like to express his thanks to Cobuild for access to the Bank of English and to anonymous Palgrave-Macmillan reviewers for their suggestions for improvements to earlier drafts of this work. He would also like to thank the following who have produced web sites which were valuable in providing sources of data for use in this book: George Lakoff (Conceptual Metaphor page); the University of Keele; the University of Berkeley; The Times newspaper; The Sun newspaper; and The Economist. (Web site addresses are given at the end of the Bibliography.) xiv
15 Style Conventions As has become accepted practice in cognitive linguistic approaches, upper case is reserved to represent the abstract thoughts underlying metaphors (usually known as conceptual metaphors). Words or phrases that are selected for the focus of discussion are placed in single speech marks; once they are definitively classified as metaphors they are either shown in italics or, in some cases, in bold for special emphasis. In some places italics are also used for the written equivalent of when a word or phrase is stressed in the spoken language. Any lack of consistency in applying these conventions is entirely the fault of the author rather than that of the publisher or printer. xv
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