Juha Tuominen, Anna-Katriina Salmikangas, Hanna Vehmas & Auli Pitkänen Guidelines for Academic Essays at the Faculty of Sport and Health Sciences University of Jyväskylä Faculty of Sport and Health Sciences Teaching material February 2011
2 CONTENTS 1. INTRODUCTION... 3 2. CONTENTS OF AN ACADEMIC PAPER/ESSAY... 4 3. FORMATTING... 5 4. THE ISSUE OF PLAGIARISM... 7 5. REFERENCING... 8 6. LANGUAGE ISSUES... 14 7. REFERENCES... 15
1. INTRODUCTION Good research writing is an art. To be a good artist or writer, one must practice. (Berg and Latin 2003, 61) As true as this statement is, it is also true that practice is only effective if the correct procedures are being practiced. The function of this document is to give you the tools to complete good quality academic essays. In some cases, such as the case of referencing, you will be directed elsewhere to a more extensive and complete source which deals with this vast area of knowledge in a clear and unambiguous manner. Different universities, and indeed different departments, give varied guidelines for the formatting of academic papers. The first chapter of this paper discusses the basic contents expected in an academic essay. Then the formatting guidelines acceptable for academic essays in the Faculty of Sport and Health Sciences at the University of Jyväskylä are outlined. This is followed by a chapter dealing with the issue of plagiarism. Plagiarism can occur intentionally or by accident so it is very important to ensure that all students are conscious of the sources they use and give the appropriate credit to the original authors. Referencing is the focus of the fourth chapter. Here, basic information on referencing within and at the end of a paper is detailed and you are directed to a very informative web site for more exceptional referencing guidelines. The final chapter before the references section touches slightly on the area of language issues in academic papers. The importance of language issues in an academic essay cannot be overstated, which makes this a fitting subject with which to end our paper.
4 2. CONTENTS OF AN ACADEMIC ESSAY An essay is usually a piece of writing which is based on course literature and presents the thinking and reflections of the student concerning the topic in question. Good argumentation and independent reasoning is expected from the student and thus, an essay is not merely a summary. An essay should form a coherent entity, where the student discusses such issues which she/he has learnt already previously and reflects on them in the light of the literature. When starting to write an essay based on course literature, please read the literature through first. Give a name to your essay and write the text with your own words. Question the issues, make judgments and compare various interpretations. It is important that you reflect on the issues you have learnt and elaborate on those, but remember also that the essay is based on the course material. The length of an essay will vary according to the instructions of specific lecturers. An essay should have at least three parts: introduction, discussion and conclusion. The outline can be e.g., the following: 1) Cover page (please use the format of the cover page of this document) 2) Introduction of the paper 3) Purpose of the essay from the point of view of the academic field in question 4) Definition of the major concepts and background to this topic 5) Interests and themes within the topic what are the issues and problems that you would like to raise in the essay 6) Analysis of the ideas based on lectures and the literature 7) Conclusion and ideas for the future 8) List of references
5 3. FORMATTING The detailed guidelines for the formatting of academic essays are outlined here. These formatting guidelines are those recommended by the Faculty of Sport and Health Sciences and should be followed for all papers submitted within the faculty, unless otherwise indicated by lecturers of specific courses. Cover page: The cover page should contain the name of the student, the name of the professor/lecturer, the title of the paper, the university, the department, the subject title and code, and the date. Font size: 12 Spacing: 1.5 Font style: Times New Roman Margins: Left 4cm, right 2cm, top and bottom 2.5cm Numbering: Page numbers should be clearly printed on the top right corner of each page. Numbering should begin from the cover page but should only be printed from the second page of the introduction onwards (after the introduction, if the introduction consists of one page only). Chapter headings: The spacing on all chapter headings should be formatted so that there is adequate space (two lines) below the heading. A new chapter should always begin on a new page. Subheadings: Regarding subheadings, rules are less strict as long as the chosen style is used consistently throughout the paper. For example, in this paper the subheadings are separated from the previous paragraph by one line and the text begins on the next line, immediately after the subheading.
6 Tables: Tables and figures must also follow a unified set of rules of presentation. Each table should be numbered, given a name and/or a short description, and a reference (if the table is taken from somewhere else or produced for the paper in hand based on some other material). The name of the table should be typed in capital letters, and should be followed by a name and/or description with single line spacing. The text inside the table should be formatted with font size 11. Here is a simple example of table formatting: TABLE 1. The 2000 Olympic Games bid voting tally (Schaffer & Smith 2000, 269). Round of Voting 1 2 3 4 Sydney 30 30 37 45 Beijing 32 37 40 43 Manchester 11 13 11 Berlin 9 9 Istanbul 7 Figures: For figures the same rules apply as with tables. However, the name of the figure should be written under the figure, not above. Here is a simple example: Faculty of Sport and Health Sciences Department of Health Sciences Department of Sport Sciences Department of Biology of Physical Activity FIGURE 1. The departments of the Faculty of Sport and Health Sciences (Handbook 2006, 14)
7 4. THE ISSUE OF PLAGIARISM The Language Centre of the University of Jyväskylä defines plagiarism as follows: Plagiarism is the process of taking someone else s words, ideas, stories, pictures, music, presentation materials, or other form of intellectual work and using them as your own. This violation of academic integrity might happen in a variety of ways, both intentional and unintentional. While the most serious acts of plagiarism involve deliberately presenting others ideas or words as your own, simply forgetting to cite a source used in your work is also a form of plagiarism. Crediting all of your sources is a fundamental principle of the scientific community. (Language Centre 2011) The quote above is an example of correctly referenced direct quote. If the citation (Language Centre 2011) and the quotation marks had been omitted, accidentally or otherwise, this would be considered plagiarism. To avoid such incidents, please read more about the correct ways of referencing and citing from the chapter 5 of this document. The issue of plagiarism is one which is taken very seriously in the Faculty of Sport and Health Sciences and the University of Jyväskylä. Plagiarism is not acceptable in any form. According to the Degree Regulations (University of Jyväskylä 2011) if such conduct is noticed, the consequences can be very severe. The student will naturally fail the course in question, and in the case of exchange students, the student s home university will automatically be notified. It is also possible to cancel the student s study right at the University of Jyväskylä if this kind of misconduct is noticed. The idea of this information is not to discourage the use of existing ideas and findings while writing an academic essay. The purpose is simply to stress the importance of this issue remember to express clearly your sources of information!
8 5. REFERENCING It is of the utmost importance to ensure that all information in your text, other than general knowledge or your own collected data, is correctly referenced and that the references, both in the text and in the reference list at the end of the paper, are correctly cited. Referencing material within and at the end of your text serves the following purposes: 1. Acknowledging the work of the original author/researcher and giving the appropriate credit 2. Supporting your argument by demonstrating that such information has been proven/postulated by respected members of the field, and supplying evidence for new arguments 3. Avoiding plagiarism 4. Giving the reader the information necessary to locate the original source and read further on the given topic Referencing Techniques There are different referencing techniques used in different fields of science. In social sciences, as well as in educational sciences, the common tradition is the one defined in the handbook of the American Psychological Association (APA) (Hirsjärvi, Remes & Sajavaara 2001, 319). The APA referencing style, used in research in the social sciences of sports, has also been used in this paper. A very detailed explanation of the most important rules of the APA style of referencing can be found on the following web site: http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/560/01/ (Scroll down to the bottom of the page to find links to the different referencing rules). As the rules are very carefully explained on this web site, they will not be repeated here. However, we will give guidelines for the most common issues regarding references. References within the Text When citing a reference within your text, there are a number of options available. To avoid monotony and allow the text to flow easily, it is a good idea to utilise the various
9 reference types and styles, according to how they suit the point you are making. The different types and styles are listed next: Type of reference: 1. Indirect citation a) summarised presentation of the idea b) paraphrase (presentation of the referenced information in your own words) 2. Direct citation (i.e. a quotation) Style of reference 1. Writer-centred reference: The original writer is introduced and often the research examined. The reference to the writer can be: a) Strong The writer is introduced e.g. Lincoln Allison published in 2001 b) Loose e.g. In sports science research of the past 10 years (Young 2003; Riordan 1999). Earlier research (Harris 1964; Gardiner 1930) has stated that Several studies have shown that (Kinnunen 1991; Hautala 1995) 2. Matter-centred reference: The original writer is not introduced. The author presents the idea first and attaches the reference at the end in brackets: e.g. Functional specialisation in the workplace is incompatible with a postindustrial society (Hatch 1997, 26). Marking the References Referencing material correctly requires accuracy. The place of a full stop defines what the reference refers to. The form of a reference depends, for example, on the number of authors, or on whether the reference has been referred to earlier. Here are some examples:
10 1. Referring to one sentence John McDowell states that the natural world is structured on both the facts of the first nature as well as meanings attached to these in the second nature (McDowell 1998, 174). 2. Referring to two or more sentences, or to a whole paragraph These phenomena appear more unusual to us than to the members of the community we study because we are watching them from an exterior and objective point of view. This independence from the community s values does not mean that it would be free from meaningful output. An outsider as an observer observes and evaluates the other community within the framework of her/his own community-based world view leaning on her/his own values. (Lévi-Strauss 1997, 440.) or (Lévi-Strauss 1997, 440) When referring to two or more sentences, or to a whole paragraph, the reference should be placed after the final full stop, and either a full stop should be placed inside the brackets or left out completely. Both options are correct but it is important to use the same style throughout the paper. If the same source is referred to two or more times in a row on the same page the abbreviation Ibid is used instead of writing the name of the author and year of publishing several times. Quotations There are a number of things to remember when including a quotation in your text: 1. If the quotation is more than three lines long, it should start on a new line and be indented (as in the quotation at the top of page 5). 2. If you skip a section within a quotation, this should be marked by an ellipsis (three full stops, one space between each of them... like this). Care should be taken, however, as an ellipsis indicates intentional omission for the purpose of clarifying, while avoiding misleading. A quotation should not begin or end with an ellipsis. 3. In order to enclose [explanatory or missing] material in quoted text, square brackets should be used, as used above to enclose the words explanatory or missing. 4. Quotations, summaries and paraphrasing are all ways in which another researcher s ideas can be effectively incorporated into your work. In each case the original source must be correctly cited. Quotations are used for important phrases and passages that should be quoted directly.
11 The List of References The reference section at the end of an assignment or thesis should list all of the books, articles and other sources the writer has used in the paper. From the references the reader can see what kind of material has been used to produce the paper. It is a list which helps a competent reader to form a first assessment of the paper. From the references the reader can also find exact bibliographical information on the material to allow for further reading. The information for references should be collected very carefully because the forms and order of reference information can vary between departments and publishers. Carefully collected notes also guarantee that there is no need to search through the material again when compiling the reference list. It is advisable to immediately print and date any electronic references you find and make a note of page numbers of any print material you reference. Many different types of material can be used as references. The most common types are articles, books, and electronic journals, among others. Sources such as encyclopaedias, dissertations, government documents, sources with multiple authors or no author etc. all require specific referencing rules. The information required in the references is dependent on the type of resource. Correct and detailed information is needed in order to allow the reader to assess and trace the material. For this reason it is most important that the writer follows the accepted APA guidelines, available in the web site mentioned earlier, for different types of references. The order of the references should be based on the alphabetical order of the authors last name. In the case of a large variety of different types of references, some subheadings are recommended for the sake of clarity. In general, electronic materials should be separated from the others. Table 2 shows the reference information required for the most common reference types. The table is followed by examples of the different types.
12 TABLE 2. Referencing different sources in a reference list. Journal Article Article in a Compilation Book Online Article 1. Last name of 1. Last name of the 1. Last name of the 1. Last name of the the author(s) author(s) author author(s) 2. First letter of 2. First letter of the 2. First letter of the 2. First letter of the the author s author s first name author s first author s first first name 3. Year of publication name name 3. Year of 4. Name of the article 3. Year of 3. Year of publication 5. Name of the editor: publication publication 4. Name of the First letter of the first 4. Name of the 4. Name of the article name, surname publication article 5. Name of the (editor) 5. Edition (if 5. Name of the journal 6. Name of the applicable) journal 6. Volume (if compilation 6. City of publishing 6. Volume (if applicable) 7. City of publishing 7. Publishing applicable) 7. Issue 8. Publisher company 7. Issue 8. Pages 9. Pages 8. Date retrieved 9. Full URL Examples A journal article: Gorn, E. (2003). Baseball as America: Seeing ourselves through our national game. Journal of Sport History, 30 (2), 274-276. An article in a compilation: Coubertin P. (1908). Why I revived the Olympic Games. In W. Adams & L. Gerlach (eds.). The Olympic Games. Ancient and modern. Boston: Pearson Custom Publishing, 3-7. A book: Bell, J. (2005). Doing your research project. A guide for first-time researchers in education, health and social science. (4 th ed.). Berkshire: Open University Press.
13 An online article: Donnelly, M. (2006). Studying extreme sports: Beyond the core participants. Journal of Sport and Social Issues, 30. Retrieved September 26, 2006 from: http://jss.sagepub.com/cgi/reprint/30/2/219 Special Cases in Referencing References to (Finnish) Laws When mentioned for the first time, the date of the enactment of a law as well as the number of the law must be included, in addition to the name of the law, e.g. Sport Act 18.12.1998/1054. When referring to the same law or act again, only the number and year are stated after the name, e.g. Sport Act (1054/1998) Referring to a Text with Several Authors If the original source has six or more authors, it is enough to reference, within the text, the name of the first author and et al, for example (Puronaho et al 1990, 67). In cases of less than six authors, when referred to for the first time, all the authors names should be written, for example (Nienstedt, Hänninen, Arstila 2000, 12), after which the first author and et al is enough i.e. (Nienstedt et al 2000, 12). Referencing Secondary Sources Sometimes you may find a source through a citation in another source. In this case the reference should read as follows: In the text: (Weber 1924 as cited in Hatch 1997, 33) In the list of references: Hatch, M. (1997). Organisation theory. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
14 6. LANGUAGE ISSUES Although your paper is not evaluated based on its language level, a poorly written paper can prevent the evaluator from properly grasping the points you make or assessing your knowledge on the subject matter. A misplaced comma or apostrophe, for example, can change the whole meaning of a sentence and mislead the reader. Another language issue involved in an academic paper is the formality of the language used. Although a student may have a high level of spoken English and be able to express thought in writing, this does not automatically imply an ability to write formal English well. The module Integrated Research Communications will guide you through many of the rules of academic writing. It is important that the language of your paper be the highest possible level of formal academic English. On the same web site mentioned previously (http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/560/01/) you will find reliable rules on English grammar which may be used as a guide in writing your paper. Not all rules are absolute so you must remember, as always, to be consistent with your choices. By clicking on Grammar and Mechanics, on the right side of the first page of the web site, you will find an explanation of language issues which often cause problems, such as the use of articles, hyphens, capital letters, commas and other issues. Remember also that the use of language can hardly ever be seen as distinctly separate from the content of a paper. Decisions you make on language issues have implications for the opinions and positions presented in the text, and this calls for responsible choices. For more important academic works, such as the master s thesis, it may be advisable to have the language checked by an expert before submitting the final version to your supervisor for evaluation.
15 7. REFERENCES Berg, K. & Latin, R. (2003). Essentials of research methods in health, physical education, exercise and recreation. (2 nd ed.). Baltimore: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. Hirsjärvi, S.; Remes, P. & Sajavaara, P. (2001). Tutki ja kirjoita. Helsinki: Tammi. Language Center of the University of Jyväskylä. Retrieved on 16.2.2011 from: https://kielikeskus.jyu.fi/opetus/englanti/policy-on-plagiarism/policy-on-plagiarism University of Jyväskylä. Degree regulations of the University of Jyväskylä. Retrieved on 16.2.2011 from: https://www.jyu.fi/opiskelu/degreereg