Texas Music Education Research 1 The Effects of Audio and Audiovisual Presentations of Student Piano Performances on Performers, Teachers, and Judges Evaluations Cynthia Benson The University of Texas at Austin An awareness of oneself as a separate, objective being is an important aspect of a person s view of the world and behavior. The self-viewing experience has attained wide popularity as a method for inducing self-awareness and control and developing interpersonal understanding and skill. In relation to the study of body-image as a component of self-image, videotape recordings are believed to be a great asset (McRea, 1983). Berger (1978) found unanimity among investigators who utilize videotape confrontation that, through this experience, insight can be heightened, producing marked changes in behavior. Self-analysis has also been used as a vehicle for improvement of skills. It has been suggested by Hoy and Miskel (1987) that self-evaluation, if properly structured, can foster greater involvement of students in the teaching-learning process, heightening student enthusiasm and motivation to perform well. Previous studies have shown successful use of self-analysis to improve music teacher performance (Benson, 1989; Rosenthal, 1985), nonmusic majors skills in teaching music (Killian, 1981; Prickett, 1987), and music therapy skills (Alley, 1980; Decuir & Jacobs, 1990). The combined use of self-analysis and videotape recordings has been found to substantially increase defined skills of music therapy students (Alley, 1980, 1982) and conducting students (Johnston, 1993; Yarborough, 1987; Yarborough, Wapnick, & Kelly, 1979). There are only a few literature citations concerning self-evaluation of applied performance skills. Applied lessons have remained teacher-oriented; that is, talking (evaluating) is the primary teacher behavior and performing is the primary student behavior (Hepler, 1987). Bergee (1993) investigated the peer and faculty evaluations of brass performance juries as well as the self-evaluations of the performers themselves and found that the performers self-evaluations were lower than those given by peers or faculty. Assessments of music performances are also made by members of the audience, music critics, and judges at music events, such as contests, festivals, or auditions (Zumpella, 1993). Judges are influenced by the same nonmusical factors that affect the judgments of audiences (Boyle & Radocy, 1987). For this reason, some auditions require audiotaped auditions or have performers play behind a screen. Elliott (1994) found that both race and gender influence judgments of music performance, even judgments by experienced musician-educators. Although audiotaped performances may help reduce possible appearance, race, and gender biases, visual aspects of a performance could affect the judges or listeners evaluation of the performance positively. Zumpella (1993) found significant differences between the judged scores of video presentations
Benson 2 of clarinet students and audio presentations. The latter were scored significantly lower than audio-visual presentations. Comparisons of live and audiotaped performances have indicated no differences between evaluations of the performances (Massell, 1978; Vasil, 1973). A visual-only condition, however, was found to specify the performance manner (deadpan, projected, or exaggerated) more clearly than sound only or sound with visual (Davidson 1993). Do the performer s gestures themselves affect the evaluations of the listener? Concert pianist Alfred Brendel actually uses a mirror that is positioned so that he can see his gestures while practicing. After watching one of his televised performances, he found that some of his mannerisms did not follow what he was trying to express musically (Brendel, 1976). This type of self-evaluation could not have occurred with an audio recording alone. Are evaluations of piano performances also affected by the visual aspects of the performance? Could the visual aspects of a music performance affect the self-evaluation of the performer as well as the evaluation by the instructor or adjudicator? The purposes of this study were to investigate student self-evaluations and teachers and other judges evaluations of student performances. I also compared evaluations of student performances that had been presented in audio and video modes, and examined the relationship between judges instrument specialty and their evaluations of student performances and the combined effect of instrument specialty and mode of presentation on evaluations of student performances. Method In Part 1 of this study, 10 university students enrolled in private piano instruction for nonmusic majors participated by performing on a recital while being recorded on video and audio tape. During the week following the recording, each student and his or her teacher (there were five different teachers) viewed the videotape and listened to the audiotape of each student s performance. Five performers and their teachers watched and evaluated the video recording of the performance first before listening to and evaluating the audio recording. The other five performers, along with their instructors, listened to and evaluated the audiotape first before viewing and evaluating the videotape of the performance. The instructor and the student independently rated six different categories and overall performance after viewing and again after listening. The categories used to evaluate piano performance were: rhythm and tempo, phrasing, dynamics, note accuracy, balance, technique, and overall performance. A 1 (lowest) to 5 (highest) rating scale was used, and each participant responded to two open-ended questions. Part 2 of the study included evaluations of the same performances from Part 1. Twenty university music majors, of whom 10 were pianists and 10 were nonpianists, participated in the study. The nonpianists included vocalists, brass, woodwind, string, and percussion players. These 20 participants (judges) were divided into two presentation groups. Ten judges viewed the video recording while listening, and 10 judges listened to the audio cassette. Each group consisted of an equal number of pianists (5) and nonpianists (5). The judges used the same form that had been used by the students and teachers to rate six different categories and overall performance. Because all 10 performances were assessed, excerpts of the performances (from 50 seconds to 1.5 minutes) were used. The video recording of the performances was edited and copied onto another videotape that was then dubbed onto an audio cassette for this part of the study.
Texas Music Education Research 3 Results To identify possible differences between student and teacher ratings and presentation modes in Part 1 of the study, a Friedman Analysis of Variance was calculated for each evaluation variable. There were significant differences between student and teacher ratings within the categories of rhythm and tempo, dynamics, note accuracy, and technique, p <.01. Significant differences were also found between student and teacher overall ratings, p <.05. Students consistently rated themselves lower than did the teacher in every evaluation category, even those that did not show a significant difference between teacher and student means (i.e., phrasing and balance) (see Table 1). Differences were not found between audio and video ratings of the performances. To analyze data from the second part of the study, a three-way ANOVA with two between subjects factors (2 presentation modes by 2 instrument specialties) and one repeated measure (the 10 performers) was calculated for each evaluation variable. The results indicated significant differences between ratings of the audio and video presentations and between pianist and nonpianist groups. Table 1 Student and Teacher Mean Evaluation Ratings in Each Presentation Condition Presentation Condition Evaluation Category Student Audio Student Video Teacher Audio Teacher Video Rhythm and Tempo 3.6 3.6 4.6 4.5 Phrasing 3.7 3.5 4.2 4.1 Dynamics 3.6 3.4 4.3 4.1 Note Accuracy 3.4 3.6 4.3 4.4 Balance 3.5 3.7 4.3 4.3 Technique 3.5 3.7 4.5 4.4 Overall 3.6 3.7 4.2 4.3 The judges in the video group rated the performances significantly higher than did judges in the audio group in the categories of rhythm and tempo, F (1,16) = 11.61, p <.003, dynamics, F (1,16) = 5.38, p <.03, note accuracy, F (1,16) = 15.14, p <.001, technique, F (1,16) = 9.54, p <.007, and the overall rating, F (1,16) = 10.70, p <.004. Interaction effects were found between audio/video presentations and pianists/nonpianist groups in the categories of phrasing, F (1,16) = 13.74, p <.001, and balance, F (1,16) = 6.58, p <.02. The pianist/video group consistently rated the performers higher than did any of the other groups; however, only the difference for the phrasing category was significant.
Benson 4 Table 2 Judges Mean Evaluation Ratings in Each Presentation Condition Group and Presentation Condition Evaluation Category Pianist Audio Pianist Video Nonpianist Audio Nonpianist Video Rhythm and Tempo 3.7 4.6 3.3 4.0 Phrasing 2.9 4.4 3.3 3.1 Dynamics 3.1 4.3 3.1 3.2 Note Accuracy 3.9 4.5 3.8 4.4 Balance 3.3 4.3 3.4 3.3 Technique 3.4 4.4 3.5 3.7 Overall 3.3 4.3 3.3 3.7 Significant differences among ratings of the 10 performers were found throughout the results, indicating that judges discriminated among the levels of performance. Statements on the evaluation form concerning what the performer did best and what needed most improvement were also analyzed. No consistent similarities or differences were found within or between the responses of student and teacher, pianists, nonpianists, the video group, or the audio group. Only 23 comments concerning visual aspects of the performers were made on all 10 performers by the 10 subjects in the video group. The audio group, however, commented on musical aspects no more frequently than did the video group. Discussion Results indicate that all 10 students rated themselves lower in each category than their teachers rated them. Differences have been found in previous studies between teacher and student evaluations of student performance. Decuir and Jacobs (1990) found a high degree of agreement between ratings made by music therapy students and their supervisors in terms of perceptions of behaviors during the undergraduate practicum experience. On some rating scales, however, students rated themselves more positively than the supervisors rated them. Cassidy (1993) found that music education students consistently credited themselves with more good teaching than did the investigator. Researchers have noted in other studies that students tend to evaluate themselves more negatively than positively. Johnston (1993) found that video self-assessment was judged to be useful by conducting students, yet students were more disapproving than approving of themselves. An investigation of faculty, peer, and self-evaluations of brass jury performances showed that student self-evaluations were not higher than those of peers or faculty members (Bergee, 1993). Previous studies of teaching skills have demonstrated differing results when comparing student and teacher evaluations. Studies comparing student and teacher evaluations of student-teacher or teacher performance usually find students rating themselves higher than the teacher. Studies such as the one described in this report, which compares teacher and student evaluations of student music performance, find that students rate themselves lower than does the teacher.
Texas Music Education Research 5 Further studies will be needed to determine how self-perceptions of teaching and selfperceptions of music performance are formed, whether they actually differ, and why they differ. Future research should include measures of self-concept and its effect on performance and selfevaluation. Does the student s self-concept influence the self-evaluation of performance? The ways in which self-assessment is to be used as a teaching tool and interpreted may also be affected by the student s self-concept. Further studies should investigate the effects of both selfconcept and self-evaluation on the improvement of music performance skills and help performers discover ways to use self-evaluation to improve music skills and performance. What does this suggest for music auditions, festivals, and contests? Although the visual aspects of video recordings include gender, race, and appearance, they also include personal expression that cannot be heard but may enhance musical expression conveyed by the performer. The question must be asked: Do we only listen to music with our ears? The beauty and enjoyment of music may also be in the eye of the beholder. Further research is needed to help answer these questions. References Alley, J. M. (1980). The effect of self-analysis of videotapes on selected competencies of music therapy majors. Journal of Music Therapy, 17, 113-132. Alley, J. M. (1982). The effect of videotape analysis on music therapy competencies: An observation of simulated and clinical activities. Journal of Music Therapy, 19, 141-160. Benson, W. L. (1989). The effect of models, self-observation, and evaluation on the modification of specified teaching behaviors of an applied music teacher. Update: Applications of Research in Music Education, 7(2), 28-31. Bergee, M. J. (1993). A comparison of faculty, peer, and self-evaluation of applied brass jury performances. Journal of Research in Music Education, 41, 19-27. Berger, M. M. (1978). Videotape techniques in psychiatric training and treatment (Rev. ed.). New York: Brenner/Mazel. Boyle, J., & Radocy, R. (1987). Measurement and evaluation of musical experiences. New York: Schirmer Books. Brendel, A. (1976). Musical thoughts and afterthoughts. Great Britain: Robson Books. Cassidy, J. (1993). A comparison between students self-observation and instructor observation of teacher intensity behaviors. Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education, 115, 15-29. Davidson, J. W. (1993). Visual perception of performance manner in the movements of solo musicians. Psychology of Music, 21, 103-113. Decuir, A. A., & Jacobs, K. W. (1990). A comparison of clinical evaluations and student self-evaluations of undergraduate practicum experiences in music therapy. Music Therapy Perspectives, 8, 20-22. Elliott, C. (1994). Race and gender as factors in judgments of musical performance. Paper presented at the XXI International Society of Music Education International Conference, Tampa, Florida. Hepler, L. E. (1987). The measurement of teacher/student interaction in private music lessons, and its relation to teacher field dependence/field independence. Dissertation Abstracts International, 47, 2939A. Hoy, W. K. and Miskel, C. G. (1987). Educational administration: Theory, practice, and research. (3rd ed.). New York: Random House. Johnston, H. (1993). The use of video self-assessment, peer-assessment, and instructor feedback in evaluating conducting skills in music student teachers. British Journal of Music Education, 10, 57-63. Killian, J. K. (1981). Effect of instruction and feedback on music teaching skills. Journal of Music Therapy, 15, 15-20. Massell, P. (1978). The influence of voice quality and visual elements on vocal adjudication. Unpublished masters thesis, University of Western Ontario, London. McRea, C. (1983). Impact on body-image. In P. Dowrick & S. Biggs (Eds.), Using Videos (pp. 95-105). New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Benson 6 Prickett, C. A. (1987). The effect of self-monitoring on the rate of verbal mannerism of song leaders. In C. K. Madsen & C. A. Prickett (Eds.), Applications of Research in Music Behavior (pp. 125-134). Tuscaloosa, AL: The University of Alabama Press. Rosenthal, R. K. (1985). Improving teacher effectiveness through self-assessment: A case study. Update: Applications of Research in Music Education, 3, 17-21. Vasil, T. (1973). The effects of systematically varying selected factors on music performance. Dissertation Abstracts International, 34, 3950A. Winter, N. (1991). A study of music performance assessment: The effects of training and experience on criteria used by music examiners. International Journal of Music Education, 22, 34-39. Yarborough, C. (1987). The relationship of behavioral self-assessment to the achievement of basic conducting skills. Journal of Research in Music Education, 35 (3), 183-89. Yarborough, C., Wapnick, J., & Kelly, R. (1979). Effects of videotape feedback techniques on performance, verbalization, and attitude of beginning conductors. Journal of Research in Music Education, 27, 103-112. Zumpella, T. J. (1993). Adjudicated differences in musical performances of high school clarinet students: Audio performances versus audio-visual performances. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Kent State University.