African Rhythms and How they are Learned

Transcription

1 African Rhythms and How they are Learned Annotated Bibliography Dan Kruse Fine Arts Studies Major 2004 Undergraduate Research Grant Recipient

2 Page 2 Agawu, V. Kofi Representing African Music. NY: Routledge. A provocative examination of the nature and substance of African music. Much of the book is aimed at dispelling other authors approaches and theories regarding the nature of African music, polyrhythms, etc. Ch. 8: How Not to Analyze African Music, discusses the rift between music theorists and ethnomusicologists. Ch. 3: The Invention of African Rhythm ; Ch. 4: Polymeter, Additive Rhythm and Other Myths. Useful for a fresh perspective on how to view African music and rhythms. Extensive bibliography. Arum, Simba African Polyphony and Polyrhythm: Musical Structure and Methodology. New York, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Blacking, John How Musical is Man? Seattle: University of Washington Press. A probing exploration into the inherent musicality of human beings. Blacking pursues the argument that all musical expression has validity and (often misunderstood) levels of complexity and sophistication. Many examples from his work with Venda of S. Africa; extensive transcriptions. Useful for the author s thoughtful, honest approach to assessing musicality across cultures, and the demands which this places upon ethnomusicologists. Carrington, John F Talking Drums of Africa. London: Cary Kingsgate Press. An examination of the talking drums of Africa as a means of communication. The language of the drum as a component of the language groups throughout the continent. Construction of drums; playing technique; phrases, etc. The role of drumming in ritual practices, ceremonies, and sporting events. Useful in understanding the relationships between sound, rhythm, and language in African societies. Brandel, Rose Music of Central Africa. Campbell, Patricia Shehan and Scott-Kassner, Carol Music in Childhood from Preschool through the Elementary Grades Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Group/ Thomson Learning

3 Page 3 Chernoff, John Miller African Rhythm and African Sensibility. Chicago, London: University of Chicago Press. First written in , one of the classics in the study of African music and culture. Topics include 1) an extensive reflection on the author s perspective on participant/observer relationship to the material, 2) a discussion of the role of music in African cultures, 3) detailed examinations of musical patterns and forms, 4) musical style and 5) music as an expression of African values. Useful as an excellent perspective on both the musical and cultural aspects of African music from an author who has lived in Africa for extended periods of time. Exhaustive bibliography. Chosky, Lois; Abramson, Robert M.; Gillespie, Avon; Woods, David 1986 Teaching Music in the Twentieth Century Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall Clements, George N The Verbal Syntax of Ewe. London: University of London (unpublished dissertation). Cooke, Peter East Africa: An Introduction in Garland Encyclopedia of Music: Africa. NY; London: Garland Publishing. A broad overview of the nine east African nations, their history and culture. The relationship of music to religion, nomadism, urban music, etc. Useful as an introduction to east African culture and music in the continental context. Dje Dje, Jacqueline Cogdell West Africa: An Introduction, in Garland Encyclopedia of Music: Africa. NY; London: Garland Publishing. An overview of music of 14 West African nations, regarded by some scholars as a homogeneous unit, but with significant diversity. Discussion of geography (savanna, forest) and historical forces, and the present-day tribes and tribal clusters throughout the region. Useful for a broad understanding of tribal groupings and cultural and linguistic lineage.

4 Page 4 Floyd, Malcolm Composing the Music of Africa: Composition, Interpretation, and Realisation. Aldershot, England; Brookfield, VT: Ashgate Press. A broad-ranging compilation addressing many different aspects of African music: Egyptian, Ghanaian, Maasai, Kenyan, and others, plus a discussion of the relevance of African musical assumptions and paradigms from a composer s perspective. Ch. 5 ( Drumming in Africa ) addresses interlocking rhythms and how they combine to create new rhythmic patterns. Useful as a guide to deciphering such rhythms utilizing western notation. Ch. 8: How Not to Analyze African Music, a case study regarding the nuances of analytical issues and presentation of findings; includes an overview of findings by Hornbostel, Blacking, Arum, Jones and others. Gaskin, L.J.P. and Wachsmann, K.P A Select Bibliography of Music in Africa. London: International African Institute. An extensive bibliography of articles, journals and books on every aspect of African music. Arrangement by geography, instrument type, dance, author. Total of 3370 entries. Useful for finding articles on specific geographic regions, or by author. Jones, A.M Studies in African Music. London: Oxford University Press. One of the original exhaustive studies of African music, frequently cited since its publication. Discusses African musical genres, instruments, dances, etc. Speculates on the homogeneity of African music (i.e., the standard pattern ), a concept subsequently cited and debated by many others. Notable for its broad approach to the subject, covering many tribes and topics. Also, detailed photo illustrations of Atsimevu technique. Jones, A.M African Drumming: A Study in the Combination of Rhythms in African Music, in Bantu Studies, Vol. 8, no. 2 (March), pp Jones, A.M African Rhythm, in Africa, Ch. 24, pp

5 Page 5 Kaemmer, John E South Africa: An Introduction, in Garland Encyclopedia of Music: Africa. NY; London: Garland Publishing. An overview of history, people, culture and music of this tennation region. Role of music in politics and royalty. Indigenous groups and their music. Section on Venda musical and tonal organization (Cites Blacking, 65 and 73). Political/ social/economic factors affecting S. African music in recent history. Kauffman, Robert African Rhythm: A Reassessment, in Ethnomusicology, Vol. 24, no. 3. Ann Arbor: The Society for Ethnomusicology. Notes the similarities of African rhythms across diverse cultures. Cites Jones/King s work identifying the standard pattern. African hemiola, macrorhythms, musical form, call-andresponse, microrhythms. These concepts are combined to suggest a new approach to their analysis and understanding. Useful table of common African rhythms. Koetting, James (Roderick Knight, ed.) What do We Know About African Rhythm?, in Ethnomusicology. Ann Arbor: Society for Ethnomusicology. Koetting s final word on the subject (he died the following evening), presented at the 10/20/84 Society for Ethnomusicology Conference in L. A. One of the best available articles addressing issues of rhythmic analysis of African music. Koetting, James Ch. 3, Africa/Ghana in Worlds of Music. New York: Schirmer Books. A chapter discussing a variety of African musical styles, from Kesena jongo to Highlife. Includes a straightforward explanation of 2-over-3 cross rhythms (helpful in teaching polymetric patterns to western students). Listening examples provided on accompanying recording. Useful as a brief, generalized overview of the topic of African music, rhythms, notational issues and cultural background. Koetting, James Analysis and Notation of West African Drum Ensemble Music, in UCLA Selected Reports (Institute of Ethnomusicology Vol. 1, No. 3, pp

6 Page 6 Kolinski, Mieczlslaw, A Cross-Cultural Approach to Metro-Rhythmic Patterns, in Ethnomusicology, Vol. 17, No. 3. Ann Arbor: The Society for Ethnomusicology. A re-evaluation of the western approach to analyzing and understanding non-western rhythms. Examines the definition of rhythm. Discusses typical western approaches. Cites A.M. Jones work w/ewe; overlapping polymeters including 12/8, 1/4, 2/4, 3/4, 4/4, 6/8, etc. Useful in understanding rhythmic comparisons between cultures. Kongo, Zabana African Drum Music: Kpanlogo. Accra: Afram Publications. A small book offering a complete transcription of Kpanlogo, as performed by the Master Drummers of the Ghana Dance Ensemble. Detailed western notations, including vertical alignments of all parts with bell part. Intro, by Nketia. Useful in teaching/demonstrating these rhythms to any who would benefit from easily-readable western notation. Kongo, Zabana African Drum Music: Adowa. Accra: Afram Publications. A small book offering a complete transcription of Adowa, as performed by the Master Drummers of the Ghana Dance Ensemble. Detailed with notation including vertical alignment with bell parts. Intro by Nketia. Useful for detailed western notations. Kubik, Gerhard Central Africa: An Introduction, in Garland Encyclopedia of Music: Africa. NY;London: Garland Publishing. Overview of eight central African nations, their history, cultures and music. Notation of choral music of Central African Republic. Relationship of music and language. Examples of music s role in group work (i.e., millet-pounding) and resultant rhythms. Pygmy cultures; Bantu, instruments. Useful for understanding the discreet linguistic zones and their relation to musics of the region. Lems-Dworkin, Carol African Music: A Pan-African Annotated Bibliography. London; NY: Hanszell

7 Page 7 Locke, David Principles of Off-Beat Timing and Cross-Rhythms in S. Ewe Dance Drumming, in Ethnomusicology, Vol. 26(2), pp Ann Arbor: Society for Ethnomusicology. An excellent examination of Ewe polyrhythmic music. Discusses Africans ability to hear 12/8 divided into 4 s, 3 s, 6 s, 8 s, etc. This article really sums it up. Very useful in notating/understanding the five major principles surrounding the standard pattern in African music Kpegisu: A War Drum of the Ewe. Tempe, AZ: White Cliffs Media Company. A study of a specific Ewe dance. Discusses rhythmic structure, the dance performance, musical notation/ transcriptions, the accompanying songs, etc. Ch. 4: The Percussion Ensemble, provides detailed rhythmic transcriptions and explanations of crossrhythms in 12/8, 6/4, 3/4, and 24/16 time signatures. Especially useful in understanding the polyrhythmic structures and how they combine, and a discussion of issues involved in notating this type of music. Locke, David and Agbeli, Godwin K A Study of The Drum Language of Adzogbo in African Music, Vol. 6. no. 1. Grahamstown, S. Africa: International Library of African Music. Examines Adzogbo, a dance of the Ewe of Benin, Togo and Ghana. Details the relationship of polyrhythmic musical texture and the movements of dancers, and the identical rhythms of the sung/spoken parts and the master drum. Descriptions of the cultural significance, performance features, and drum language of the piece. Useful for detailed transcriptions showing relationship of words to bell and drum parts, and the syllables which represent specific drum strokes and sounds. Locke, David Drum Gahu: A Systematic Method for an African Percussion Piece Merriam, Alan. African Music on LP: An Annotated Discography.

8 Page 8 Merriam, Alan P African Musical Rhythm and Concepts of Time-Reckoning, in Music East and West: Essays in Honor of Walter Kauffman (Thomas Noblitt, ed.), pp New York: Pendragon Press. Addresses unacknowledged assumptions regarding African rhythms: 1) equal pulse base, 2) derived steady musical beat, 3) a basic, organizing principle, 4) starting points for rhythmic groupings. A section on Time from the Western Point of View (a linear perspective), and how this affects our view of African rhythm, plus time from the African point of view, including time reckoning (how/whether people actually mark time as it passes). Useful in understanding/contrasting the western and African perceptions of time, its passage and marking African Music, in Continuity and Change in African Cultures, William R. Bascom and Melville J. Herskovitz, ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. An overview of the characteristics of the African musical system. Musical activity as an integral and functioning part of society. Summary of issues such as the standard pattern, rhythm, melody, form and function. Useful as a generalized orientation to African music in its cultural context and several musical/aesthetic issues. Montfort, Matthew Ch. 1: West Africa, in Ancient Traditions - Future Possibilities: Rhythmic Training Through the Traditions of Africa, Bali and India. Mill Valley, CA: Panoramic Press Detailed and highly instructive guide to executing African rhythms. Easy-to-understand notations of cross-rhythms, hemiolas, and methods for verbalizing and understanding them. Very useful for teaching African rhythms to oneself or to a group.

9 Page 9 Nketia, J.H. Kwabena The Problem of Meaning in African Music, in Ethnomusicology, Vol. 6. Ann Arbor: The Society for Ethnomusicology African Music in Ghana. Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press A brief introduction (145 pages) to the music of Ghana. Provides a broad, yet fairly specific, overview. Includes chapters on the organization of folk music and cultural context; musical types (classifications: recreational, occasional, incidental); melody; form; harmony; rhythm. Many detailed transcriptions (melodic, harmonic, rhythmic). Also a discussion of instruments and their construction and contributions to the ensemble. Esp. useful for the transcriptions and commentary The Music of Africa. New York: Norton Folk Songs of Ghana. Legon: University of Ghana Drumming in the Akan Communities of Ghana. Edinburgh: Thomas Nelson. A 200-page study of the Akan tribe in S. Ghana. Primary focus is the social implications of Akan drumming and its musical and linguistic aspects. Drum types and construction; modes of drumming (signal, speech, dance). Ch. 4: The Verbal Basis of Drumming, relates drum sounds to speech syllables. Also chapters on large segments of the population (bands, religious sects, Warriors, etc.) who use drumming in particular ways. Useful for understanding the cultural meanings of Akan music. Panteleoni, Hewitt Three Principles of timing in Anlo Dance Drumming, in African Music. Roodeport, Transvaal, S. Africa: African Music Society. A description of the three primary rhythmic aspects of the Anlo (Ewe) peoples Atsio. 1) Anlo timing in higher, softer parts, 2) the process of timing one s part to the bell, creating rhythmic polyphony, 3) other players performing in duet with this bell, and the resulting timing. Useful for a clearer understanding of how the players in Anlo music interact (consciously or unconsciously) with one another.

10 Page Towards Understanding the Play of Atsimevu in Atsia, in African Music, vol. 2. Roodeport, Transvaal, S. Africa: African Music Society. A detailed description of the role of the atsimevu (lead drum) in Ewe s Atsia dance drumming. Physical description of the instrument; types of strokes and sounds; a tablature for notation. Useful for an understanding of the eight main strokes, the sounds they make, and how to execute them Ch. 10: The Nature of Rhythm, in On the Nature of Music. Oneonta, NY: Welkin Books. A discussion of rhythm as a function of the division of time and successions of events. Discusses human perceptions as the primary determinant of rhythm. Offers a graphical method for analyzing multiple rhythmic components of a musical passage, plus diagrams of metric aspects of poetry and song lyrics. Useful in applying consistent methods of rhythmic analysis to varied musical styles Ch. 12: West African Rhythm, in On the Nature of Music. Oneonta, NY: Welkin Books. A discussion of the musical culture, instruments and rhythms of the Anlo people of Anyako, Ghana. Describes five primary attributes of Anlo music (non-equidistant governing accents; diverging simultaneous rhythms; levels of sound; earthward dancing; low-pitched singing). Provides graphical analyses of diverging simultaneous rhythms and multi-layered sound patterns. Useful in understanding the complex relationships between all aspects (accents, instrumentation, lyrics, sound levels) in a particular passage The Rhythm of Atsia Dance Drumming Among the Anlo (Ewe) of Anyako. Oneonta, NY: H. Panteleoni Pressing, Jeff Rhythmic Design in the Support Drums of Agbadzu in African Music, Vol. 6, no. 3. Grahamstown, S. Africa: International Library of African Music. Describes in detail the support parts played by gankogui, axatse and kagan in this warrior (now recreational) dance of the Ewe. Intricate analysis of phrase structures within the kidi part s many variations. Useful for detailed manner in which these parts support the lead drum.

11 Page 11 Reich, Steve Gahu: A Dance of the Ewe Tribe in Africa, in Writings About Music. Halifax: The Press of the Nova Scotia College of Art and Design. Reich s personal reflections on his travels to Ghana in 1970, including detailed transcriptions of Ewe rhythmic patterns for bell, rattle and drums. Comments on the challenges of learning these rhythms, as well as the cultural context of the music, and relationship between drum beats to spoken language patterns. Useful as a source of accurate transcriptions of two Ewe beat patterns. Interestingly, Reich (in 1980) composed a piece entitled Clapping Music, which hybridizes a typical 12/8 Ewe rhythmic style with his process music compositional approach. Sachs, Curt. 1965: The Wellsprings of Music. New York: McGraw-Hill. An introduction to polyrhythms and their importance in African music, including one notation depicting the simplest polyrhythm, % to 6/8. Some great generalized statements about the nature of polyrhythm (for use in Ethno project report). Smith, Edna Musical Training in Tribal West Africa, in African Music. Roodeport, Transvaal, S. Africa: African Music Society. The author discusses the traditional ways in which W. African children learn the music of their tribes, based on the principle of slow absorption of musical experience and active participation, rather than formal training. Socialization through participation in tribal music. Discusses disagreements regarding teaching methodologies - deliberately trained or not? Author notes that with the breakdown of tribal institutions, these methods are not always followed. Excellent as a source for traditional teaching/learning methods. Southall, Aiden A letter published in African Studies Newsletter, Vol. 8, No. 3 (June), pp. 3-4.

12 Page 12 Standifer, James A. and Reeder, Barbara Source Book of African and Afro-American Materials for Music Educators. Contemporary Music Project: Music Educators National Conference. An effort to provide music educators with more effective tools for teaching world (esp. African) music in the classroom. Extensive bibliography of books, recordings and other resources. Exercises to develop multi-layer hearing in students. Useful tool to educators seeking to get students started with understanding and playing African music. Stone, Ruth Time in African Performance, in Garland Encyclopedia of Music: Africa. NY, London: Garland Publishing Commentary: The Value of Local Ideas in Understanding African Rhythm, in Ethnomusicology, Vol. 30, no. 1. Ann Arbor: Society for Ethnomusicology A concise discussion of issues involved in understanding African rhythm, and the impact of the researcher s perspective. Stone contrasts the views of Agawu and Keotting (western notation vs. grasping to understand the African musician s own perception of the music). Useful as a brief overview of the subject. - and Stone, Verlon L Event Feedback and Analysis: Research Media in the Study of Music Events, in Ethnomusicology, Vol. 25, No. 2, pp Ann Arbor: Society for Ethnomusicology. An examination of the use of technological media and the feedback interview as methods for understanding music events in the field. Discusses issues of communication, multisensory aspects, interpretation, social relationships, etc. Guidelines for selecting and utilizing recording media. Useful as both a theoretical and practical guide to field recording and obtaining performer feedback.

13 Page 13 Sunkett, Mark Mandiani Drum and Dance: Djembe Performance and Black Aesthetics from Africa to the New World. Tempe, AZ: White Cliffs Media. Devoted to Mande music and dance traditions of Mali, Senegal and Guinea, and the ways in which it has been translated into African- American styles. Strong emphasis on aesthetics. Rhythmic patterns, both within the djembe drumming and the dance movements are explicitly illustrated. Technical illustrations of djembe construction and assembly. Notations of overlapping parts for djembe and other instruments. A brief discussion of learning methods for young drummers. Extensive chapter on the art form s evolution in the U.S. Useful as a broad overview of this particular tradition and its aesthetics, both in Africa and America. Temperly, David Meter and Grouping in African Music: A View from Music Theory, in Ethnomusicology, Vol. 44. no. 1. Champaign, IL: University of Illinois Press. An examination of African rhythmic material from a theory approach. Comparison of African and western rhythms. Recognizes the significant musical commonalities across cultural groups in sub-saharan Africa. Does African music have meter? Yes - as an underlying plus, felt but not always heard. How is meter inferred? The syncopation shift in African and western (popular) music. Useful in its citation of many other well-known authorities (Jones, Waterman, Chernoff, Koetting, Panteleoni, Blacking, Locke, Pressing, etc.) Thieme, Darius L African Music: A Briefly Annotated Bibliography. Washington, D.C.: Library of Congress. Lists hundreds of periodical, articles, etc. on the subject of sub- Saharan African music. Articles categorized by region. Indices of authors, tribes. Separate section devoted to books on the subject. A major effort at organizing the many publications, books and authors who researched African music and culture prior to 1964.

14 Page 14 Tracey, Hugh Codification of African Music and Textbook Project. A Primer of Practical Suggestions for Field Research. Roodeport, Transvaal, S. Africa: International Library of African Music. A very practical (if somewhat dated?) guide to field research into African music. Suggestions regarding etiquette, locating performers, achieving rapport, participating in music and dance, etc. Discussion of field notes, recording techniques, field cards, etc. Especially useful in developing field research protocol for my Ghana project, summer 04. Wachsmann, Klaus and Kay, Russell The Interrelations of Music Forms And Cultural Systems in Africa, in Technology and Culture, Vol. 12, no. 3, pp Warren, Fred The Music of Africa - An Introduction. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc. A true introduction to the subject, readable by lay persons, and covering melody, rhythm, form, instruments and music s role in African culture. Easy-to-understand illustrations of melodies and corresponding rhythms. Useful as a text for those less familiar with the complexities of African music. Wendt, Caroline Card North Africa: An Introduction, in Garland Encyclopedia of Music: Africa. NY, London: Garland Publishing. An overview of the geography, people and culture of ten North African nations. Relationship of music to the Islam faith and worship practices. Music in folk life (events, celebrations, rituals, poetry, dance) and popular music are discussed. Useful for a broad understanding of N. Africa s history, geography and cultural forces.