Preface by H. L. VAN BREDA Editor's Note Introduction by MAURICE NATANSON VI XXIII XXV Part I I On the Methodology oj the Social Sciences COMMON-SENSE AND SCIENTIFIC INTERPRETATION OF HUMAN ACTION 3 I. Introduction: Content of Experience and Thought Objects 3 I. The constructs of common-sense and of scientific thinking 3 2. Particular structure of the constructs of the social sciences 5 II. Constructs of Thought Objects in Common-Sense Thinking 7 1. The individual's common-sense knowledge of the world is a system of constructs of its typicality 7 2. The intersubjective character of common-sense knowledge and its implication 10 a. The reciprocity of perspectives II b. The social origin of knowledge 13 c. The social distribution of knowledge 14 3. The structure of the social world and its typification by common-sense constructs IS
XVI CONTENTS 4. Course-of-action types and personal types 19 a. Action, project, motive 19 b. Social interaction 22 c. The observer 26 III. Rational Action within Common-Sense Experience 27 IV. Constructs of Thought Objects by the Social Sciences 34 1. The postulate of subjective interpretation 34 2. The social scientist as disinterested observer 36 3. Differences between common-sense and scientific constructs of action patterns 38 4. The scientific model of t~e social world 40 5. Postulates for scientific model constructs of the social world 43 a. The postulate of logical consistency 43 b. The postulate of subjective interpretation 43 c. The postulate of adequacy 44 V. Scientific Model Constructs of Rational Action Patterns 44 VI. Concluding Remarks 47 CONCEPT AND THEORY FORMATION IN THE SOCIAL SCIENCES 48 CHOOSING AMONG PROJECTS OF ACTION 67 I. The Concept of Action 67 II. The Time Structure of the Project 68 III. In-Order-To and Because Motive 69 IV. Fancying and Projecting 72 V. The Foundation of Practicability 74 a. The world as taken for granted 74 b. The biographically determined situation 76 VI. Doubting and Questioning 77 VII. Problematic and Open Possibilities According to Husserl 79 VIII. Choosing Among Objects within Reach 83
IX. Choosing Among Projects X. Bergson's Theory of Choice XI. Leibniz's Theory of Volition XII. The Problem of Weight XIII. Summary and Conclusion XVII 84 85 88 93 94 Part II / Phenomenology and the Social Sciences SOME LEADING CONCEPTS OF PHENOMENOLOGY PHENOMENOLOGY AND THE SOCIAL SCIENCES 99 li8 HUSSERL'S IMPORTANCE FOR THE SOCIAL SCIENCES SCHELER'S THEORY OF INTERSUBJECTIVITY AND THE GENERAL THESIS OF THE ALTER EGO I. Scheler's Concept of Man 150 150 II. Scheler's Concept of Person 153 III. Scheler's Theory of Intersubjectivity 156 a. The problems involved 156 b. Inference and empathy 159 c. Scheler's perceptional theory of the alter ego 162 IV. Critical Observations 164 a. Intersubjectivity as a transcendental problem 164 b. Intersubjectivity as a mundane problem 167 V. The General Thesis of the Alter Ego and its Time Structure 172 VI. The Perception of the Alter Ego 176 VII. The Problem of Perspectives Related to Intersubjectivity 177 SARTRE'S THEORY OF THE ALTER EGO 180 I. Sartre's Criticism of the Realistic and the Idealistic Approach to the Problem of Intersubjectivity 180
XVIII CONTENTS II. Sartre's Criticism of Husserl, Hegel, and Heidegger 18 3 a. Husserl 18 3 b. Hegel 18 5 c. Heidegger 186 III. Sartre's Own Theory of the Other's Existence 187 IV. Sartre's Theory of the Body 191 V. On Husserl's Theory of the Other 194 VI. Critical Observations Concerning Sartre's own Theory 197 Part III/Symbol, Reality and Society ON MULTIPLE REALITIES 207 I. The Reality of the World of Daily Life 208 I. The natural attitude of daily life and its pragmatic motive 208 2. The manifestations of man's spontaneous life in the outer world and some of its forms 209 3. The tensions of consciousness and the attention to life 212 4. The time perspectives of the "ego agens" and their unification 214 5. The social structure of the world of daily life 218 6. The strata of reality in the everyday world of working 222 7. The world of working as paramount reality; the fundamental anxiety; the epocm of the natural attitude 226 II. The Many Realities and their Constitution 229 III. The Various Worlds of Phantasms 234 IV. The World of Dreams 240 V. The World of Scientific Theory 245
XIX LANGUAGE, LANGUAGE DISTURBANCES, AND THE TEXTURE OF CONSCIOUSNESS ' 260 I. Goldstein's Theory of Language 261 II. Philosophical Interpretations of Language Disturbances 269 III. Relevance and Typification 283 SYMBOL, REALITY AND SOCIETY 287 I. Introductory Remarks 287 I. Some controversial points in the present discussion of signs and symbols 287 2. Plan of the following investigation 292 II. Appresentation as the General Form of Significative and Symbolic Relations 294 1. Husserl's concept of appresentation 294 2. The various orders involved in the appresentational situation 297 3. Bergson's theory of concurring orders 300 4. Application of Bergson's theory to some controversial opinions concerning signs and symbols 301 5. The principles governing structural changes of appresentational relations 303 a. The principle of the relative irrelevance of the vehicle 303 b. The principle of variability of the appresentational meaning 304 c. The principle of figurative transference 305 III. The World within my Reach and its Dimensions, Marks, and Indications 306 1. The World within my actual and potential reach and the manipulatory sphere 306 2. Marks 308 3. Indications 310
xx CONTENTS IV. The Intersubjective World and its Appresentational Relations: Signs 312 I. The World of everyday life is from the outset an intersubjective one 312 2. Our knowledge of the other mind is itself based on appresentational references 313 3. The general thesis of the reciprocity of perspectives 315 a. The idealization of the interchangeability of standpoints 315 b. The idealization of the congruency of the systems of relevances 316 4. The transcendence of the Other's world 316 5. Comprehension, manifestation, signs, communication 319 a. Comprehension 319 b. Manifestation 320 c. Types of signs 320 d. Communication proper 321 e. Language, pictorial, expressive, and mimetic presentation 324 6. World within reach and world of everyday life 326 V. The Transcendence of Nature and Society: Symbols 329 I. The experience of this transcendence 329 2. Symbolization 331 a. Definition 331 b. Genesis of the symbolic appresentation 332 c. Theparticularitiesofthesymbolic appresentation 337 VI. On Multiple Realities 340 I. William James's subuniverses; finite provinces of meaning 340 2. The paramount reality 341 3. The definition of symbol restated 343 4. The transition from the paramount reality to other finite provinces of meaning, experienced through a shock 343 5. The concept of finite provinces of meaning illustrated by symbols in science and poetry 345
XXI VII. Symbol and Society 347 I. The dependence of appresentational references on the social environment 347 2. The symbolic appresentation of society 352 VIII. Concluding Remarks 356 Index 357