English for Academic Purposes (EAP) Part 1 English for Academic Purposes (EAP) teaches students to use language appropriately to study and publish in the academy. Genres are categories of texts which follow specific: * Rules (things that can and can not be done) * Conventions (traditional or expected ways of doing things) Genres Offer consensual, structured ways of writing, reading and thinking. Contracts between writer and reader in which particular expectations are honored. 1
Academic genres are those genres of written and oral communication privileged in places of higher learning (University). Academic genres are governed by rules and conventions regarding language, standards and ethics of research, and professional conduct (such as acknowledging sources). A firm command of these genres does not come naturally; they must be learnt and true expertise is a longterm goal achieved through practice! Specific genres are: * Abstracts * Book reviews * Editorials * Research articles * Conference presentations Most academic work is published in journal article, book or thesis form. Much, though not all, academic publishing relies on some form of peer review or editorial refereeing to qualify texts for publication. 2
The Abstract An abstract is a brief summary of a research article, thesis, review, conference proceeding or any in-depth analysis of a particular subject or discipline, and is often used to help the reader quickly ascertain the paper's purpose. An abstract always appears at the beginning of a manuscript, acting as the point-of-entry for any given scientific paper. In science, an abstract may act as a stand-alone entity in lieu of the paper. The Abstract The abstract can convey the main results and conclusions of a scientific article but the full text article must be consulted for details of the methodology, the full experimental results, and a critical discussion of the interpretations and conclusions. Consulting the abstract alone is inadequate for scholarship. 3
The Abstract Abstract length varies by discipline and publisher requirements. Typical length ranges from 100 to 500 words, but very rarely more than a page. They are typically sectioned logically as an overview of what appears in the paper (e.g. Background, Introduction, Objectives, Methods, Results, Conclusions). The Abstract An abstract allows one to look through copious amounts of papers for ones in which the researcher can have more confidence that they will be relevant to his research. Abstracts help a researcher decide which papers might be relevant to their research. 4
The Abstract The Research Article A research paper is the culmination and final product of an involved process of research, critical thinking, source evaluation, organization, and composition. We can think of the research paper as a living thing, which grows and changes as the student explores, interprets, and evaluates sources related to a specific topic. Primary and secondary sources are the heart of a research paper, and provide its nourishment. 5
The Research Article Sources act as evidence to back up your thesis. There are two types of support: primary and secondary. The names refer to the degree of "distance" to the topic. A primary source is an original document or account that is not about another document or account but stands on its own (novel, poem, play, diary, letter, etc). The data from a research study also constitutes a primary source because it comes straight from the participants' replies. The Research Article Secondary sources are ones that interpret primary sources or are otherwise a step removed. A journal article or book about a poem, novel, or play or a commentary about what an interview signifies is a secondary source. Your paper will likewise become a secondary source. 6
The Research Article The research paper serves not only to further the field in which it is written, but also to provide the student/researcher with an exceptional opportunity to increase his knowledge in that field. The goal of a research paper is not to inform the reader what others have to say about a topic, but to draw on what others have to say about a topic and engage the sources in order to thoughtfully offer a unique perspective on the issue at hand. The Research Article 7
The Book Review Book reviews typically evaluate recently-written works. They offer a brief description of the text s key points and often provide a short appraisal of the strengths and weaknesses of the work. Unlike articles, book reviews tend to be solicited. They typically range from 500-750 words, but may be longer or shorter. (The length and depth of research book reviews varies much from journal to journal) The Book Review 8
The Editorial An editorial, leader (UK), or leading article (UK) is an article in a newspaper or magazine that expresses the opinion of the editor, editorial board, or publisher. Most editorial pieces take the form of an essay or thesis, using arguments to promote a point of view. The Editorial 9
Conference Presentations Paper / Power Point Poster 10
Specific genres are: * Abstracts * Book reviews * Editorials * Research articles * Conference presentations / posters You have conducted a study and analyzed the data. Now it is time to write. To publish. To tell the world what you have learned. There are two possible articles you can write: (a) the article you planned to write when you designed your study or (b) the article that makes the most sense now that you have seen the results. They are rarely the same, and the correct answer is (b). 11
Your purpose is to tell the world what you have learned from your study. Think of your dataset as a jewel. Your task is to cut and polish it, to select the facets to highlight, and to craft the best setting for it. Many experienced authors write the results section first. The primary criteria for good scientific writing are accuracy and clarity. If your article is interesting and written with style, fine. But these are subsidiary virtues. First strive for accuracy and clarity. The first step toward clarity is good organization standardized format of a journal article (i.e. Abstract, Introduction, Methodology, Results, Discussion, Conclusion) 12
The second step toward clarity is to write simply and directly. A journal article tells a straightforward tale of a problem in search of a solution. It is not a novel with subplots, flashbacks, and literary allusions, but a short story with a single linear narrative line. For Whom Should You Write? Scientific journals are published for specialized audiences who share a common background of substantive knowledge and methodological expertise. BUT If you wish to write well, you should (in part) ignore this fact. Psychology encompasses a broader range of topics and methodologies than do most other disciplines. 13
For Whom Should You Write? The introduction and discussion sections in particular should be accessible to this wider audience. The actual technical materials -those found in the method and results sections - should be aimed at a reader one level of expertise less specialized than the audience for which the journal is primarily published. The Shape of an Article An article is written in the shape of an hourglass. It begins with broad general statements, progressively narrows down to the specifics of your study, and then broadens out again to more general considerations. 14
The title of your paper. The title should concisely state the topic of the paper and the variables or theoretical issues that are being explored in relation to that topic. The title should be about 10-12 words long. 15
The Introduction In this section, you are essentially providing background information on the topic. You should explain why the topic is important and give the reader an idea of where you are going in your paper (i.e., what aspects of the topic you will be focusing on). Then review the relevant literature. The Opening Statements. The first task of the article is to introduce the background and nature of the problem being investigated. 1. Write in English prose, not psychological jargon. 2. Do not plunge unprepared readers into the middle of your problem or theory. Take the time and space necessary to lead them up to the formal or theoretical statement of the problem step by step. 3. Use examples to illustrate theoretical points or to introduce unfamiliar conceptual or technical terms. The more abstract the material, the more important such examples become. 16
Examples of Opening Statements: Wrong: Several years ago, Ekman (1972), Izard (1977), Tomkins (1980), and Zajonc (1980) pointed to psychology s neglect of the affects and their expression. [Okay for somewhere in the introduction, but not the opening statement.] Right: Individuals differ radically from one another in the degree to which they are willing and able to express their emotions. The Literature Review. After making the opening statements, summarize the current state of knowledge in the area of investigation. What previous research has been done on the problem? What are the pertinent theories of the phenomenon? Ending the Introduction. End the introduction with a brief overview of your own study. This provides a smooth transition into the method section, which follows immediately. 17
The Method Section The Method section is where you describe what you did and how you conducted your study. This is very important because other researchers may use this information to try to replicate your study and see if they come up with the same results. If your description of your methodology is incomplete or poorly written then others will not be able to accurately replicate your study. The description of your methodology also allows others to critique how well designed the study is. All materials and methods sections should address the following questions: How was the experiment designed? On what subjects or materials was the experiment performed? How were the subjects/materials prepared? What machinery and equipment was used in the experiment? What sequence of events did you follow as you handled the subjects/materials or as you recorded data? 18
Results The Results section is where you summarize the data you collected and present the main findings (even those that are counter to your hypotheses). You should also explain what analyses were used. The results section should be organized in some fashion. It should represent the way you have conceptualized your project. A common way to report results is to 1. Restate your hypothesis for the reader. 2. Summarize the results for each of the statistical tests you completed for that hypothesis. 3. Repeat steps 1 and 2 for each subsequent hypothesis. It is not appropriate to discuss in this section what you think these findings mean. Save that for the discussion section. 19
Discussion Your discussion section is where you talk about what your results mean and where you wrap up the overall story you are telling. This is where you interpret your findings, evaluate your hypotheses or research questions, discuss unexpected results, and tie your findings to the previous literature (discussed first in your literature review). Your discussion section should move from specific to general. You will want to organize your discussion section into three parts: * Part 1: Reviewing hypotheses and results * Part 2: Discussing the findings in the context of the existing literature and addressing the limitations of your study. * Part 3: Summarizing the study s contribution to the literature and providing suggestions for future research. 20
References It is important to include a References section at the end of a report in which you used other sources. Like the sections on the procedure you used to gather data, they allow other researchers to build on or to duplicate your research. Without references, readers will not be able to tell whether the information that you present is credible, and they will not be able to find it for themselves. Reference sections also allow you to refer to other researchers work without reviewing that work in detail. You can refer readers to your reference page for more information. Abstract An abstract is an accurate representation of the contents of a document in an abbreviated form (Porush 75). An abstract can be the most difficult part of the research report to write because in it you must introduce your subject matter, tell what was done, and present selected results, all in about 300 words. As a result, you should usually write the abstract last. 21
Abstract Ask yourself: Why would another researcher be interested in this research? What are the most important aspects of the research? What should a reader be sure to know about the research? What information will the reader have to have in order to understand the most important aspects? What are the main points from each section of your report? Summarize each section in one sentence, if possible. 22
The primary criteria for good scientific writing are accuracy and clarity. standardized format of a journal article (i.e. Abstract, Introduction, Methodology, Results, Discussion, Conclusion) APA/MLA formatting style Documenting Sources: Using APA Format Most classes in psychology and pedagogy will require you to write your papers in APA style, which is a writing style described by the American Psychological Association. APA style describes rules for the preparation of manuscripts for writers and students in psychology and pedagogy. APA style breaks papers up into sections, which helps you to present information clearly and also allows readers to quickly find and process the information they need. 23
Who Uses APA Style? APA style is also used in many other disciplines such as Business, Economics, Nursing, Social Work, and Criminology. MLA (Modern Language Association) style instead, is used in various humanities disciplines such as: English Studies, Language and Literature, History and Cultural Studies. Why Use APA Format? Allows readers to cross-reference your sources easily Provides consistent format within a discipline Gives you credibility as a writer Protects yourself from plagiarism 24
Cross-Referencing Your Sources Cross-referencing allows readers to locate the publication information of source material. This is of great value for researchers who may want to locate your sources for their own research projects. Using a Consistent Format Using a consistent format helps your reader understand your arguments and the sources they re built on. It also helps you keep track of your sources as you build arguments. 25
Establishing Credibility The proper use of APA style shows the credibility of writers; such writers show accountability to their source material. Avoiding Plagiarism Proper citation of your sources in APA style can help you avoid plagiarism, which is a serious offense. It may result in anything from failure of the assignment/exam to a citation. 26
Title Page Papers in APA style require a title page. The running head will be used as the header for the whole paper. Include the paper s title and the author s name and affiliation. 27
APA Style: Two Main Concerns a) Reference Page b) Parenthetical Citations Reference Page A list of every source that you make reference to in your essay. Provides the information necessary for a reader to locate and retrieve any sources cited in your essay. Each retrievable source cited in the essay must appear on the reference page, and vice versa. 28
A Sample Reference Page 29
Reference Page Most citations should contain the following basic information: Author s name Title of work Publication information Book References: Some Examples Shay, J. (1994). Achilles in Vietnam:Combat trauma and the undoing of character. New York: Touchstone. Article in a Magazine Klein, J. (1998, October 5). Dizzy days. The New Yorker, 40-45. 30
References: Some Examples Web page Poland, D. (1998, October 26). The hot button. Roughcut. Retrieved October 28, 1998 from http://www.roughcut.com Handling Parenthetical Citations Sometimes additional information is necessary... More than one author with the same last name (H. James, 1878); (W. James, 1880) Two or more works in the same parentheses (Caruth, 1996; Fussell, 1975; Showalter, 1997) Work with six or more authors (Smith et al, 1998) Specific part of a source (Jones, 1995, chap. 2) 31
Handling Parenthetical Citations If the source has no known author, then use an abbreviated version of the title: Full Title: California Cigarette Tax Deters Smokers Citation: ( California, 1999) Handling Parenthetical Citations A reference to a personal communication: Source: email message from C. Everett Koop Citation: (C. E. Koop, personal communication, May 16, 1998) A general reference to a web site Source: Purdue University web site Citation: (http://www.purdue.edu) 32
Handling Parenthetical Citations Recently, the history of warfare has been significantly revised by Higonnet et al (1987), Marcus (1989), and Raitt and Tate (1997) to include women s personal and cultural responses to battle and its resultant traumatic effects. Feminist researchers now concur that It is no longer true to claim that women's responses to the war have been ignored (Raitt & Tate, p. 2). Though these studies focus solely on women's experiences, they err by collectively perpetuating the masculine-centered impressions originating in Fussell (1975) and Bergonzi (1996). However, Tylee (1990) further criticizes Fussell, arguing that his study treated memory and culture as if they belonged to a sphere beyond the existence of individuals or the control of institutions (p. 6). Notes Slide 14: The layout and editing of a research article differs depending on the publication rules set by the journal. In this case, for example, we have double columns and the picture of the author. The maximum length of the article also depends from the Editors. Slide 19: Note the use of first person pronouns and personal statements, denoting a sense of collegiality. Slide 20: At a conference presentation, a scholar can present his/her research by reading a paper, by presenting a Power Point or a Poster. Slide 22: The following slides focus on two genres in particular: the research article and the abstract. Slide 27: Psychology encompasses a broader range of topics and methodologies than do most other disciplines, and its findings are frequently of interest to a wider public. The social psychologist should be able to read a Psychometrika article on logistic analysis; the personality theorist, a biopsychology article on hypothalamic function; and the congressional aide with a BA in history, a Journal of Personality and Social Psychology article on causal attribution. 33
Notes Slide 49: APA documentation style is commonly utilized for research in science-related fields, as opposed to MLA style, which is used for research in the liberal arts. Slide 50: APA format provides writers with a format for cross-referencing their sources--from their parenthetical references to their reference page. This cross-referencing system allows readers to locate the publication information of source material. This is of great value for researchers who may want to locate your sources for their own research projects. The proper use of APA style also shows the credibility of writers; such writers show accountability to their source material. Most importantly, use of APA style can protect writers from plagiarism--the purposeful or accidental use of source material by other writers without giving appropriate credit. The next slide provides additional information on plagiarism. Slide 51: Writers of research papers enter a community of researchers by sharing the sources they ve found. Slide 52: Using APA properly will allow you to communicate more effectively with other researchers who also use APA. When a style is used consistently, others can easily find where you ve listed your resources. Slide 58: Notes This slide explains the purpose of a reference page. Students may also understand this to be called the bibliography page, but APA makes a distinction between the reference page and a bibliography: a reference list must include only the sources that were used in the research and preparation of the article. Note that a reference list cites works that specifically support a particular article. In contrast, a bibliography cites works for background or for further reading. Unlike MLA, APA is only interested in what they call recoverable data that is, data which other people can find. For example, personal communications such as letters, memos, emails, interviews, and telephone conversations should not be included in the reference list since they are not recoverable by other researchers. Each source referenced within the paper should also appear on the reference page. The reference page appears at the end of the paper. Slide 59: Whatever author is mentioned in the text, must be cross-referenced in the reference page and vice versa. The Reference page is not a collection of texts that have been read to carry out the research - it contains only the authors that are MENTIONED or CITED/QUOTED in the text. Slide 60: This slide offers a sample of what a reference page looks like. The facilitator may choose to explain the form of this page. The abbreviated title of the paper, Shell Shock, appears in the upper right with the page number. References should be centered two lines below the abbreviated title. All sources are double spaced and alphabetized according to author. In the past, APA has required that the first line of each entry be indented (like a normal paragraph). But the 5 th edition requires a hanging indent in which only the first line of an entry is all the way to the left while subsequent lines are indented. Notice that titles of books and journals are italicized while titles of articles are neither italicized nor put in quotes. And only the first word of a title and the first word of a subtitle are capitalized. 34
Notes Slide 62: Titles of books, magazines, journals, and newspapers should be italicized or underlined. Slide 63: The web page example will prove to be the most confusing for students (particularly because APA just recently released information on citing web pages). According to the manual, At a minimum, a reference of an Internet source should provide a document title or description, a date (either of publication or update or the date of retrieval), and an address (in Internet terms a URL). Whenever possible, identify the authors of a document as well. If there is no author, begin the entry with the title. Slide 64: This slide demonstrates variations on the parenthetical reference. The first example distinguishes a book by Henry James from a work by William James by including the first initial. The second example distinguishes multiple works within a single citation by dividing them with semi-colons. If a work has six or more authors, as in the third example, the citation should include the words et al, meaning and others. Finally, if the writer wants to cite a particular section of a work, chap. can be added to indicate chapter, and p. or pp. can be used to indicate page number. Slide 65: This slide provides information about additional variations on the parenthetical reference. This example demonstrates how to handle sources with no author. In this case, the newspaper article title is listed in quotation marks. Notes Slide 65: This slide provides information about additional variations on the parenthetical reference. This example demonstrates how to handle sources with no author. In this case, the newspaper article title is listed in quotation marks. Slide 66: The first example illustrates a citation for a personal communication. Personal communication constitutes letters, memos, telephone interviews, and electronic forms of communication (chat rooms and email). Because these sources cannot be cross-checked by outside readers, such sources are only listed in the body of the paper, not on the reference page. The citation should include the the initials and last name of the sources, personal communication, and the date of contact. The second example depicts a citation for a general reference to a web site. If referring to a web site in a general way (no reference to specific passages or information), just the web address should appear in the parenthetical reference. Again, these sources are only listed in the body of the paper, not on the reference page. Slide 67: This slide illustrates the inclusion of APA parenthetical citations within a paper. Everything should be double spaced consistently. 35