Automated composer recognition for multi-voice piano compositions using rhythmic features, n-grams and modified cortical algorithms
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- Percival Little
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1 Complex Intell. Syst. (2018) 4: ORIGINAL ARTICLE Automated composer recognton for mult-voce pano compostons usng rhythmc features, n-grams and modfed cortcal algorthms Nadne Hajj 2 Maurce Flo 1 Marette Awad 2 Receved: 6 March 2016 / Accepted: 19 July 2017 / Publshed onlne: 8 August 2017 The Author(s) Ths artcle s an open access publcaton Abstract Wth the explosve growth of dgtal musc data beng stored and easly reachable on the cloud, as well as the ncreased nterest n affectve and cogntve computng, dentfyng composers based on ther muscal work s an nterestng challenge for machne learnng and artfcal ntellgence to explore. Capturng style and recognzng musc composers have always been perceved reserved for traned muscal ears. Whle there have been many researchers targetng musc genre classfcaton for mproved recommendaton systems and lstener experence, few works have addressed automatc recognton of classcal pano composers as proposed n ths paper. Ths paper dscusses the applcablty of n-grams on MIDI musc scores coupled wth rhythmc features for feature extracton specfcally of mult-voce scores. In addton, cortcal algorthms (CA) are adapted to reduce the large feature set obtaned as well as to effcently dentfy composers n a supervsed manner. When used to classfy unknown composers and capture dfferent styles, our proposed approach acheved a recognton rate of 94.4% on a home grown database of 1197 peces wth only 0.1% of the 231,542 generated features whch motvates follow-on research. The retaned most sgnfcant features, ndeed, provded nterestng conclusons on capturng musc style of pano composers. B Marette Awad marette.awad@aub.edu.lb Nadne Hajj njh05@aub.edu.lb Maurce Flo maurce.g.flo@gmal.com 1 Department of Mechancal Engneerng, Unversty of Calforna Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA 93117, USA 2 Department of Electrcal and Computer Engneerng, Amercan Unversty of Berut, Berut, Lebanon Keywords Composer recognton n-grams Cortcal algorthms Introducton The exponental growth of the musc database easly accessble and stored n the cloud promotes automated classfcaton of muscal peces for mproved user experence and recommender systems. For classcal musc, the unqueness of each classcal musc composer s revealed by hs/her own dstnct style: a style that s characterzed by varous factors such as the rhythmc structure that defnes the speed and varatons of the musc pece, the ptch that establshes the melody characterzng the musc as beng joyful, passonate, dramatc, ntense, etc. Often, these varous styles are the consequences of ether the lfestyle of the composers or the tme era they lved n. Our work focuses on revealng the structures n pano compostons that defne the style of the composer. Ths allows us to move a step closer to what actually defnes musc style that dstngushes one pano composer from the other. Ideally, style dentfcaton can help musc theorsts, recommender systems, musc annotaton and generaton, as well as gude future composers n wrtng musc wth the style of classcal muscans such as Beethoven, Mozart, Bach Although classcal composer dentfcaton s often perceved as reserved to traned muscal ears, an automated system capable of recognzng composers gven raw data s desrable as t suppresses the need for a professonal to perform such task. Recent studes nvolvng self-acclamed experts show a low recognton of 48% [2]. Addtonally, gven the nherently large aspect of musc data, automatng ths task becomes a necessty rather than a luxury. Ths task s the focus of ths paper whch proposes an automated artst recognton system based on a unque framework for feature generaton, feature reducton and supervsed classfcaton.
2 56 Complex Intell. Syst. (2018) 4:55 65 In general, the muscal composton can be ether classfed as a recordng or a symbolc score. A recordng can be n the form of an audo fle or a real-tme sequenced MIDI fle. Generatng musc data as recordngs encodes two coupled sets of nformaton: (a) composer style and (b) performer nterpretaton of that partcular composton. Decouplng the two sets of nformaton s a dfferent problem by tself. Snce ths paper targets the composer recognton problem, the musc data used here are step-by-step sequenced MIDI fles, whch are bascally dgtal symbolc scores obtaned from the Humdrum project lbrary [19]. Ths avods the nterference of the performer nterpretaton durng the composer recognton process snce performance s dfferent than style. After all, a Beethoven composton for nstance can be nterpreted very dfferently by Vladmr Horowtz and the Beatles. The remander of ths paper s organzed such that secton Lterature revew revews prevous related works on composer and performer recognton. Secton Feature extracton llustrates our proposed algorthm for feature generaton usng musc n-grams. Secton Cortcal algorthm for feature reducton and classfcaton descrbes the adaptaton of cortcal algorthms (CA) for feature reducton whle secton Expermental results shows our encouragng expermental results wth a dscusson on captured musc style. Fnally, secton Concluson concludes wth potental follow-on work. Lterature revew Lterature survey shows research work that attempted to recognze composers n an automated manner. In what follows, we summarze the most related ones. One of the technques used to classfy composers s language modelng. The style of each composer s encoded n a language model usng n-grams based on the assumpton that the man features of a musc composer style are captured n some repettons and recurrences, much lke wrtng styles n language modelng. Such an approach was tested on a corpus of fve composers from the Baroque and Classcal perods wth accuracy attanng 95% [17]. N-grams representatons were also used n [35] where three types of n-grams: melodc, rhythmc and combned were constructed. The number of occurrences of each n-gram and a smlarty measure was calculated on some MIDI fles. A grd search usng n = 6 gave the best accuracy of 84% on the testng set. It should be noted that each pece of the sets was chosen to be well sequenced,.e., each track has to represent only one staff or hand. Choosng the peces that satsfy ths crteron was the only human preprocessng task carred out on ths data. However, t s more challengng to get the md fle n a sngle track and perform the analyss accordngly. Tradtonal machne learnng technques have also been appled for the task of composer recognton, among whch we cte neural network archtectures [6,18], for ther smlarty to our recognton model. The system used n [18] s a cascade of a two-layer Stacked Denosng Autoencoder (STA), a two-layer Deep Belef Network and a logstc regresson layer on the top. The STA extracts features from raw data by corruptng the clean data by addng some nose or smply randomly settng some elements to 0, then trans the autoencoder wth the corrupted data as nput and the clean data as target n the end. The DBN s a stack of two layers of Restrcted Boltzmann Machnes amng at creatng a probablstc representaton of the nput whle the regresson layer labels the nput. A recognton rate of 76% was obtaned on an n-house dataset. On the other hand Buzzanca [6], used artfcal shallow neural networks to recognze the style of musc compostons traned usng back-propagaton. Shared weghts as proposed by LeCun et al. [24] allowed for a varable number of nputs whch s a must n ths case because muscal phrases have dfferent lengths. A three-hdden layer network topology was employed and the nput layer was dvded nto sets of four n order to represent the 1/8th note (half beat) wth two nput nodes encodng the ptch. The frst two hdden layers serve as encoders of the rhythm and recognze whether a slent note (rest) or sounded note has been played. 400 peces for dfferent composers were used to tran the network whch took around 20 h to complete. Results showed an accuracy of 97.09%. The sequental aspect of musc can be captured usng Hdden Markov Models. Prevous works adopted ths approach on both audo and symbolc data such as [3,21,25,29]. A combnaton of spectral features such as Spectral Centrod, Rolloff, Flux and Mel-Frequency Cepstral Coeffcents, and content specfc harmones are fed nto a 4-node Markov chan n [3]. A custom database consstng of 400 dstnct audo samples of 30 seconds n length belongng to Bach, Beethoven, Chopn, and Lszt s used to valdate the model wth recognton rates attanng 83%. A varant of Hdden Markov Model, the weghted Markov Chan Model, has also been appled to classfy composers [21]. Structural nformaton from nter onset and ptch ntervals between pars of consecutve notes s used to buld a weghted varaton of a frst-order Markov chan traned usng a proposed evolutonary procedure that automatcally tunes the ntroduced weghts. Expermental results on a collecton of 150 peces by Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven showed recognton rates up to 88% for Beethoven Haydn classfcaton, 70% for Haydn-Mozart classfcaton and 87% for Mozart Beethoven recognton. Lu and Selfrdge-Feld [25] used Markov chans by defnng the state space as the tonalty. Hence, after defnng the repertore of a style, encodng and defnng the state space, the transton matrx can then be calculated and, thus, the Markov Chan s constructed. A dstance measure as proposed by [10] s used to compare an unlabeled nstance to prevously constructed chans
3 Complex Intell. Syst. (2018) 4: and hence dentfy the composer. Expermental results on a collecton of 100 movements of Mozart Strng quartets and 212 movements from Haydn (MIDI fles) showed recognton rates between 52.8 and 68%. Representng musc as states of relatve ptch and rhythm, Pollastr and Smoncell [29] used Hdden Markov Models (HMMs) to determne the style of a composer whch s dentfed based on a hghest probablty scheme. Expermental results based on a dataset ncludng 605 peces for varous artsts ncludng classcal artsts and pop artsts showed accuracy of 42%. Valdaton wth human subjects returned 48% accuracy for expert muscans and 24.6% for amateurs. Other methods modeled artst styles and classfy composers. Mearns et al. [26] employed counterpont as a hgh level feature from muscal theory background to classfy the style of muscal peces based on a symbolc representaton of the score (Kern Format). Counterpont s the study of musc of two or more voces whch sound smultaneously and progress accordng to a set of rules. A classfer based on a Nave Bayes and Decson Tree correctly labeled 44 of the 66 peces used for testng belongng to Renassance and Baroque composers. Geertzen and van Zaanen [9] appled grammatcal nference (GI) to automatcally recognze composer based on learnng recurrng patterns n the muscal peces. An unsupervsed machne learnng technque extensvely used n language recognton, GI reveals underlyng structure of symbolc sequental data. For composer recognton, melody and rhythm as features were used to buld typcal phrases or patterns n an unsupervsed manner and rhythm was employed only to perform supervsed classfcaton. The GI component n ther system was realzed by Algnment-Based Learnng (ABL) [33]. Ths technque generates consttuents based on syntactc smlarty by algnng muscal phrases, then selects the best consttuents that descrbes the structure of the muscal composton. ABL error rates averaged about 21 on a baroque dataset wth preludes from Bach, Chopn and about 24 on a classc dataset wth quartet peces from Beethoven, Haydn and Mozart. Feature extracton In any machne learnng applcaton, raw data are preprocessed n order to create a numercal representaton that can be processed by the recognzer. Ths phase s referred to as feature extracton and t affects tremendously the machne learnng performance [22]. For our partcular applcaton, the detals of ths phase are shown below. Data extracton Startng wth a sngle track raw md fle, the feature extracton stage ams to construct a feature vector representng the md fle. Naturally, the frst step s to comple the data from whch the features are generated. The ultmate goal s to create a representaton of audo fles for the performed musc when recorded usng mcrophones. Ths would requre performng automatc transcrpton,.e., dentfyng the sequence of notes and ther characterstcs such as the dynamcs, rhythms, ptches, etc. However, the ablty to perform automatc transcrpton s stll an mmature feld due to the fact that advanced audtory sgnal processng technques are the focus of researchers worldwde especally for polyphonc musc [1,4,23,30,31]. In addton to that, as we mentoned earler, a recordng of the same muscal composton mght be very dfferent f nterpreted by dfferent performers. Hence to classfy a recordng based solely on the composer style, one has to develop a scheme to deconvolve the nterpretaton of the performer whch becomes a completely dfferent problem. For these reasons, the data set s extracted from MIDI fles (representatons of the sequental progresson of muscal notes and ther characterstcs) usng an avalable Matlab toolbox [8]. The most mportant parameters representng a muscal pece are the ptch and duraton of each note n a md sequence. However, snce the same muscal pece mght be played n a dfferent tonalty or even tempo; therefore, a relatve representaton of the ptch and duraton s preferable compared to the absolute representaton that was proposed n [23]. For the th and ( 1)th notes havng a ptch p and p 1 and a duraton t and t 1, respectvely, we construct a representaton P for the ptch dfference and T for the tme duraton dfference as shown n Eqs. 1 and 2. P = p p ( 1 ) (1) t T = round log 2 (2) Feature generaton t 1 After data extracton, features are generated. These features should characterze the data n a compact and effcent form for our purpose. As suggested n [32], the hghest ptched notes (skylne) reveal the melody of a certan pece, whle the progresson of the base notes (groundlne) gves a good ndcaton of the style of the composer. Therefore, we start frst by extractng the melody and the bass notes and then the correspondng ptch and duraton n-grams as proposed n [23]. However, n addton, we propose another set of features whch characterzes the rhythmc style of the composer. These features quantze the number of notes that have onsets on a complete beat, half of a beat, quarter of a beat, one thrd of a beat, etc. Ths captures the style of the composer n placng notes on beats or between beats (the so called syncope) or even trplets. We ncluded n secton Illustratve examples an llustratve example of our proposed feature generaton.
4 58 Complex Intell. Syst. (2018) 4:55 65 Ptch n-gram Duraton n-gram Md Fle Extreme (Hgh) Extreme (Low) Average Flter (Hgh) Flter (Low) Quantze Quantze Extreme (Hgh) Extreme (Low) Rhythm Vector Ptch n-gram Feature Vector Duraton n-gram Rhythm Vector Fg. 1 Block dagram for feature generaton Fgure 1 shows a detaled setup for the feature generaton stage from a md fle. Frst, the note matrx (see Table 1) s constructed, and then the hghest and lowest note sequences are extracted. The note sequences are then fltered based on a computed threshold defned as the average of the centrods of the hghest and lowest note sequences. The process s repeated resultng n a representaton of the pece consstng of a robust melody and bass extracton. The repetton of the process s partcularly useful to categorze a solo note sequence as melody or bass. The fnal feature vector for the nput md fle s a vector contanng occurrences of N possble n-grams n addton to the onset beat features we propose. It s mportant to note that N vares wth each md fle. Hence to obtan a fxed length feature vector, automatc zero paddng s employed where non-exstng n-grams are added wth 0 occurrences. Illustratve examples In ths secton, we frst llustrate the performance of the melody/bass extracton procedure. Then, we show how the n-grams are constructed. To show the approach of our melody/bass extracton algorthm, we use (as an llustratve example) the frst seventy beats of Bach s Prelude No. 17 n A flat major. Fgure 2 shows the pano rolls of Bach s Prelude before and after melody/bass separaton. Next, we llustrate wth a smple example the constructon of n-grams. We use an evaluaton copy of Mozart Software [34] to wrte the man melody of the Lebanese Natonal Anthem and convert t to a MIDI fle. The man melody of the frst phrase s shown n Fg. 3 and the correspondng data Table 1 Note matrx of the sample n Fg. 3 Onset (beats) Md ptch Duraton (s) extracted also known as the note matrx are shown n Table 1. Onsets and Duratons (whether n beats or n seconds) gve rhythm characterstcs, ptches represent the name of the note (60 represents the central C note) and velocty represents the dynamcs of the note. The data are generated as follows: ungrams are constructed usng Eqs. 1 and 2. Then, ptch and duraton n-grams extracted are constructed. For example, 3- grams are formed for the sample mentoned. Ptch (duraton) ungrams and 3-grams of the sample are shown n Tables 2 and 3, respectvely. Fnally, the rhythm feature vector for the sample s constructed and shown n Table 4.
5 Complex Intell. Syst. (2018) 4: Fg. 2 Pano rolls of Bach s Prelude No. 17 n A flat major. The top fgure shows the pano roll of the full composton. The bottom fgure shows the pano roll of the separated melody (red) and bass (blue) Fg. 3 Sample of the Lebanese natonal anthem produced by an evaluaton copy of Mozart Table 2 Ptch 3-grams Absolute ptch Relatve ptch 3-grams Occurrence Table 3 Duraton 3-grams Absolute duraton Relatve duraton 3-grams Occurrence Cortcal algorthm for feature reducton and classfcaton The large number of n-grams possble combnatons leads to a very large feature vector sze. As a result, a feature reducton scheme s hghly desrable to buld a robust ML model. In ths secton, we provde a mathematcal formulaton for CA as ntroduced n lterature, as well as for our proposed feature reducton scheme.
6 60 Complex Intell. Syst. (2018) 4:55 65 Table 4 Rhythm features Rhythm features Complete beats 10 Half beats 0 Quarter beats 4 1/8th beats 0 1/3rd beats 2 Prmer on cortcal algorthms Occurrence CA are a bologcally nspred machne learnng (ML) approach whch structure (columnar organzaton) has been proposed by Mountcastle and Edelman [7]. The model mmcs aspects of the human vsual cortex that recalls sequences stored herarchcally n an nvarant. A mathematcal formulaton and a computatonal mplementaton of ths model were further developed by Hashm and Lpast [13 16]. The model conssts of an assocaton of sx-layered structures of dfferent thckness consttuted of a very large number of columns strongly connected va feed-forward and feedback connectons. The column, consdered as the basc unt n a cortcal network, s consttuted by a group of neurons that share the same nput. An assocaton of columns s referred to as hyper-column or layer. The connectons n the network occur n two drectons: vertcal connectons between columns of consecutve layers, and horzontal connectons between columns wthn the same layer. Though CA can be consdered as a type of deep neural networks (DNNs) due to ts hexa-layered archtecture, two man dfferences wth DNNs can be noted at the levels of structure and tranng: tradtonal DNNs employ a feedforward archtecture whle feedback connectons are adopted n CA, and whle DNNs rely on a backpropagaton algorthm for ther tranng, CA ams at formng unque representatons n ts supervsed learnng scheme [12]. A mathematcal representaton for CA, as we developed based on the descrpton provded n [7], s detaled below. The nomenclature we adopt n our work s as follows:, j,k represents the weght of the connecton between the jth neuron of the th column of layer r and the kth column of the prevous layer (r 1) durng the tranng epoch t.for the rest of ths paper, scalar enttes are represented n talc, vector enttes n bold, whle underlned varables represent matrces [11]. The weght matrx representng the state of a column composed of M nodes at the tranng epoch t s [ =, j,1,,2 ] r,t r,t,...,w, j,...,w,m represents the weght vector of the connectons enterng neuron j, of column n layer r whch can be wrtten as: (3) [ ] T, j =, j,1, r,t r,t, j,2,...,w, j,k,...,w, j,l r 1 (4) L r 1 s the number of columns n the layer (r 1) and the subscrpt T stands for the transpose operator. Expandng yelds: =,1,1..., j,1...,m, ,1,k..., j,k...,m,k ,1,l r 1..., j,l r 1...,M,L r 1 Defnng Z r,t as the output vector of layer r for epoch t and the output of column, we can wrte Z r,t Z r,t = [ Z r,t 1, Zr,t 2,...,Zr,t (5),...,Z r,t L r ] T (6) The output of a neuron s the result of the nonlnear actvaton functon f (.) n response to the weghted sum of the connectons enterng the neuron. The output of a mn-column s defned as the sum of the outputs of the neurons n ths column: Z r,t = Z r, j M j=1 Z r,t, j ; Zr,t, j = f ( k, j,k Zr 1,t k s the output of the jth neuron consttutng the th column of the rth layer and the actvaton functon s defned as follows: 1 f (ν) = { 1+exp [ ν (φ(ν)+τ)] 2 fν = 1 (8) φ(ν) = ν otherwse Note that Z 0 refers to the nput vector X =[X 1,...,X D ] and we denote by D the sze of the nput vector whch corresponds to the number of features or the data dmensonalty. τ s a tolerance parameter emprcally selected and t s assumed constant for all epochs and columns. Ths parameter sets the tolerance of the actvaton functon to large nput values, the larger ths value s the less senstve the actvaton functon becomes. The tranng of a cortcal network has three phases: 1. Random ntalzaton: Intally, all the synaptc weghs are ntalzed to random values that are very close to 0, so that no preference for any partcular pattern s shown. ) (7)
7 Complex Intell. Syst. (2018) 4: Unsupervsed feed-forward: The feedforward learnng has the objectve of tranng mncolumns to dentfy features not detected by others. When the random frng of a partcular column concdes wth a partcular nput pattern, ths actvaton s enforced, through strengthenng of the column weghts and nhbtng of neghborng columns. The nhbtng and strengthenng weghts update rules are shown n Eqs. 9 and 10, respectvely. ( +1, j,k = Z r 1,t k, j,k ( ) ) (9) Equaton 9 suggests that when a node s nhbted, a value that s proportonal to ts nput Z r 1,t k (whch corresponds to the output of the column connected to t) s subtracted from the correspondng weght value. +1, j,k = Zr 1,t k, j,k + Cr,t where ( ) s gven by: ( ) = M = L r 1 j=1 k=1, j,k + ρ C r,t, j,k, j,k ; Cr,t, j,k { 1 f W r,t, j,k >ɛ 0 otherwse 1 + exp (, j,k τ ) (10) where ρ s a tunng parameter determnng the amount of strengthenng to add to a partcular weght, the larger ρ, the stronger the strengthenng. Smaller values of ρ may lead to a lengther tranng as mnmal change s obtaned durng strengthenng whle large values may drve the network towards nstablty. ɛ s emprcally chosen as the frng threshold assumed constant for all epochs and columns. Smlarly, Eq. 10 shows that strengthenng a connecton occurs by addng a value proportonal to the nput weght and n the form of an exponental functon of the weght tself. Wth repeated exposure, the network extracts features of the nput data, by tranng the columns to fre for specfc patterns. 3. Supervsed feedback: The supervsed feedback has a goal to correct msclassfcatons of the same pattern. Another varaton of the same pattern that s qute dfferent from the prevous one may lead to a msclassfcaton when the top layer columns that are supposed to fre for that pattern do not fre. To reach a desred frng scheme over multple exposures also known as stable actvaton, the error occurrng at the top layer generates a feedback sgnal forcng the column frng for the orgnal pattern to fre and also nhbtng the column that s frng for the new varaton. The feedback sgnal s propagated back to the prevous layer once the top level columns start to gve a stable actvaton for all varatons of the same pattern. The feedback sgnal s sent to precedng layers only once the error n the layer concerned converges to a value below a certan pre-defned tolerance threshold. Each layer s traned untl convergence crtera expressed as an error term n functon of the actual output and a desred output (scheme of frng) s reached. Cortcal algorthm for feature reducton One of the advantages of CA s ts ablty to extract and learn the aspects of the data n a herarchcal manner. Ths makes CA a possble canddate for feature extracton or reducton, whch to the best of our knowledge has not been nvestgated yet [22]. As descrbed prevously, one goal of CA tranng s to tran cortcal columns to fre for partcular aspects of the patterns durng the feedforward unsupervsed learnng. In addton, durng the feedback supervsed learnng, nvarant representatons are created on all levels of the network n a herarchcal manner. As a result, a repettve frng scheme s observed for a partcular class of the data. The weghts of the nput layer drectly connected to the feature vector are, therefore, an ndcaton of the sgnfcance of the correspondng features. Our method employs hereby denoted by CA-FR, the nput layer weghts to rank the feature vector n terms of sgnfcance, dscardng the lowest ranked features, allowng for a hgher dscrmnatve performance of the algorthm and a robust model of the raw data. The followng algorthm llustrates our approach hereby denoted by CA-FR: 1. Tran the cortcal network usng all features provded. 2. For all nput nodes calculate average weght assocated wth each feature. 3. Rank features n a decreasng order accordng to ther assocated weghts. 4. Elmnate a pre-defned percentage of the lowest ranked features (heurstcally chosen). Expermental results Dataset In ths secton, we summarze the expermental results obtaned. We perform our experments on a database of note fles we compled from the Humdrum project lbrary [19] descrbed n Table 5. The era of each composer as well as the total number of beats for each composer are also shown n ths table.
8 62 Complex Intell. Syst. (2018) 4:55 65 Table 5 Dataset descrpton Composer Area No. of fles Total sze (MB) Total number of beats Bach Baroque ,259 Beethoven Classcal-romantc ,485 Chopn Romantc ,355 Corell Baroque ,009 Haydn Classcal ,763 Jopln Ragtme ,043 Mozart Classcal ,912 Scarlatt Baroque ,849 Vvald Baroque ,544 Experments Our experments are desgned to test the features we proposed, our feature reducton technque, as well as CA as a classfcaton technque for the recognton of artsts. Input weghts of the network were used to dscern the least sgnfcant features (correspondng to the weakest nput weghts). A fracton of these features s elmnated at each teraton. Thus, we perform four experments usng our dataset: Experment 1: Usng our proposed feature vector, and our feature reducton scheme (CA-FR). Experment 2: Usng only the n-grams features (as wdely proposed n the lterature) and our feature reducton algorthm (CA-FR). Experment 3: Usng the entre feature vector proposed and a prncpal component analyss (PCA) for feature reducton. Experment 4: Usng only the n-grams features and a PCA for feature reducton. For each of the four experments, we subsequently elmnate a fracton of the least sgnfcant features. The resultng subsets are fed to three recognzers: CA, SVM one vs. all usng Gaussan Radal Bass Functon (RBF) kernel and a one nearest neghbor classfer (1NN). SVM and 1NN were chosen for comparson purposes snce they are wdely adopted n a multtude of machne learnng applcatons [27]. We evaluate the performance of these classfers n terms of recognton rate. We used a cortcal network consttuted of 6 layers startng wth 2000 columns n the frst layer and decreasng ths number by half between consecutve layers, each column consstng of 20 nodes. Ths structure was expermentally proven to perform well on a varety of databases [11]. Smulatons were executed usng Matlab R2011a, on an Intel core 7 CPU at 2 GHz under Wndows 7 operatng systems. The CA network s deployed usng the CNS lbrary, a framework for smulatng cortcally organzed networks, developed by MIT [28]. Table 7 shows the recognton rates obtaned usng the three classfers descrbed above for dfferent percentages of the ntal dataset reduced usng PCA and CA-FR as descrbed n the expermental setup, whle Table 8 shows the requred tranng tme. The best recognton rate for each experment s shown n bold. All results are based on a fourfold cross valdaton scheme. Table 9 shows the recognton rate obtaned usng experment 1 settngs on 0.1% of the features for a 2 two-composer classfcaton task. Composers are arranged accordng to ther year of brth to reflect ther closeness n eras. In addton, Table 10 provdes the mean, standard devaton, maxmum and mnmum recognton rate obtaned for every experment (for all reducton rates) as well as the overall statstc for every classfer. Table 6 comples results from recent work on these composers. The followng can be concluded from our expermental results. Usng the entre dataset wth the proposed added features, the best recognton rate acheved s 88.4% usng CA as classfer compared to 70.3 and 60.6% usng SVM and NN, respectvely, and thus an mprovement of CA of 18.1 and 27.8% over SVM and NN, respectvely. Usng only 0.1% of the features ncludng the proposed attrbutes, the best performance acheved s 94.9% usng CA as a classfer, 72.8% usng SVM and 62.2% usng NN. Ths s a strong ndcator of the superor performance of CA s classfcaton compared to classcal pattern recognton classfers. For the same reducton rate of 99.9%, our proposed added features ntroduced an mprovement from 86.4 to 90.4% usng PCA and from 91.1 to 94.9% usng CA-FR, showng the sgnfcance of our proposed added features n dscrmnatng composers. In other terms, an mprovement of 4% s obtaned usng our proposed features and PCA for feature reducton (Exp. 3 vs. Exp. 4) and 3.8% usng our proposed features and CA-FR for feature reducton (Exp.1 vs. Exp. 2) For the same percentage of features (0.1%), the best recognton rate obtaned s 94.9% usng CA as classfer and our feature reducton algorthm whle PCA led to an accuracy of 90.4% for the same reducton rate. Ths shows CA-FR s
9 Complex Intell. Syst. (2018) 4: Table 6 State of the art results Reference Task Recognton rate [17] Bach vs. Haydn 96.8 Bach vs. Mozart 97.5 Haydn vs. Mozart 74.7 [20] Bach vs. Beethoven 81.2 Bach vs. Chopn 87.0 Bach vs. Haydn 69.3 Bach vs. Mozart 82.2 Beethoven vs. Chopn 63.8 Beethoven vs. Haydn 65.0 Beethoven vs. Mozart 69.8 Chopn vs. Haydn 77.8 Chopn vs. Mozart 77.0 Haydn vs. Mozart 55.8 [18] Bach vs. not Bach 93.1 Beethoven vs. not Beethoven 63.3 Chopn vs. not Chopn Haydn vs. not Haydn 40 Mozart vs. not Mozart 74.6 Vvald vs. not Vvald 87.0 Table 7 Recognton rates comparson Exp. Classfer % of features Exp. 1 CA SVM NN Exp. 2 CA SVM NN Exp. 3 CA SVM NN Exp. 4 CA SVM NN Bold values ndcate best values ablty n extractng the most sgnfcant features whle dscardng the less mportant ones. Usng only the n-grams features and our feature reducton technque resulted n a slghtly better performance compared wth usng PCA on the entre set, ndcatng the strong capacty of CA-FR of extractng meanngful nformaton and creatng dscrmnatve representatons of the nput data. Comparng feature reducton technques, the maxmal mprovement of CA-FR vs. PCA s of 4.9% (94.4 vs. 90.4%) observed on the entre set and 3.3% (91.1 vs. 87.8%) on Table 8 Tranng tme comparson Exp. Classfer % of features Exp. 1 CA SVM Exp. 2 CA SVM Exp 3 CA SVM Exp. 4 CA SVM the n-grams attrbutes. In average, usng CA-FR for feature reducton resulted n an accuracy of 88.4% compared to 84.2% usng PCA,.e., an mprovement of 4.2%. Evaluatng the sgnfcance of the proposed features, the maxmal accuracy attaned usng only n-gram features s 91.8% compared to 94.9% usng our proposed feature vector. The effect of the feature reducton stage s most shown n the classfcaton results: an mprovement n accuracy s overall notced n experments employng our feature reducton algorthm, a smaller effect of feature reducton can be seen for PCA whch shows the robustness of our algorthm n dscernng sgnfcant features. Whle a nearest neghbor classfer requres practcally zero tranng tme, the hgh computatonal demand of computng dstances (specally for hgh dmensonal data) renders ts use n an onlne scheme qute challengng. Conversely whle CA and SVM requre lengthy tranng, the testng complexty of both these algorthms s relatvely low (SVM only requres the computaton of the equaton of a lne whle CA requres only the propagaton of the nput through the network) and hence are more sutable for an onlne framework whle the tranng can be performed offlne. Comparng our proposed method wth the state of the art results shown n Table 6, a notable mprovement n recognton rate can be observed n all one-to-one tasks. Ths s further ntensfed n tasks nvolvng composers wthn the same era such as Haydn and Mozart where the recognton rate saw an ncrease from 74.7 to 82.9% as well as Beethoven and Chopn where our algorthm acheved 86.1% compared to 63.8% reported n the state of the art. Comparng classfers, one can see the hgher ablty of CA to robustly classfy composers by analyzng Table 10: whle CA s hgher standard devaton may be regarded as a drawback, ts lowest recognton rates rval the best performances of SVM and 1NN consstently for all experments, hence justfyng ts use as a classfer. Comparng the recognton rates observed for one-to-one composer classfcaton tasks, one can see the robustness
10 64 Complex Intell. Syst. (2018) 4:55 65 Table 9 Recognton rates for one-to-one composer classfcaton Corell Vvald Bach Scarlatt Haydn Mozart Beethoven Chopn Jopln Corell (1653) Vvald (1678) Bach (1685) Scarlatt (1685) Haydn (1732) Mozart (1756) Beethoven (1770) Chopn (1810) 98.7 Jopln (1868) Table 10 Statstcal comparson of experments Metrc Exp. 1 Exp. 2 Exp. 3 Exp. 4 CA SVM 1NN CA SVM 1NN CA SVM 1NN CA SVM 1NN Mean Std Max Mn of our proposed method: the lowest reported accuracy s at 86.1% for a Chopn vs. Beethoven task compared wth a 63.8% reported n [20], whle the best performance marked a 99.5% accuracy classfyng Vvald vs. Jopln. Overall, our proposed feature set and feature reducton system showed to be powerful for the recognton of musc composers wth a 94.4% recognton rate obtaned usng 0.1% of the entre features (n-grams and proposed attrbutes), CA for feature reducton and classfcaton. From a muscal perspectve A deeper look on our proposed framework can be taken by nvestgatng the retaned features for the best performance obtaned,.e., for Exp. 1 at 99.9% reducton. As ndcated by the nput weghts of the network, the fve most sgnfcant features are the ones correspondng to the occurrences of notes wth onset on quarter beats, occurrences of notes wth onset on complete beats, occurrence of notes wth onset on half beats, and 2 n-gram combnatons correspondng to bass notes; all of whch are proposed by ths work. From a musc perspectve, these results propose that pano composers mostly dstngush ther style va the way they deal wth bass notes on one hand, and beats/onsets on the other hand. Obvously, melodes play an mportant role n revealng the style of a partcular composer. However, accordng to our work, the spreadng of notes over beats/onsets, together wth the development of bass patterns that accompany the melody, has a lot more to say about the style of a partcular composer. It s well known that humans, n general, are based to perceve hgh ptched melodes much more than the accompaned bass notes. However, gven any melody, dfferent composers develop dfferent beats and dfferent bass notes whch harmonze wth the same melody. Ths s partcularly what dstngushes the style of a composer as the retaned most sgnfcant features propose. Furthermore, lookng at the results of one-to-one classfcaton (Table 9), confuson rates ranged from 17.1% (Mozart vs. Haydn) to 0.5% (Vvald vs. Jopln) wth Jopln beng the least confused composer, due to hs belongng to a dfferent era than all other composers. The least accurate predcton rates were found for the tasks of dstngushng Haydn vs. Mozart, and Beethoven vs. Chopn, consstent wth the smlartes n style between the mentoned composers. In fact, t s known n the musc socety that Haydn and Mozart were frends wth the latter beng nspred by the former [5]. Addtonally, whle both Beethoven and Chopn have ther own styles, some peces of these composers possess some smlar features (partcularly, Beethoven s Adago of op. 106 or the Aroso n op. 110 has a chromatc style, a feature Chopn has been known for). Concluson In ths paper, we have presented an automated dentfcaton framework for the recognton of classcal musc composers usng a novel n-gram based feature extracton technque along wth a cortcal algorthm for the feature reducton and recognton stages. Our proposed system s a power-
11 Complex Intell. Syst. (2018) 4: ful scheme nhertng the robustness of feature reducton usng CA and the dscrmnatve capacty of our proposed feature. Expermental results show that wth only 0.1% of the feature set as dentfed by CA, our proposed approach acheved a recognton rate of 94.4% on a dataset of 1197 peces belongng to 9 composers whch motvate testng on larger datasets. Acknowledgements Ths work s funded by the Unversty Board at the Amercan Unversty of Berut. Open Access Ths artcle s dstrbuted under the terms of the Creatve Commons Attrbuton 4.0 Internatonal Lcense ( ons.org/lcenses/by/4.0/), whch permts unrestrcted use, dstrbuton, and reproducton n any medum, provded you gve approprate credt to the orgnal author(s) and the source, provde a lnk to the Creatve Commons lcense, and ndcate f changes were made. References 1. Abdallah SA, Plumbley MD (2003) An ndependent component analyss approach to automatc musc transcrpton. In: Proceedngs of the 114th AES conventon, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, March Abeler N (2015) Muscal composer dentfcaton MUS Bartle A (2012) Composer dentfcaton of dgtal audo modelng content specfc features through Markov models 4. Bello JP, Mont G, Sandler MB et al (2000) Technques for automatc musc transcrpton. In: Proceedngs of the frst nternatonal symposum on musc nformaton retreval (ISMIR-00), Plymouth, Massachusetts, USA 5. Brown P (1992) Haydn and Mozart s 1773 stay n Venna: weedng a muscologcal garden. J Muscol 10: Buzzanca G (2002) A supervsed learnng approach to muscal style recognton. In: Musc and artfcal ntellgence. Addtonal proceedngs of the second nternatonal conference, ICMAI, vol 2002, p Edelman GM, Mountcastle VB (1978) The mndful bran: cortcal organzaton and the group-selectve theory of hgher bran functon. Massachusetts Insttute of Technology, Cambrdge 8. Eerola T, Tovanen P (2004) Md toolbox: Matlab tools for musc research. 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