Reflexive Methodology New Vistas für Qualitative Research Second Edition Mats Alvesson and Kaj sköldberg 'SAGE Los Angeles ILondon INew Oelhi Singapore IWashington oe
CONTENTS Foreword 1 Introduction: the intellectualization of method Ways of explanation and understanding Qualitative and quantitative method Reflective/reflexive research Four elements in reflective research Layout of the book Notes 2 (Post-)positivism, social constructionism, critical realism: three reference points in the philosophy of science Positivism and beyond Critics of positivism Theory vs empirical '[aas': verification, falsification, and beyond Social constructionism Berger and Luckmann: reality as a social construction Gergen - a persistent critic ofpositivism Latour andant the 'second wave' of social constructionism The variation ofsocial constructionism Critique of social constructionism Critical realism Overview Critique Brief comparison Final words Notes 3 Data-oriented methods: empirieist techniques and procedures Grounded theory Roots Theory generation, induction, qualitative data The theory criterion: practical utility Data and sources of data Coding:!rom data to categories x 1 3 7 8 11 13 14 15 16 17 20 23 24 30 31 33 35 39 39 44 49 50 51 53 53 53 56 59 60 62
Theoretical sampling From categories to theory Substantive and formal grounded theory Conclusion Schism Epilogue Ethnomethodology Roots: phenomenology Ethnomethodological researck Conversation analysis A critique Inductive ethnography Summary Notes 4 Hermeneutics: interpretation and insight Roots Objeetivist hermeneuties Alethie hermeneuties Hermeneutieal interpretation - a reeonstruetion Pattern of interpretation Text Dialogue Sub-interpretation Betti's hermeneutie eanons Canon 1. The hermeneutic autonomy of the object Canon 2. The coherence ofmeaning [the principle of totality) Canon 3. The actuality of understanding Canon 4. The hermeneutic correspondence ofmeaning (adequacy of meaning in understanding) Applieation: historiographie method (souree eritieism) Remnants and narrating sources Authenticity Bias Distance and dependence Empathy Source criticism: final words Existential hermeneuties: baek to basies Being-in-the-world The structure of care Understanding The [usion of horizons Knocking at the text The hidden basic question of the text 67 68 69 7I 74 75 76 76 78 82 82 83 87 88 91 92 94 95 97 99 100 100 102 105 105 105 106 107 107 109 110 III II2 II4 II5 116 116 II7 II9 120 122 122
Poetic hermeneutics 123 Metaphors 124 Narrative 127 The henneneutics of suspicion 129 Geertz's hermeneutic ethnography 130 Integration 133 Critique 135 Notes 140 5 Critical theory: the political and ideological dimension 144 On the critical theory of the Frankfurt school 145 Origins and early development 145 Cultural pessimism and the critique of rationality 146 Critically constructive variants of critical theory 147 Habermas 148 Technocracy and the colonization of the lifeworld 148 Habermas's theory of communicative action 150 Critique of Habennas's theory of communication 153 Cognitive interest and epistemology 155 Comparison between Habermas and early critical theory 157 Critical theory and various political positions 159 Critical theory in relation to positions on the left and right 159 A minimal version of critical research 160 Methodological implications 162 Critical theory and empirical research 162 The research question 162 The role of empirical material 164 The importance of theoretical frames of rejerence 166 Interpretations 167 Negations 169 Critical ethnography and other fonns of critical qualitative research 170 An illustration: study of a workplace 173 Summary: critical theory as triple hermeneutics 174 Notes 177 6 Poststructuralism and postmodernism: destabilizing subject and text 179 Variants of poststructuralism and postmodernism 181 Derrida and deconstruction 184 Deconstruction 185 Differance and the metaphysics of presence 186 Freedom from reierences 188 The play with signs and the market 189 The downfall of the grand narratives 191 Criticism of the (humanistic) subject 194
The researcher as author 198 Empirical illustration 202 Critique of postmodernism and poststructuralism 204 Lack of constructiuity 205 Linguistic and textual reductionism 206 The Sokal affair 210 Final comment on the critique 211 Implications for qualitative method 212 Pluralism 213 A well-grounded process of exclusion 216 Cautious processes of interacting with empirical material 217 Avoiding totalizing theory 218 Authorship and linguistic sensitivity 219 Research and the micropolitics ofthe text 221 Summary ofpragmatic postmodern methodological principles 221 Final word 222 Notes 224 7 Language/gender/power: discourse analysis, feminism and genealogy 227 Discourse analysis 229 Criticism oftraditional views oflanguage in research 229 Discourse-analytical research 232 Critique and evaluation ofdiscourse analysis 234 Feminism 236 The gender-as-uariable approach 238 Research from a feminist standpoint 239 Poststructural feminism 240 Feminism and method 242 Critical discussion of[eminism 245 Discussion ofgender in non-jentinist research 247 Genealogical method: Foucault 250 Power and knowledge 251 Some methodological principles 254 The selfand the ethics 255 Critical views 256 Some general implications for method 258 Final words 260 Notes 261 8 On reflexive interpretation: the play ofinterpretive levels 263 The four orientations in slightly ironical terms 263 Methodological strategies - resignation and linguistic reductionism 265 On reflection 269 Reflexive interpretation 271
Breadth and variation in interpretation 271 On ereativity and extensive reading 274 On the role of metatheory 276 Considering various directions and reversals 278 Notes 280 9 Applications of reflexive methodology: strategies, criteria, varieties 283 Methodological strategies in reflexive interpretation 283 Illustrations of a reflexive interpretation 285 Empirical example one: an advertising guru talks 285 Interpretations 286 Empirical illustration two: changes in public sector organizations 293 Final comment on the two examples 299 A note on the criteria for qualitative research 300 Some recent views 300 Empirical material as argument 303 Criteria [or empirical research 304 Richness in points 305 Reflexive interpretation and relativism 307 Metaphors for research 309 Two kinds of emphasis in reflexive research 312 Some concrete suggestions 314 Final comment: research as a provisionally rational project 316 Notes 318 References 320 Index 342