Chapter 13 Background Taent Note that whie The Screen Actors Guid has changed the designation of extra to that of background actor, for the purpose of this chapter, the terms extra, extra taent, background actor and background payer are interspersed. BACKGROUND CASTING AGENCIES You can have incredibe sets, actors who are amazing, costumes that are perfect and cinematography and ighting that wi take your breath away, but if your extras don t ook as if they beong there, they detract from the overa appearance of the entire fim and diminish the extraordinary setting that you ve worked so hard to create. Extras are caed background because they re more than just a bunch of peope miing around your principa characters. They add to the reaism and create a backdrop one more visua eement of the fim the viewer is drawn into. Once an agency secures a show, it wi assign a staff casting associate to oversee the project. When seecting an agency to suppy the background actors and stand-ins for your show, get recommendations from friends and contacts. Go with a proven company, or make sure you have a coordinator with a good track record. Your prime consideration is whether this agency is going to be abe to effectivey deiver the type of background you need. Your decision wi be a ot easier if a you require are certain numbers of peope within certain age ranges. But if you need the right mix of men and women, ethnicity, physica types, peope who have the just the right ook, the right hair, the right compexion or peope who reaisticay ook as if they re part of an era and wi competey bend into a story, then you need an agency that can fi the bi. Whether you require background payers to pass for turn-of-the-century bue-boods, terminay i cancer patients, hoocaust survivors or gang members, you want someone with the experience and the eye for what you re ooking for someone who can offer quaity and cost-effective production vaue. Being abe to hand-pick the right individuas is itsef an art form. On a contemporary show, a good casting associate wi make suggestions to background actors as to what cothes to bring, eiminating the need for costumers to suppy wardrobe; wi know if someone s hair is the right ength or coor, eiminating the need for a hairstyist s time; and wi be abe to find individuas who have the exact skis that are needed (swimmers, skiers, etc.). Poor background casting can be costy. Agency fees are paid on a commission basis, and are generay 10 percent (but can go as high as 12 percent). Beware of those that are the east expensive. Faiing to provide you with what you need coud be more costy in the ong run. Compare the quaity of their work and the track records of agencies that charge ess (often by providing payro services) with other agencies (that don t offer payro services) who may charge a itte more but might offer more vaue for your money. Finding Specific Types Agencies keep extensive fies and data bases fu of both union and nonunion taent (of every type) who have either come in to register or who have been sought out for their specia abiities or ooks. In addition to keeping fies on individuas, agencies aso estabish contacts with certain organizations, specia schoos, choirs, medica faciities, etc. These connections become usefu when, for exampe, a specia education schoo can assist in providing extras for a fim about a mentay chaenged chid, or the Veterans Administration becomes a good source of background payers needed for a fim about veterans. When very specific types can t be found in their fies, background coordinators wi often visit paces these peope frequent. They become quite creative in ocating the exact ook you re after. They re aso very good at securing intact teams with specia abiities (such as bands), often for the price of a donation in ieu of a saary for each member of the group. THE PROCESS During pre-production, the agency/coordinator wi be sent a script prior to meeting with any or a of the foowing: producer, director, production designer, UPM and assistant directors. The preiminary meeting wi generay consist of discussions based on breakdowns (how many and which types on which days) and concepts (the ook envisioned by the fim s creative team), at which time # 2010 Eve Light Honthaner. Pubished by Esevier Inc. A rights reserved. doi: 10.1016/B978-0-240-81150-5.00013-1 261
262 The Compete Fim Production Handbook agency representatives wi offer feedback and suggestions. This wi be your first indication as to whether the background coordinator understands the ook you re searching for. Your next indication is when the agency submits pictures of possibe stand-ins, photo doubes and extras for your consideration. If a continues to proceed as it shoud, the agency wi then coordinate interview times with the assistant director, so the director (and team) can personay evauate their choices. The number of background actors required for an entire show is cacuated by mandays the number of individuas needed per day. In genera terms, an average sma show wi require 300 400 extra mandays or ess; a medium-sized show 500 800 mandays and a arge feature (or mini-series) at east 800 mandays. Again, in genera terms and for the best possibe resuts, you woud give the background casting agency the foowing number of prep weeks prior to principa photography: Period Script (requiring Sma Show Contemporary Script 2 wks. costume fittings, etc.) 4 wks. Medium Show Large Show FIGURE 13.1 4 wks. 6 8 wks. 6 wks. 8 10 wks. Photo doubes and background actors appearing in period fims wi have to be schedued for costume fittings and possiby hair and make-up tests. Science fiction and/or fantasy fims coud require engthy prosthetic fittings. And aow for additiona fittings to accommodate changing minds or mods that have to made more than once. If fitted on a day prior to a work ca, SAG background actors are paid one-quarter of their daiy base rate for wardrobe fittings that ast under two hours. Beyond two hours, they re paid in additiona increments of their basic houry rate. The same rate appies to interviews. If required to bring in their own wardrobe, a car, pet or props to an interview or fitting, they receive haf of the appicabe aowance as specified in the SAG agreement. SAG background actors are compensated for a fu day for test days, and rehearsa time is paid as work time, whether on a day prior to fiming or on the same day. And athough it s not mandatory to pay nonunion extras the same fees for interviews, fittings and tests, many companies do so as a courtesy. The same hods true for mieage and mea penaties, which are sometimes paid to non-sag extras when aso being paid to those in the union. Bring the background agency on as soon as you can, and remember: their commission is based on mandays, not on the number of days or weeks they work on your fim. Bringing them in as eary as possibe is not going to cost more; it s just going to give them more time to do a good job for you. If there are more than 75 to 100 background payers on any one shoot day, the agency may send a taent coordinator (who s incuded in the daiy count) to hep with any probems that may arise. On DGA shows, however, it s a DGA vioation for anyone other than an assistant director to wrange background. Second assistant directors (or second seconds) are generay the ones who coordinate the background payers with the casting agency, and they re aso responsibe for signing off on extra taent vouchers (see sampe vouchers at the end of this chapter) at the end of a work day. If you re a second AD and responsibe for contacting the casting agency with the next day s ca time, as busy as you are, don t wait unti a the vouchers are signed and you re done for the day to make that ca. Be considerate by caing the agency rep as soon as you have ca times (or ca time changes) for the next day, so the agency can start putting the cas out as soon as possibe. The production company must secure appropriate areas for background payers to wait when not needed on the set, to change, eat, etc. It must provide pure drinking water, seats for each background actor, adequate ighting, a stretcher or cot, separate dressing rooms for actors of each sex and for chidren of each sex, adequate provisions for the safekeeping of cothing during work and adequatey cean, individuay screened restroom faciities, toiet paper, soap and paper towes. Two friends of mine recenty worked as background payers on a feature fim on the east coast. Anticipating a deightfu experience, they instead found themseves in a nightmare. They, aong with the others hired as background for a specific series of scenes, were eft standing in the cod and snow (without coats) for hours on end, were exposed to the rain (again, without coats or towes), were given few breaks and offered itte or no food. This type of situation sometimes occurs in an attempt to save money. Other times, it s a resut of an inexperienced production staff that doesn t fuy anticipate their needs. But no matter what the reason when you don t provide proper working conditions for your background payers, chances are that some won t return the next day, that you be hit with union grievances and fines; you damage the reationship you had with the background casting agency and wi be rained on yoursef with the wrath of a ot of unhappy peope. It therefore makes perfecty good sense to treat background performers with respect and provide them with an adequate (if not comfortabe) environment. It s aso the right thing to do whether you re working under SAG guideines or not. The agency wi make sure minor extras have vaid work permits, but it s the production company s responsibiity to empoy teacher/wefare workers and to provide an adequate schoo room. For babies, nurses are required as we as a nursery. Some background performers work a day or two, and they re done. Others, once estabished, might be required to come back for days on end (someone portraying a juror on a big tria, for exampe). It can now and then be a bit of
Chapter 13 Background Taent 263 a chaenge to keep certain individuas coming back for ong stretches of time or to work past a certain time at night when shooting runs ater than expected (especiay on ocation, when many of the extras you re apt to book may have other job and persona commitments). Attrition does occasionay occur, even among those who had assured you that they d be there for the ong hau. So et me reiterate providing a comfortabe environment for your background performers between shots and treating them we wi go a ong way toward keeping them there and coming back. Good communication skis are needed as we when it comes to expaining that once estabished, they re needed to match subsequent shots, because once you ose an extra who s been estabished, that person woud then need to be photo-doubed. Gathering Large Crowds and Fiing Stadiums Fiing a stadium and making sure that arge amounts of peope can be reied upon to show up at a specified ocation at a certain hour for an undetermined ength of time is quite a chore. To make matters worse, shows are often required to fi auditoriums or stadiums with peope they can t afford to pay. Because the cost of paying thousands of extras is often prohibitive, productions wi pay those SAG taent they re required to have, but the remainder wi have to be peope who want to be there (and are wiing to stay unti no onger needed) for the mere peasure of being a part of this movie. Not ony are they not paid, they re aso sometimes asked to bring their own unches. Athough it s the agency s utimate responsibiity to fi a given space with peope, the production often gets invoved in the process as we frequenty with the hep of the show s unit pubicist. It can take the efforts of severa peope to fi a stadium, and those invoved wi do some or a of the foowing: Soicit the hep of marketing firms Contact schoos and charity groups Create website postings (if the show or an actor in the show has a fan cub and/or their own website, that s a great pace to start) Pace newspaper ads (I was once on a distant ocation, and in order to fi a sma stadium, we paced ads in oca newspapers with a headine that read: You Oughta Be In Pictures! ) Create a pubic interest story for pubication Offer $1 (or other specified amount) per person to be donated to charity Procure donations of food and drink Arrange for buses to transport arge groups of peope from certain ocations Line up entertainers to occupy the crowd s time between shots Set up a raffe and procure gifts and prizes for raffe winners Make sure to have a sufficient number of portabe restrooms to accommodate the crowd Arrange for studio teachers and schoo room space to accommodate minors in the crowd Make sure there are enough assistant directors and PAs (a with wakie-takies and head mics) to coordinate the crowd. The peope who commit to being part of a crowd are tod what to wear and/or bring and must often agree to stay a minimum of six to eight hours. They must aso agree to return on subsequent days if needed. Signing in when they arrive, some productions wi give each extra a raffe ticket for a drawing to take pace once the required fiming has been competed. And shoud someone eave eary, his or her raffe ticket woud have to be forfeited. Taes from The Trenches My friend Ira Shuman ine produced a fim caed Strange Days in the mid-90s, and there was a ine in the script that simpy read: EXT. NEW YEAR S EVE, 2000 NIGHT The mother of a parties The story was set in 1999, and this party was to represent the bringing in of the new miennium. They were shooting in Los Angees, and Ira thought they shoud cose off some streets in the downtown area in order to stage an enormous party for this scene. But he worried about whether he coud attract enough peope to show up. That s when he came up with the idea of hiring someone to put on a rave and charging peope to come. His ad read something ike this: Come be in a James Cameron movie and dance a night! Tickets: $10 And a of a sudden, the question wasn t whether peope woud show up, but whether he d be abe to get a permit. The permit guy was reuctant, having had troube with huge crowds before. So Ira promised that he d ony se 7,500 tickets, and that the crowd woud be we controed. He didn t get it unti the ast minute, but did eventuay receive the permit. And even after seing 7,500 tickets and turning others away once they had sod out, 12,000 15,000 peope sti showed up that evening. He paced professiona extras in front of the crowd and surrounding the actors, and a went as panned. The crowd that had come for the rave was there from about 8 p.m. to 3 a.m., and they a seemed to have a great time. BACKGROUND CASTING ON LOCATION When on distant ocation, some companies wi retain the services of a oca background casting agency, and some wi bring a background coordinator with them. Much wi
264 The Compete Fim Production Handbook depend on the avaiabiity of a quaified oca agency or coordinator and aso how many and what types of background payers are needed. The farther you get away from the arge metropoitan areas, the fewer the resources. And the ones you do find may not speciaize, as many smaer cities have a-purpose agencies that represent modes, principa taent and background taent. When on a distant/remote ocation, not having access to a many different types of extras can be quite a chaenge. Usuay, the more remote, the more chaenging. To hep in the process, the background coordinator wi tap into the oca community by: Contacting the oca media (pubic interest story) Contacting oca organizations (schoos, churches, community groups, cubs, etc.) Posting announcements throughout the town (incuding website postings) Soiciting hep from the oca fim commission and/or chamber of commerce Soiciting hep from oca taent and modeing agencies Setting up big open cas When on a distant or foreign ocation, your coordinator must be aware of a minimum wage requirements and state abor reguations. If you re doing a SAG show, check in with the nearest SAG office once you arrive on ocation. And make sure to acquaint yoursef with the requirements reating to the empoyment of minors in that particuar state or jurisdiction. Do this eary on, so minors who need to appy for work permits wi have penty of time to do so. And if state or jurisdictiona reguations are minima, then adhere to basic SAG guideines governing the empoyment of minors. SPECIFICALLY SAG The different categories of SAG background actors are as foows: Genera Background: Person of atmospheric business which incudes the norma actions, gestures and facia expressions of the Background Performer s assignment. Specia Abiity Background Actor: Background Actor specificay caed and assigned to perform work requiring specia ski, such as tennis, gof, choreographed socia dancing (incuding square dancing), swimming, skating, riding animas, driving ivestock, nonprofessiona singing (in groups of 16 or ess), mouthing to payback in groups of 16 or ess, professiona or organized athetic sports (incuding officiating and running), amputees, driving which requires a specia ski and a specia icense (such as truck driving but not cab driving), motorcyce driving (but not bicyce riding), insert work and practica card deaing. Stand-in: Background Actor used as a substitute for another actor for the purposes of focusing shots, setting ights, etc., but not actuay photographed. Stand-ins may aso be used as genera background. Photographic Doube: Background Actor who is actuay photographed as a substitute for another actor. A Genera Background Actor who is required to do photographic doubing sha receive the Specia Abiity rate. Day Performer: A Performer who deivers a speech or ine of diaogue. A Background Performer must be upgraded to Day Performer if given a ine, except in the case of omnies (see next entry). Omnies: Any speech sounds used as genera background noise rather than for its meaning. Atmospheric words such as indistinguishabe background chatter in a party or restaurant scene. Most background casting agencies represent both union (SAG) and nonunion extras. If you re a SAG signatory, you must use the foowing percentage of SAG extras on your project (the remainder can be, and usuay are, nonunion): TV Short-Form ½ hr. & 1 hr. shows: the first 21 must be SAG, which woud incude at east one stand-in TV Long-Form 1½ hr., 2 hr, & more: the first 21 must be SAG, which woud incude at east one stand-in Feature Fims: The first 53 must be SAG, incuding stand-ins Low-Budget Features (ess than $2.5 miion): The first 30 must be SAG, incuding stand-ins When working in a right-to-work state, the practice is to hire nonunion extras. Note however that if you re working a certain number of mies outside of SAG s jurisdiction (even if it s not a right-to-work state), you re not obigated to use union extras. In Los Angees, for exampe, you have to be 100 mies ( as the crow fies ) outside of SAG s jurisdiction. In Las Vegas, it s 25 mies from the Strip. SAG makes those individua cas, so check the reguations governing the area where you be shooting. If a background actor is booked for work and then that work ca is canceed, he must be paid anyway. So casting personne instead merey check the avaiabiity of the individuas they d ike to ine up for the foowing day. Using this terminoogy, if the work ca is then canceed, the production isn t on the hook to pay the background payers. But it aso means that if they re not given a firm booking, they re aso free to take other shows and may not be avaiabe. Aong the same ines, if a background payer is working one day and expecting a ca back for the foowing day, but as it turns out, isn t needed, he or she must be notified of the canceation before 4:30 p.m., or the production is iabe for another day s pay. If a canceation is due to the iness of a principa cast member, food, fire or other simiar catastrophe or nationa emergency, the performer woud be entited to a haf-check. Background performers must be informed at the time of booking if any rough or dangerous work wi be required, if
Chapter 13 Background Taent 265 they re expected to work in extreme weather, in water or in a smoke-fied environment. They must aso be notified if they re going to be required to get a haircut or are expected to be fitted for prosthetics. When it comes to nudity, a background payer must be notified in advance. The set must be cosed, and no sti photography is permitted without the performer s prior written consent. If not notified, the individua may refuse to work yet sti receive a fu day s pay. And empoyment as a nude body doube is paid at not ess than the principa daiy rate. Simiary, background performers may be given a weather-permitting ca meaning if they report for work and the weather turns bad within the first two hours, they can be dismissed and woud be entited to a haf-check for the day. But if they show up, not having been given a weather-permitting ca, and the weather turns bad, they woud be due a fu day s pay. Certain circumstances aow background actors to receive rate adjustments. Exampes are rough or dangerous work; work requiring the performer to get wet or work in smoke; having to wear body makeup, a sku cap, hair goods or a natura fu-grown beard; and for suppying wardrobe and persona props. An extra who is directed to deiver a ine of diaogue or speech may be eigibe for an upgrade to a principa performer. And a background actor rigged with any type of exposive device (incuding squibs) must be upgraded to Principa Performer and permitted to consut with the Stunt and/or Specia Effects coordinators. If any part of the workday is worked at a higher rate than the rate under which the performer was originay booked, the higher rate is paid for the entire workday. If caed back for the next day, and the producer intends for him or her to revert to the rate at which originay hired, the background actor must be notified of such intention at the time of the caback. There are specific voucher forms suppied by SAG and background casting agencies to be used by SAG background taent (see sampe at the end of this chapter). Taft/Hartey rues are the same for SAG background actors as they are for other SAG performers, but there are different Taft/Hartey forms to fi out in such cases. Sampes of both forms can be found in Chapter 12. For pay scaes and more specific guideines regarding the empoyment of SAG background performers, go to www.sag.org, cick on Contracts, and then Theatrica or Teevision, where you find appicabe digests covering both east and west coast background actors. Moving from Nonunion to Union Status Most background performers start off working nonunion with the hope of eventuay gaining union status. Union members are afforded higher saaries and benefits and aso become eigibe to accept principa speaking roes. The foowing are the different ways in which a nonunion extra can become a member of the Screen Actors Guid: A nonunion extra can be seected to repace a union background actor who doesn t show up (earning one SAG voucher for each day this occurs). A nonunion extra can be bumped up (to SAG status) for specia business or to work as a stand-in (earning one SAG voucher for each day this occurs). Anytime a nonunion extra gets three union vouchers (they don t have to be for consecutive days), he or she is SAG-eigibe and can join after 30 days of receiving his or her ast SAG voucher. If upgraded on set with a scripted ine or directed scene, an extra woud be Taft/Harteyed and receive a SAG Day-Payer contract. If 30 days have eapsed and the extra hasn t yet joined but continues to take SAG vouchers, the production company can be fined (athough he or she can choose to work nonunion unti joining). Those eigibe to join SAG shoud save a copy of their vouchers and their paycheck stubs. Once in, they can t go back to working nonunion. If they do and are caught, they can be fined and ose their SAG membership. Anyone wishing to go back to working nonunion has the option of taking a SAG fu withdrawa or decaring financia core. WITH THE EXTRA IN MIND Becoming a background actor is a good way to get into SAG or just to earn about the business. You definitey get to discover how a set is run, who does what and if you have the stamina for the work. Students and retired peope find it a good way to augment their income. If you re signed up with severa agencies and become a favorite, it can become a decent iving in itsef. There are those who dream of progressing from extra one day to ead actor the next many moving to Los Angees or New York with no training, expecting to move up fast. They may have the ooks but not necessariy the ski to create a character. In other words, getting three union background vouchers does not an actor make. If you re serious about moving up, take acting casses and voice essons, do community theatre, study dance, groom yoursef, saturate yoursef in your craft. Be more than just another pretty face. When you sign up with an extras casting agency, most wi coect a one-time administration fee of $20 to $25. Avoid agencies that want to charge you $500 to take your picture and/or promise you the word. They re generay scams! SAG discourages agencies from recommending photographers or acting schoos in an attempt to avoid kickbacks and/or conficts of interest. As the production
266 The Compete Fim Production Handbook companies who are ooking for extras do, make sure the agencies you sign up with are reputabe and come highy recommended. Reminder of Professiona Conduct for Background Actors The foowing was taken from the SAG digest covering the rates and working conditions of background actors, and it s not a bad idea to post this for your background payers to read. Reminder of professiona conduct for background actors In order to be recognized by others as a professiona and to protect the dignity of the entire acting profession, members are advised of the foowing guideines: 1. Aways carry your paid-up SAG card or receipt of payment from the Membership Department. 2. Make sure that you arrive on the set on time, with required wardrobe and/or props. It s better to arrive eary than to report ate. 3. Be courteous and attentive. 4. Remember: fi out your contract or voucher with care, making sure a information is egibe and appears on a copies. Keep your own records of hours worked, mea breaks, etc. Make sure you note a wardrobe and props suppied at the request of the Producer. 5. Bring aong some busy work. Part of working sometimes requires hours of ideness on the set. 6. Never eave the set without getting approva from the Assistant Director. 7. Smoke ony in designated areas. This is a matter of courtesy. 8. The professiona Background Actor is aways prepared to take down the reporting ocation, date and time of a ca, as we as the required wardrobe. 9. Once you re hired, you have been hired unti reeased by the production company. In short, do not ask to eave eary, and do not eave eary. 10. Notify Casting Director of potentia conficts caused by other bookings immediatey. A big thanks to my od friend Bi Dance for heping me with this chapter since this book first came out. Bi Dance Casting is a high-quaity extras casting agency based in the Los Angees area. FORMS IN THIS CHAPTER Extra Taent Voucher (can be used for union or nonunion extras) generay fied out in tripicate SAG Extra Voucher
BACKGROUND TALENT VOUCHER VOUCHER NO: DATE: PRODUCTION: [ ] UNION [ ] NON-UNION PRODUCTION COMPANY: PROD. CO. PHONE NO: UNION NO: EXTRA CASTING AGENCY: EMPLOYER OF RECORD (Payro Co.) : CONTACT: PHONE NO: ADDRESS: NAME (Pease Print) AGE: ADDRESS: PHONE NO: PHONE NO: CELL/PGR. NO: SOCIAL SECURITY NO. (must be competed): [ ] NEW EMPLOYEE [ ] NEW ADDRESS INTERVIEW: $ [ ] MARRIED [ ] SINGLE FITTING: $ # OF ALLOWANCES: SPECIAL ABILITY: $ REPORT TIME/IN: RATE: $ WARDROBE: QTY: $ SMOKE WORK: $ FIRST MEAL OUT: RATE ADJUSTMENT: $ MEAL PENALTY: QTY: $ BODY MAKEUP: $ FIRST MEAL IN: HRS. OF S.T. @ $ $ USE OF AUTO: $ HAIR: $ SECOND MEAL OUT: HRS. OF 1-1/2X @ $ $ MILEAGE - # OF MILES: WET WORK: $ SECOND MEAL IN: HRS. OF 2X @ $ $ AMT. PER MIL $. $ BEARD: $ DISMISSED/TIME OUT: DRESS OR UNIFORM: $ TOTAL MEAL TIME: TOTAL ADJUSTMENTS: $ OTHER: $ Chapter 13 Background Taent NET HOURS: GROSS TOTAL: $ TOTAL: $ TOTAL: $ I acknowedge receipt of the compensation stated herein as payment in fu for a services rendered by me on the days indicated. I hereby grant to my empoyer permission to photograph me and and to record my voice, performances, poses, acts, pays and appearances, and use my picture, photograph, sihouette and other reproductions of my physica ikeness and sound in the above-named production and in the unimited distribution, advertising, promotion, exhibition and expoitation of the production by any method or device now known or hereafter devised in which the same may be used. I agree that I wi not assert or maintain against you, your successors, assigns and icensees, any caim, action, suit or demand of any kind or nature whatsoever in connection with your authorized use of my physica ikeness and sound in the production as herein provided. As a condition of my empoyment by the Production Company on The Production, I agree that I wi abide by a rues of empoyment as dictated by the Production Company or its agents, or by any Safety Coordinators assigned to The Production, especiay those rues pertaining to safety incuding but not imited to: (a) remaining in areas designated as safe areas during any period that I am not asked to perform my duties as an extra, and (b) acting in a safe manner at a times so as not to injure mysef or others, and (c) to refrain from taking any iega substances that might impair my abiity to do the job for which I was hired. As a further condition of empoyment herein, I agree that I have the abiity to perform each and every task, job assignment or specia abiity I have been asked to perform, and that if I knowingy make fase representations that I am quaified to perform these assignments when, in fact, I know that I am not quaified, that such misrepresentation may be grounds for dismissa of any workers compensation caim shoud I be injured as a resut of performing an assignment for which I knowingy was not quaified to perform. I have read the entire conditions of empoyment and by signing this voucher, I acknowedge that I understand and agree with the entire conditions of empoyment. SIGNATURE: (If minor, parent or guardian must sign) APPROVED BY: TITLE: 267
268 The Compete Fim Production Handbook