Additional Orchestration Concepts This brief, online supplement presents additional information related to instrumentation and orchestration, which are covered in Chapter 12 of the text. Here, you will explore more details related to instrument-specific techniques and tone colors, which can broaden your artistic palette when working with live instruments and ensembles. As noted in Chapter 12, knowing the variety of timbres that each instrument can and cannot produce allows you to craft compositions with nuance and professionalism, as well produce MIDI orchestrations that exude realism. FLUTTER TONGUING AND TREMOLANDO One unique timbre that is characteristic of wind instruments such as the flute is created by a technique known as flutter tonguing. Flutter tonguing is a distinct effect that is performed by vibrating the tongue in a manner similar to rolling the letter r. Figure AOC.1 is taken from the piccolo part within the opening movement of Stravinsky s Rite of Spring. Stravinsky desired to create a prehistoric, exotic atmosphere in this passage, and flutter tonging on the piccolo in such a low register proved quite successful in that task. Another technique that can be accomplished by the flute and piccolo is known as tremolando (which is also referred to as unmeasured tremolo); this technique requires the performer to alternate between two pitches that are Fig. AOC.1 Flutter tonguing in Stravinsky s Rite of Spring
Fig. AOC.2 Unmeasured tremolo in Stravinsky s Rite of Spring usually separated by more than a whole step. Figure AOC.2 again returns to Stravinsky s Rite of Spring to illustrate how tremolando is notated in the flute and alto flute parts to the piece s Ritual of Abduction movement. HARMONICS Harmonics are most commonly used in string writing, but are also possible for woodwind instruments. Although they are difficult to produce on clarinets and bassoons, and are therefore rarely written for these instruments, they are relatively common in flute and oboe parts. When a performer fingers a fundamental and overblows, certain harmonic partials become audible, depending on how much pressure is exerted. Care must be taken when writing harmonics for woodwinds, however, as dynamic control is typically lost due to the amount of energy it takes to overblow on these instruments. There are two common ways to notate harmonics for woodwind instruments. The first method involves placing a small circle above the sounding pitch, leaving it up to the performer to determine how to finger the instrument in order to produce that pitch. The second method also involves the circle above each pitch, and additionally provides the appropriate fingered note below it. Figure AOC.3 demonstrates the latter notational scheme in one of the earliest known examples of flute harmonics: Franz Doppler s Fantaisie Pastorale Hongroise. Fig. AOC.3 Flute harmonics in Franz Doppler s Fantaisie Pastorale Hongroise NATURAL HARMONICS Stringed instruments are capable of producing two types of harmonics: natural harmonics and artificial harmonics. Natural harmonics, which are notated with a small circle directly above the sounding pitch, are produced by dividing an open string s length at various points and lightly touching the string while articulating it, which creates
specific members of the overtone series above the open string s fundamental. There are technically more than six partials available as natural harmonics above each open string s fundamental on a violin, but they are not as reliable or easy to perform as the first six. Violas can dependably sound the first seven partials above each open string, while cellos and double basses can reach up to the first eight. Figures AOC.4 through AOC.7 illustrate all the open strings of each member of the string family along with the reliable natural harmonics that are available above each Fig. AOC.4 Natural harmonics produced by the violin Fig. AOC.5 Natural harmonics produced by the viola
Fig. AOC.6 Natural harmonics produced by the cello Fig. AOC.7 Natural harmonics produced by the double bass
fundamental. Note that the double bass example includes five open strings, as it has become more common especially in Europe for professional orchestral players to use double basses that feature a low C string in addition to the typical E, A, D, and G strings. In the U.S., double bassists often opt for a four-string instrument with a C extension or C attachment that extends the low E string s range down to C1 using a pivoting nut. ARTIFICIAL HARMONICS Artificial harmonics sound similar to natural harmonics but are artificially created by stopping a string at some point within its length with one finger and lightly pressing a P4 interval above it in pitch with another finger. In doing so, a harmonic will sound two octaves above the stopped note. The reason that these harmonics are considered artificial is that the performer is effectively creating a false open string with the first finger and dividing the length of that string s span by gently pressing a location that is one quarter of that length with the second finger, which in turn produces the fourth partial above the fundamental of the stopped note. Violinists and violists tend to use their first (pointer) fingers to stop the fundamental when creating artificial harmonics, while cellists and double bassists tend use their thumbs, as the P4 distance requires a longer extension of the hand on these instruments. To notate an artificial harmonic, the stopped note is written, along with both a diamond notehead a P4 above it and a note in parentheses that represents the sounding harmonic that is produced two octaves above the stopped note). Some composers simply indicate the sounding artificial harmonic with a small circle above it, forcing the performer to figure out exactly how to produce it; however, when notating these complex and at times confusing harmonics, it is best to be as clear as possible for the performer(s). Figure AOC.8 illustrates how artificial harmonics should be notated. Fig. AOC.8 The notation of artificial harmonics MULTIPLE STOPS Stringed instruments are capable of polyphony via the use of multiple stops; this enables them to perform almost every interval above almost every pitch. Figures AOC.9 through AOC.11 illustrate the lower regions of violin, viola, and cello fingerboards, along with the pitches that are associated with the specific positions within them. Each figure includes three examples of achievable double stops (which involve two simultaneously sounding strings), with their fingered positions on the instruments colored in blue. Examples colored in red are not possible in standard tuning, due to the two desired pitches requiring the simultaneous use of one string. Mistakes are often made when composers attempt to create double stops that include pitches that both belong to the same string. Since double stops require the use of two strings, it is important to understand the point on the fingerboard at which the instrument becomes capable of producing the same note on alternate strings, as this allows for double stops to be performed that may initially seem impossible. Violins, violas, and cellos are tuned in fifths; as such, seven half steps above an open string on either instrument will provide the same pitch as the next open string. Eight half steps above an open string will provide you with the same pitch a single half step above the adjacent open string, and so on. Composers need to be aware of where the break is on each instrument s fingerboard between exclusive and shared pitches in order to realize potential double and even triple stop combinations. A triple stop involves three simultaneously sounding strings. Pitches that are located beyond first position on a stringed instrument are typically possible to perform on neighboring strings, and some pitches can actually be played on three or even four strings at different locations. The
Fig. AOC.9 Possible and impossible double stops on the violin Fig. AOC.10 Possible and impossible double stops on the viola
Fig. AOC.11 Possible and impossible multiple stops on the cello pitch E5, for example, which correlates to the fourth open string of a violin, can be additionally performed on all of the remaining strings of the instrument at ever-higher positions. Since the tension of the string is different for each unique location associated with the same pitch, the timbre of each version of the pitch is similarly unique; this offers composers a variety of color options when employing pitches. For example, it is common to ask performers to play notes in high positions on the fingerboard when a poignant or tragic effect is desired, as notes played in these positions generate a strained, longing timbre; this is a very frequently used effect found in cello writing. To ask a performer to play a certain pitch on a specific string, the term sul plus the string name (e.g., sul G) or number (e.g., sul III) is written above the first pitch of the passage. While multiple stops are common in violin, viola, and cello writing (see Figure AOC.11), they are far less common for double bass. This is particularly the case in sectional writing, as the extremely low register of the instrument tends to result in sonorities that violate the low interval limit that was discussed in Chapter 7 and therefore sound muddy and/or overpowering. The cello, too, has the potential to generate these undesirable intervals in its lowest registers. Notice, for instance, that the top example on the left in Figure AOC.11 displays a double stop for cello that is both impossible and in violation of the lower interval limit. Double stops are somewhat more common in higher-register solo passages for bass, but are still rare relative to those written for the other members of the string family. The double bass is also limited in this regard due to its tuning, which is in fourths as opposed to fifths; this results in the requirement of larger hand extensions and skipped strings to generate many intervals. For example, P5 intervals require a strained extension between the first and
fourth fingers on the double bass in most registers, while they are performed easily on violin, viola, and cello (the instruments tuned in fifths), as one finger may simply depress two adjacent strings at the same location. Another important consideration when composing multiple stops is that live performers often need time to adjust their positioning before performing them, especially to play them in tune; writing multiple stops in the middle of fast passages is therefore not advised. STRING TECHNIQUES USED IN ALEATORIC SCORING Aleatoricism is a compositional technique that is often associated with composers such as Krzysztof Penderecki, whose music has been used in films such as Stanley Kubrick s The Shining, William Friedkin s The Exorcist, Martin Scorsese s Shutter Island, and The Mask by the Quay brothers. Since the early 1960 s, this style of scoring has expanded contemporary string techniques, in particular, to include many new coloristic options. Aleatoricism, or indeterminacy, is an approach to music composition that involves the incorporation of chance. There are technically two main categories of aleatoricism, based on the degree of indeterminacy that is allowed by the composer. The first category is relatively conservative, as it exclusively involves the use of chance procedures in the creation of a fixed, (traditionally) notated composition. An example of this traditional type of aleatoricism might involve rolling dice to determine rhythmic outcomes, which are then notated specifically into a score. The second category involves the incorporation of chance into the actual performance, which requires that the composer leave certain decisions up to the performer(s). The level of decision-making power given to the performer(s) in this type of indeterminate music may range from simple dynamic choices all the way through free improvisation, and indeed, the entire formal path through the composition may be left to chance. Most aleatoric passages found in commercial settings are associated with tense scenes within film scores. In actuality, the level of improvisation found in most of these aleatoric compositions is relatively low, but the absence of traditional notation in favor of alternative, graphic notation is noteworthy (see Figure AOC.12), even if it gives the false impression that compositions in this style are extraordinarily spontaneous. While it is true that no two performances of a piece of this nature will be the same, the effect, impression, and general artistic outcome of a commercial aleatoric work is more or less fixed. This is because composers of this style painstakingly map out narrow performative paths within which players are to navigate, cleverly creating the musical landscapes they hear in their minds while allowing for a degree of performative freedom. In media scoring, aleatoricism generally consists of creating large sound masses and/or overlapping rhythmic ideas to generate a sense of tension and anxiety that is devoid of tonal clarity. If one were to write out a typical aleatoric passage using traditional notation (which isn t always possible), it would likely be very difficult for performers to read and perform, particularly on a first attempt. Thus, to avoid poor performances, unnecessary expenditures of effort, and wasted studio time (and money), composers typically employ graphic notation or create a piece-specific type of notation that is far more efficient in producing the desired effect. Although the graphic notation associated with aleatoricism is not standardized or used universally, certain symbols have gained musical meaning through repeated use over several decades. Figure AOC.12 lists the symbols first introduced by Penderecki in his famous 1960 piece Threnody for the Victims of Hiroshima. You are encouraged to explore the aleatoric compositions of Penderecki, Karlheinz Stockhausen, John Cage, Witold Lutosławski, and others to understand how these symbols are utilized by different composers in a variety of musical ways. You should also feel free to develop your own ways of expressing certain ideas, which may include written instructions, graphic notation, or a combination of both (as in Lutosławski s famous Venetian Games). Always remember, though, that the purpose of any music notation is to clearly and efficiently direct performers toward the intended musical result; the easier it is to comprehend a part, the less time it will take to capture a successful performance.
Fig. AOC.12 Common aleatoric symbols SUMMARY OF TERMS flutter tonguing tremolando unmeasured tremolo natural harmonics artificial harmonics double stop triple stop aleatoricism indeterminacy
TERM DEFINITIONS aleatoricism artificial harmonics double stop flutter tonguing indeterminacy natural harmonics tremolando triple stop unmeasured tremolo an approach to music composition that incorporates chance. Traditionally, aleatoric music involved using chance procedures, such as the rolling of dice, to generate a fixed composition. harmonics that are performed on stringed instruments by using a stop to create a false open string while lightly pressing specific locations throughout that string s length that generate upper partials when the string is articulated. a multiple stop that involves two strings being articulated simultaneously to create a harmonic interval. a distinct rhythmic effect that is performed on wind instruments by vibrating the tongue repeatedly as if rolling a letter r. a term, like aleatoricism, that is used to refer to the use of chance in music composition and performance. harmonics that are produced by dividing an open string s length at various points and lightly touching the string while articulating it, which creates specific members of the overtone series above the open string s fundamental. a technique that is similar to tremolo but requires that the performer alternate between two pitches that are usually separated by more than a whole step. a multiple stop that involves three strings being articulated simultaneously to create a chord. see tremolando.