Freshman Composition If you are taking Freshman Composition (English 1310 and English 1320), then you are developing writing techniques that you can use in your other college courses. In both courses, you ll focus on writing and revision lots of revision. Part of your goal is to carefully read and examine your writing in order to improve your technique. To do this, you ll learn about and use key rhetorical concepts in your writing. Simply put, rhetoric is the art of using language, whether we re using it in writing or in our everyday speech. Rhetoric exists all day every day, from a billboard, to a bumper sticker, to a tattoo. All of these items deliver a sort of message; the effectiveness of the message has the potential to persuade us to see things differently or to acknowledge that a different viewpoint is a viable option. Once you understand the terminology you re using in the course, you ll find it quite useful because you ll be able to turn that terminology into effective rhetorical tools you can use over and over, both in your coursework and in the future when you enter the workforce. The concept of rhetoric comes from the ancient Greeks, a civilization that members of Western civilization have looked to because of its sophisticated modes of living, learning, and governing themselves. Many of our other modern ideas are taken from Greek models, including our judicial system and the modern Olympic games. The rhetorical concepts you ll use in English 1310 and 1320 come from the Greek ideas of effective written and oral communication. Modern writers still use and value these ancient concepts because they work so well. Format and Length Requirements for Your Papers Your papers in both English 1310 and English 1320 will be short. In fact, you ll probably be limited to writing two pages. You ll be asked to use single-spaced Times New Roman typeface in a 10-point font. You ll submit all of your work on paper; you won t turn in anything online. This is intended to help both you and your instructor to focus on revision rather than on length. Once again, you will Limit your paper to two pages (You ll turn in one page with printing on the front and on the back.) Single-space Use Times New Roman in a 10-point font In this handout, we ll explain the basic premise of the papers you ll write in English 1310 and English 1320. We ll conclude with a brief definition of many of the important terms you ll use in these courses.
F r e s h m a n C o m p o s i t i o n, P a g e 2 Your instructor may choose to vary the content somewhat, but you can expect the following types of assignments in English 1310 and 1320. Hupomnemata Think of the Hupomnemata (Hoop-oh-nay-mot-ah) as a type of writing journal where you record the rhetoric you see daily. This journal helps you build copia (abundant arguments or figures) about commonplaces (ideas, statements, or knowledge commonly shared by a group of people). In other words, the Hupomnemata helps you compile topics you might use for your papers in this course, and it also helps you to test ideas that you can use as the foundation for your papers in English 1310 and 1320. Your instructor may ask you to do some daily in-class writing activities in your Hupomnemata. Argument Description In this assignment, you ll choose an essay from the readings you ve done for class and describe how the writer developed his or her argument. Keep in mind that in rhetorical terms, an argument is a stance rather than a disagreement. In this assignment you will Describe how the writer developed his or her argument Identify the main argument of the piece Examine what types of proof the writer uses to justify his or her claims Argumentative Analysis Using a piece you ve read for class, you will evaluate the writer s argument. In this assignment you will Use close reading as a strategy Evaluate the writer s argument, looking at both primary and secondary claims Use description to identify and describe the writer s argument Look at the challenges and possible consequences if the writer fails to persuade the audience Examine what, if anything, is missing from the argument Look at how the intended audience might react to the argument Genre Analysis For this assignment, you ll need to use an assignment from outside English 1310 or 1320. In this assignment you will Choose an assignment you haven t completed yet, like a final project for one of your classes other than English 1310 or 1320 Develop an argumentative analysis in which you explain what you ll need to do to complete the assignment Analyze the strategies and processes you ll use to complete the assignment Evaluate how you ll adapt these strategies and processes to meet the conventions of the specific discipline
F r e s h m a n C o m p o s i t i o n, P a g e 3 Arguments in Literature In this assignment, you ll examine the argumentative possibilities in a piece of literature. In this assignment you will Examine the argumentative possibilities of a piece of literature Use analysis and description to identify the arguments the writer presents in a fictional context Compare the effectiveness of the fictional arguments with the non-fiction pieces you ve read in class Synthesize, or combine, the arguments in relation to one another by examining how fiction as a genre works in the same conversation that essays as a genre work Use analysis and close reading to identify connections between the two genres and to explain their relevance to each other Writing Portfolio During the semester, you ll compile a portfolio of your work. Your final portfolio will contain the best examples of your work in English 1310 or 1320. Thus, it becomes a record of your growth as a writer. You ll need to check with your instructor to see how he or she wants you to arrange and turn in the portfolio. Most likely, your instructor will also want you to write some kind of account of what s in your portfolio. In this account, you will most likely Demonstrate your writing progress throughout the semester Evaluate your choices in your revisions Point to evidence of your growth as a writer during the semester Identify opportunities for continued growth as a writer Revision Memos Becoming a better writer is dependent on your ability to understand the rhetorical strategies you use in your papers, and then to use those strategies to revise and improve your paper. Towards this end, you ll write a revision memo for each paper. When you write a revision memo, your goal is to think critically about the rhetorical strategies you ve used and how well you used them. The memo will include an Executive Summary, a response to the instructor, a plan for revision, and specific dates for completion. Consult with your instructor on the format for this memo. When you write the revision memo you should Show careful consideration of the instructor s feedback in the Executive Summary Respond in writing to the questions your instructor has asked Explain your plan for revising your work Explain why you choose not to revise something if that is your choice Outline the strategies you ll use to improve your work along with a schedule with specific dates for completing your revision
F r e s h m a n C o m p o s i t i o n, P a g e 4 Freshman Composition Terminology You ll encounter many of these terms and ideas during your work in English 1310 and English 1320. Check the glossary in Ancient Rhetorics for Contemporary Students for terms we don t define in this handout. Five Canons of Rhetoric The Five Canons, or rules of rhetoric, are guides to helping you create an effective rhetorical strategy. The canons include Invention, or the process of developing arguments Arrangement, or organizing ideas for maximum impact Style, or determining how to present the argument most effectively Memory, the process of memorizing both speeches and persuasive messages Delivery, or the way a speaker uses tones, pronunciation, pacing, and gestures to present a persuasive argument Amplification & expansion Amplification means the ability to say a lot about a little. In other words, you can amplify, or expand, your idea by discussing it at length. Arrangement Arrangement refers to the order in which you place your arguments and/or your evidence. Artifact An artifact is any combination of words, images, and sounds that represent the values and ideas of a group. Artifacts provide a tangible expression of the way a person or a group represents its ideas. Chreia (KRAY ya) Chreia is elaboration on a famous saying or event, like the signing of the Declaration of Independence. Commonplace A commonplace is an idea, statement, or knowledge that s commonly accepted by a group of people. Comparison Comparison is considered a sophisticated rhetorical concept. In it, you place two similar items side-by-side and look at their similarities. Confirmation A confirmation is an elaboration in support of something you hold to be true or correct. Conjecture A conjecture is a guess or speculation that something s true. Copia (KO pee ya) Copia represents an abundant and ready supply of information you can use for any occasion. Counterargument A counterargument is a contrasting idea that is often the opposite of what you re trying to say or prove. Delivery Delivery is the way a speaker uses tones, pronunciation, pacing, and gestures to present a persuasive argument.
F r e s h m a n C o m p o s i t i o n, P a g e 5 Dialogue Dialogue is a conversation between two or more people. It can also be an exchange of ideas. Ekphrasis (ek FRAY sis) Also called description. Simply put, it s the description of a work of art as part of a rhetorical exercise. An example of an ekphrasis is John Keats s poem Ode on a Grecian Urn, where Keats describes the urn and imagines what it means both to him and to others who might see it. Encomium (en KOH mee uhm) An encomium is a formal expression of high praise, like a eulogy, a letter of recommendation, a character witness at a trial, or a wedding toast. Enthymemes (EN thee meem) An enthymeme is a type of three part deductive reasoning (also called a syllogism) that omits one part of the reasoning because it s considered obvious. Here s an example: All men are mortal. Socrates was a man. Socrates was mortal. In an enthymeme, we d leave one part of that argument out. Our reasoning could look like this in an enthymeme: All men are mortal. Socrates was mortal. Ethical proof Ethical proof depends on the good reputation of the rhetor (the person making the argument). Ethopoeia (ee tho PO ee ya) Ethopoeia is a character portrayal. Ethopoeia allows you to understand someone else s viewpoint by putting yourself in their situation. It s the rhetorical equivalent of what happens in To Kill a Mockingbird when Atticus tells Scout, "You never really understand a person until you consider things from his point of view (Lee 39). Ethos (EE thos) Ethos is a person s character or reputation. It is also the fundamental principles of a culture the ideas, practices, and customs of a group of people. Examples An example is an element of rhetorical proof that supports your argument. Extrinsic proof Extrinsic proof exists in the rhetorical situation itself. You don t have to invent it. For example, we consider justice to be good because its basic principle is morally right and sound.
F r e s h m a n C o m p o s i t i o n, P a g e 6 Fable A fable is a short story with a moral point. Most of us are familiar with Aesop s fables, like the story of the Tortoise and the Hare. The moral of that fable is slow and steady wins the race. There are three forms of fables: the rational form with human characters; the ethical form with animals as lead characters; and the third form, which involves both humans and animals as characters. Imitation Rhetorical imitation involves copying the work of other rhetors so you can understand their style and their process. Introduction of Law Introduction of law is the most challenging rhetorical exercise. In it, you consider a proposed or enacted law, and then you will either attack or defend that law. Invective An invective is a strong speech against something, like testimony in Congress before a law is passed, political ads against a candidate, or a letter to the editor of a newspaper or magazine. An example of an invective is the documentary film Supersize It, which criticizes McDonald s restaurants for contributing to our country s obesity problem. Invention The process of developing arguments. Kairos (KY ross) The right time, opportunity, occasion, or season. An example of kairos is South Carolina s decision to remove the Confederate flag after the church massacre in Charleston in the summer of 2015. Logos (LO gose) The logic or premise behind an argument. Maxim A maxim is a familiar saying, like absence makes the heart grow fonder. Most of us think of maxims as having some element of truth. Memory Memory is the process of memorizing both speeches and persuasive messages to have them readily available. Narrative A narrative is anything that tells a story. Aristotle claimed there were four values to narrative clarity, directness, persuasiveness, and purity of language. Pathetic proof Pathetic proof appeals to our emotions or motives. An example is a letter from a homesick child who begs to come home from summer camp. Pathos (PAY those) Pathos is the Greek word for emotions or passions. Many words we use have the root pathos in them sympathy, empathy, pathological, apathy, telepathy, and so on.
F r e s h m a n C o m p o s i t i o n, P a g e 7 Proverb A proverb is a short, forceful saying that expresses a belief or value that s relevant, or kairotic, to a group or culture. An example of a proverb is actions speak louder than words. Reflection A reflection represents your ability to reflect, or think, about the work you ve written. When you write a reflection, your goal is to think critically about the rhetorical strategies you ve used and how well you used them. Refutation When you refute, you consider claims that oppose your own claims, and then you argue against those opposing ideas. Using refutation well strengthens your argument because it demonstrates you ve considered all angles of your topic and the objections people could have to it. Rhetor (REH toor) A rhetor is anyone who uses rhetoric for any reason. When you write your papers for English 1310 and English 1320, you are the rhetor. Rhetoric Rhetoric is the art of using language, whether we re using it in writing or in our everyday speech. Signs Facts or events that usually (or always) follow other facts or events. For example, if you have a fever, you re probably ill. Stasis (STASE is) Stasis means to stay in place or take a stand. Stasis theory In stasis theory, you critically assess each element of your argument. Doing this allows you to clarify your thinking, to consider the ideas and values of your audience, to name areas that need more research or consideration, to think about which points are critical to proving your point, and to arrange your ideas for maximum impact. Style Style refers to using language to its most effective advantage. Syllogism (SILL oh jiz im) A syllogism is a type of deductive reasoning that has three parts. A classic syllogism is All men are mortal. Socrates was a man. Socrates was mortal. The last statement in a syllogism is a natural conclusion you get from the first two statements. Thesis (THEE sis) A thesis is a general issue. Voice For the Greeks, voice was literally the ways in which you used the volume, tone, and inflection of your voice to carry your argument forward.
F r e s h m a n C o m p o s i t i o n, P a g e 8 Works Cited Coleman, Britta. (2015). College Writing I. Unpublished syllabus. Department of English, University of North Texas. Denton. Crowley, Sharon and Debra Hawhee. Ancient Rhetorics for Contemporary Students. Fifth edition. Boston: Pearson, 2012. 391 pages. Lee, Harper. To Kill a Mockingbird. New York: HarperCollins, 2014. 385 pages.