8. Using the Theatria1 Space Normally, in planning a production little is done to shape the audience and its space. Most directors assume that the audience space of the theatre in which they will be working is fixed -- as is the case in the majority of theatres. Although directors must take into account the auditorium's size, shape, sightlines, acoustical properties, and the physical relationship it creates between audience and performers, most tend to view these factors as given and unchangeable circumstances. Some theatrical spaces are designed so that their overall configuration and audience-actor relationship can be easily altered. In these instances, directors may shape the audience space to suit their production. Jerzy Grotowski, director of the Polish Laboratory Theatre, made audiences an integral part of his production design. For each production, he had a specific number of spectators in mind (never more than one hundred), and he would permit no more than that number to attend. He also sought to induce the audience to participate in - the action unselfconsciously. In his production of Doctor Faustus, Grotowski organized the space like a banqueting hall. The audience, treated as friends invited to share Faustus's last meal before the Devil claims his soul (to whom he has sold it many years earlier), sat at the tables, while the action took place on, under, and around the tables. The German director Peter Stein staged several productions in film studios or gutted and rearranged theatrical spaces. In his production of As You Like It, the court scenes took place in one studio. For the Forest of Arden scenes the audience passed through a tunnel to reach another studio in which bleacher-style seating had been erected along the sides. Scenic units, among them a large, live beech tree, a small field of wheat, and a pond filled with water, provided various locations for the action. The Living Theatre often encouraged the audience and actors to use the same space in- discriminately, thereby forcing some spectators to become unwilling participants in the action. But these are atypical approaches. Directors may try to predict what the makeup of the audience will be and how it is likely to respond, but for the most part they conceive of the audience members as reactors who come to see a production created for them. Normally, the director lets others (through publicity, news releases, and other means) attract as large an audience as possible to the space being used for the production. Grotowski's arrangement of the space for Doctor Faustus. The dark figures are performers, the lighter figures spectators. Faustus is seated at the smaller table at top. (@ 1968 ]erzy Grotowski and Odin Teatrets Forlag; courtesy of H. Martin Berg)
9. Production Design A production is a composite of messages composed by combining visual and aural signs. The director, actors, and designers shape the signs to arouse a set of desired audience responses. But the possibilities are so numerous (in terms of the way the signs can be shaped, how ski11fully they are shaped and coordinated, and how spectators respond to the shaping) that the results can seldom be fully controlled. Nevertheless, each production has an overall design, an assemblage of many parts. The total theatrical design usually addresses only two of the spectators' five senses: hearing and seeing. Hearing is addressed primarily through the actors' voices but also through music or sound effects. A large proportion of the director's and actors' work is devoted to conveying relationships, motivations, emotions, ideas, and meaning through the skillful handling of dialogue, intonation, stress, rhythm, volume, and rate. Other (or many of the same) messages may depend on elements directed to seeing. Although we normally think of visual design in terms of scenery, costumes, and lighting, directors and actors also make use of visual design. How the actors are grouped and move on stage, how much space they use, and how they relate to each other and to the setting, costumes, and properties communicate messages quite apart from or in conjunction with the spoken dialogue. Preparing a theatrical production involves encoding messages that the audience decodes. Among the means that the various theatre artists use in creating messages are the elements and principles of design. How audiences respond depends on how these aspects of design have been shaped. Although in discussion elements and principles may sound abstract, they are manifested concretely during every moment of a theatrical performance. One of the challenges of production arises from the need to coordinate individually conceived parts (in acting, scenery, costumes, lighting) to create a whole capable of eliciting desired responses and interpretations. Peter Stein's production of Shakespeare's As You Like It staged in a film studio in Berlin. Note the seating along the sides and the naturalistic elements that make up the setting: a large beech tree, a stand of wheat, a pond, and other features. (photo by Ruth Walz)
10. SIDEBAR: Julie Taymor and Coordinated Production Design Julie Taymor (1952-) has achieved an enviable reputation for her coordinated production designs. The New York Times critic Mel Gussow writes of her production of Juan Dariin, "The play draws its power from the symbiosis of design, movement and music, melding diverse performance art forms and trans- forming the stage into a living theatrical organism." Taymor's ability to coordinate successfully the various aspects of production design may be credited to a number of factors. She has training in movement, highly developed skills in the visual arts, and considerable experience in conceiving and developing new theatre pieces. Taymor began her formal training in 1969 at L'Ecole de Mime Jacques LeCoq in Paris, which emphasizes the physicalization of character and emotion. With LeCoq she also began work with masks, a convention that she has used often in her work as a director and designer. In 1971 Taymor apprenticed with Joseph Chaikin's Open Theatre and Peter Schumann's Bread and Puppet Theatre (both companies were developing new theatre pieces through group discussion and improvisation). The Open Theatre emphasized the actor's movement, whereas the Bread and Puppet Theatre emphasized puppets as "moving sculptures" made from found materials. In 1974, she traveled to eastern Europe, Japan, and Indonesia to study puppetry, dance, and the visual arts. She remained in Indonesia until 1978, perfecting her use of puppetry, dance, and masks. When she returned to the United States, Taymor quickly established a repu- tation as a creative visual artist. She designed sets and/or costumes for productions at Baltimore's Center Stage, LaMama, the New York Shakespeare Festival, and other Broadway, Off-Broadway, and regional theatres. Her sets, costumes, masks, and puppets for the American Repertory Theatre's King Stag garnered special praise. By 1990, Taymor had won numerous awards for her designs and direct- ing and had been selected for a "genius" grant by the MacArthur Foundation. She has continued to develop new plays, among them Juan Dariin at Lincoln Center, and has directed and designed Shakespeare's The Tempest, Titus Andronicus, and Taming of the Shrew for New York's Theatre for a New Audience. She is now best known for the Broadway musical The Lion King, which in 1998 won her lavish praise and multiple awards for staging and design. In Juan Darien, as seen at Lincoln Center, New York, Julie Tayrnor manipulates and coordinates design principles to create a nonrealistic world in which the appearance of most characters is transformed by the use of masks and stylized costumes. (photo by Joan Marcus)
11. The Elements of Visual Design All visual aspects of a production are composed from the same basic elements-line, shape, space, color, texture, and ornament. Line defines boundaries and permits us to perceive shape and form. There are two kinds of linestraight and curved-but these may be combined to form zigzags, scallops, and many other variations. The dominant lines of the performance space (with the scenery in place but without performers) are horizontal (the floor and any overhead masking) and vertical (the upright scenic units). This basic pattern is varied by the addition of furniture, ramps, steps, and platforms. In performance, other lines are created by movement and by the placement of the actors in relation to each other and to the scenic elements. The costumes worn by the actors have their own lines created by the silhouette of garments and by darts, seams, ornamentation, and other features that result in visible lines. Line is often said to evoke identifiable responses: straight lines, stability; curved lines, grace; zigzags, confusion. Therefore, line may be manipulated to achieve desired effects. In scenery, two lines that move farther apart as they rise vertically may generate a feeling of openness, whereas lines that lean in as they rise may generate a feeling of oppression. Line is important in creating mood and atmosphere as well as in defining shape.
12. In his play Benita Canova, presented by the Ontological-Hysteric Theatre, New York City, Richard Foreman gives special emphasis to line by dividing his setting into segments with ropes, pipes, and other vertical and horizontal pieces painted or taped to create dotted lines. (photo by T. Charles Erickson) Shape and space are closely related and are frequently treated together as a single element: mass. Whereas line has only direction or length, mass involves three dimensions. It identifies shape (square, round, oblong, and so on) and space (height, width, and thickness). The stage may be thought of as a hollow cube that can be organized or altered in a variety of ways. Scenery may outline or limit the space. So may light, the actors' movement, or the seating around a thrust or arena stage. Like line, shape and space may be used to affect audience response. An effect of compression may be achieved through the use of thick, horizontal forms overhead (such as a low ceiling with thick beams), whereas a sense of openness and grace may be achieved through the use of narrow, vertical, and pointed forms (such as thin, tall columns and high Gothic arches). Mass is also reflected in the overall shape of costumes and furniture, the space they occupy, and the way a director groups or isolates actors. Perhaps the most effective means of revealing, concealing, or altering apparent mass is lighting, which through its direction an intensity can create or eliminate those contrasts of light and shadow that let us perceive shape and dimension. Color may be described in terms of three basic properties: hue, saturation or intensity, and value. Hue is the attribute that allows us to identify a color (red, green, blue, and so on). Saturation or intensity refers to the relative purity of a color (its freedom from its complementary or opposite hue). Value is the lightness or darkness of a color- its relation to white or black. A color that is light in value is usually called a tint, one dark in value is called a shade. Hues are classified as primary, secondary, or intermediate. The primary hues are those that cannot be created by mixing other hues but from which all other hues are derived. The primary hues in pigment are yellow, red, and blue. The secondary huesorange, violet, and green-are created from equal mixtures of two primary hues. The intermediate hues are mixtures of a primary with a secondary hue. Hues may be arranged around a wheel to indicate their relationships. Those opposite each other on the wheel are called complementary, those next to each other, analogous. The primary hues are equidistant from each other on the wheel. Hues may further be described as warm or cool. Red, orange, and yellow are warm; green, blue, and violet are cool. Almost any combination of hues may be used together if saturation, proportion, and value are properly controlled.
13. Mood and atmosphere depend much on color. Many people believe that light, warm colors are more suitable to comedy than are dark, cool colors. Some color combinations are considered garish, others sophisticated. Designers may manipulate color to create the appropriate mood and atmosphere and to establish the tastes of the characters who inhabit the settings or wear the costumes. Color can suggest the relationship among characters (either sympathetic or antipathetic) through the colors of their garments. Color can be used to make some characters stand out and others fade into the background (for example, Hamlet wears mourning black in the midst of others dressed in colors of rejoicing). As with mass, lighting is one of the most important means of controlling color, because it can enhance, distort, or reduce apparent color in scenery, costumes, makeup, and all the other elements. Texture may help to elicit the desired response through such qualities as smooth- ness, roughness, shininess, softness, or graininess. Some plays seem to demand rough textures, others smooth. Such qualities as sleaziness, fragility, or richness depend much on the texture (actual or simulated) of settings, costumes, and (by analogy) acting. Ornament includes the paintings, decorative motifs, wallpaper patterns, moldings, and similar details of settings. It is one of the chief means of achieving distinctiveness. In costume, ornament includes ruffles, buttons, fringe, and lace. Ornament can be used to indicate taste or the lack of it. Too much ornamentation or too many kinds of ornamentation may indicate lack of restraint or impart a sense of clutter. Accessories, such as canes, swords, purses, and jewelry, may also be considered ornaments. In acting, gesture and stage business (the amount and complexity and its relative simplicity or fussiness) serve much the same function as ornament in visual design. The Principles of Design In applying the elements of design, certain principles must be used if the results are to be effective. The principles of design are harmony, variety, balance, proportion, emphasis, and rhythm.
14. Harmony creates the impression of unity. Typically directors and designers seek to harmonize the parts of each setting or costume and to relate the various settings and costumes in such a way that all are clearly parts of a whole. If monotony is to be avoided, however, variety is needed. Similarly, directors seek both harmony and variety through their choice of actors and through each actor's use of movement and gesture. Balance is the sense of stability that results from the distribution of the parts that make up the total picture. There are three types of balance. The most common is axial, achieved by the apparent equal distribution of weight on either side of a central axis. This type is especially pertinent to the proscenium stage, which may be thought of as a fulcrum (or seesaw) with the point of balance at the center. Axial balance is achieved if the elements placed on each side of the central line appear equal in weight. Apparent visual weight is not the same as actual weight, because a large light-colored object may appear to weigh no more than a small dark-colored object, and a small object near the outer edge may balance a large object near the center. A second type of balance, radial; is organization that radiates in every direction from a central point. It is especially important on arena and thrust stages because these stages are viewed from several angles. A third kind of balance is usually called occult. It is especially pertinent to flexible and variable staging, in which there may be no readily discernible axis or center. Occult balance results from the relationship of mass to space and among unlike objects. Texture is one of the most important elements in these costumes by Desmond Heeley for Oedipus the King. Notice the difference between the textures of the costumes worn by Oedipus (standing center), the Shepherd (kneeling), and the Guards (in the background). (courtesy of the Guthrie Theatre) Balance, especially axial, may also be thought of as symmetrical or asymmetrical. Symmetrical balance means that if an object or space is divided down the middle, each side mirrors the other. Most costumes (especially before ornaments or accessories are added) are symmetrical. Complete symmetry in a stage setting creates a sense of formality and order; asymmetry, which depends on irregularity, may create a sense of in- formality or casualness. In performance, when the stage picture is constantly shifting because of the movement of the actors, directors must be especially aware of balance and how it is affected by what the actors do. During rehearsals, a director may adjust the position of actors in order to achieve balance. Proportion involves the relationship between the parts of individual elements as well as the relationship among all the parts that make up the total picture: the scale of each part in relation to all the others; the relationship among shapes; and the division of the space (for example, the length of a dress bodice in relation to the skirt). Proportion can create the impression of stability or instability, of grace or awkwardness. Furniture disproportionate to the size of a room may create either a cramped or meager feeling. Our perception of beauty or ugliness depends largely on the proportion of parts. In costume, the
15. manipulation of proportion can do much to change an actor's appearance and enhance or disguise attributes. All designs need a focal point, or center of emphasis. Directors are constantly seeking to focus attention on what they consider most important and to subordinate the things of lesser importance. A well-composed scene or design directs attention to the most important point immediately and then to the subordinate parts. Emphasis may be achieved in several ways, among them line, mass, color, texture, ornamentation, contrast, and movement. The setting may make one area of the stage more emphatic than others; a costume may use emphasis to draw attention to an actor's good points and away from defects; movement within an otherwise still picture will always attract the eye. SIDEBAR: Appia on Hierarchy in Production Design Many persons have commented on the relative importance of the elements that go to make up a production. Adolphe Appia, one of the twentieth century's major theoreticians of the theatre, had strong convictions about hierarchy in production design: The first factor in staging is the interpreter, the actor. The actor carries the action. Without him there is no action, hence no drama. Everything must be subordinated... to this element-which takes first rank hierarchically... the body is alive, moving and plastic; it has three dimensions. Space... must conform to his plastic form, his three dimensions. What else is there: Light!... Like the actor, light must become active;... it must be put to the service of... the actor's dramatic and plastic expression.... Here is our normally established hierarchy: the actor presenting the drama, three-dimensional space at the service of the actor's plastic form, light, giving life to both. -Adolphe Appia. ~cto7; Space, Light, Painting" Rhythm is the principle that leads the eye easily and smoothly from one part of a design to another. All of the elements of design may be used for rhythmic purposes. Lines and shapes may be repeated; the size of objects or the amount of movement may be changed gradually to give a sense of progression; gradations in hue, saturation, and value may lead the eye from one point to another; changes or repetitions in texture and ornament may give a sense of flow and change; and the movement of the actors may increase or decrease in tempo. Sound in Design Sound is also an essential part of the total production design. Sound in the theatre may be divided into three categories: vocal, musical, and sound effects. Of these, the sound of the actors' voices is usually the most important, because it is through what the characters say and how they say it that we typically assess situations, motivations, and responses. Voice may also be used to sing or to create a variety of sounds that do not involve words. Music may be a necessary feature in a theatrical production, as in musicals, or it may be incidental, an optional addition to establish mood or to enliven an occasion. Sound effects may be realistic (doorbells, alarm clocks, breaking glass, thunder, and the like) or wholly abstract (sounds with no recognizable origin used to punctuate the action, to underscore a theme, or to establish a mood). Sound has several controllable properties: pitch (or frequency), volume (or amplitude), quality (or timbre), direction, and duration. Sound is created by pressure waves that move outward from the source of the sound. Each sound has its own wavelength or frequency, usually referred to as pitch, the primary way by which we distinguish one sound from another. In the theatre, pitch is probably most important as
16. it relates to the speaking or singing voice, but even a doorbell and other sound effects have pitch. It is possible to choose voices and otl1er sounds in terms of pitches that will create the desired effects. Amplitude is the height of a sound wave, most frequently referred to as volume or intensity. As sound waves move, they diminish in height and thus in volume. Volume is measured in decibels. Any pitch (or frequency) can be produced at any decibel level, which may be controlled either through the natural capacity of the instrument (the human voice, trumpet, and so on) or through electronic means. In the theatre, it is often necessary to decrease the volume of some sounds and increase the volume of others to achieve the desired balance. For example, the audience may need to understand what characters are saying, even though they are speaking against the noise of a passing train. In large theatres, it is often difficult for actors to make themselves heard clearly even when they are not competing with other sounds; in such instances, amplification may be used. Sound has quality (or timbre); it allows us to distinguish between two sounds of the same pitch (rate of vibration) and volume (strength or power of vibration) and duration. This is true for human voices as well as for different types of musical instruments and natural sounds. Thunder is recognized in part by its rumbling, echoing quality, just as an alarm clock may be by its shrillness. In the speaking or singing voice, quality is especially important. Shrill, harsh vocal qualities seem inappropriate in admirable characters, because the unpleasantness of the voice contradicts the pleasant traits. The se- lection of appropriate sound qualities, whether in the actors' voices or in sound effects, is an important part of production design. Sound also has direction. With well-designed and skil1ful1y operated equipment, it is possible to make sound appear to begin at any place in the theatre and move from one point to another. For example, the sound of a car may become barely audible from one side of the stage, seem to approach, pass behind the set, and then pass out of hearing on the other side. Or directional sound may make an airplane seemingly pass directly over the audience. Sound has duration; it can be prolonged or shortened. Many decisions about duration also involve timing. In a storm scene, for example, someone must decide when thunder is to begin, how long it is to continue, when it is to reach its peak, and when it is to die away. All of the controllable properties of sound may be varied in relation to each other and in accordance with the demands of a production. Like the visual elements, they need to be shaped in terms of unity, variety, proportion, balance, emphasis, and rhythm. The Integrated Production Design Although each visual and aural element, considered in isolation, is capable of projecting a message and evoking a response, in actuality elements are seldom wholly separated from each other. In theatrical production, most are present simultaneously, and their relationships change continually as the action develops. The messages of individual elements are modified by those of all the other elements and combine to make up the '; total impact. How each is shaped also depends in part on the theatrical space in which the performance occurs. The ways in which theatre artists in each area of theatrical production seek to shape the elements at their disposal are explored in the chapters that follow.