Component-I (A) Personal details:

Component-I (A) Personal details: Prof. P. Bhaskar Reddy Sri Venkateswara University, Tirupati Prof. R. Thiagarajan Presidency College, Chennai. Prof. R. Thiagarajan Presidency College, Chennai. Prof. N. Veezhinathan University of Madras, Chennai 1

Component-I (B) Description of module: Subject Name Paper Name Module Name/Title Indian Culture Indian Aesthetics and Fine Arts Origin and Features of Drama Module Id I C / IAFA / 13 Pre requisites Objectives Keywords Knowledge in Indian Drama and its features To know the Origin of Sankskrit Drama, To know the discussion on Greek origin of Dramas, To know about the characteristic features of Drama, To know about Dramatic terms and their significance Drsya Kavyas / Rupakas / Drama / Natya Sastra E-Text (Quadrant-1) 1. Dramatic Literature Dramas are classed under Drsya Kavyas.They are generally called Rupakas. A drama, according to rhetoricians, is a composition that can evoke intellectual pleasure and is suitable for representation on the stage. The oldest work on dramaturgy, available at present, is the Natya Sastra of Bharata. This is a treatise on music, dance and drama. 2. Origin of the Sanskrit Drama Indian tradition finds a supernatural origin for every form of literature and so it does for the drama. The oldest work on dramaturgy available at present, the Natya Sastra of Bharata which is a treatise on music, dance and drama, gives the following episode about the origin of the drama. The gods, assembled together, requested Brahma to compose a new veda to give pleasure simultaneously to their eyes and ears of all classes of people alike There upon Brahma took the elements of recitation from the Rgveda, music from Samaveda, representation or gestures from Yajurvdea and the sentiments and other technical aspects from Atharvaveda Siva contributed Tandava, the dance representing violent emotions, while parvati provided Lasya, the dance representing tender emotions. Lord Vishnu contributed different kinds of dramatic styles.the divine architect Visvakarma constructed a theatre in the heaven and the sage Bharata in the art of stage craft. This came to be called Natya veda and the transference of this new veda, that is drama, to the Bhuloka is due to Bharata. The Bharatavakya recited at the end of all the Sanskrit dramas is a homage to the' founder of this dramatic art, Bharata.Thus a divine origin for the Sanskrit drama is described in the Natyasastra. The origin of drama historically can be traced to the Vedas.Dialogues or conversations, a prominent part of a drama are found in the Rgveda. A number of dialogues like Yama and Yami, Sarma and Pani, Pururavas and Urvasi are found in the Rgveda and they are of very interesting type. The Vedic rituals provided scope for impersonation of the various gods. 2

There are also references to several ceremonial dances in some vedic rituals. Gestures for representation of the bhavas are there at the time of the performances of various sacrifices So almost all the elements of the dramatic art were found in the Vedic age, but they were not knit into one literary form as drama, though the Vedic sacrifices can be called as a rudimentary drama by itself. The epics Ramayana and Mahabharata should have preceded Sanskrit drama. Though, they do not contain any definite reference to drama yet the words nata and nataka appear frequently but only in the general sense of a dancer and dance. But they have contributed the elements of poetry and musical recitation towards the creation of Sanskrit dramas. Again the literary qualities, imagination and emotions were all in the epics. Thus, in the epics, all the elements of the dramatic art present and they chiefly paved a way for the creation of the Sanskrit drama. The first reliable mention of drama as a literary art occurs in the Mahabhashya of 2 century B.C. The dramas Kamsavadha and Balibandha mentioned in the Mahabhashya derive their plots from the epic. Though these two plays are not available we have a clear evidence in this reference, about the existence of Sanskrit drama as a definite literary form even before second century B.C. Later, religion had a great influence in moulding the Sanskrit dramas. Hence the episodes chosen are mostly from the epics and the time chosen for staging are usually occasions of great rituals or religious festivals. 3. Sanskrit Drama-Greek origin Attempts have been made by some Western scholars to show that Sanskrit drama owes its origin to Greek plays. According to them dramas were staged in the court of Greek princes in India and the Hindus copied their models. The scenic conventions, the entering of the actors on the stage and their exit, division into number of acts, the apavarya (aside) and prakasa (aloud) speeches etc. clearly show a parallel between the dramas of Greek and Sanskrit. Again the use of yavanika to indicate the curtain traces its origin to the Yavanas or Greeks. Yavana girls are frequently introduced to assist the heroes in carrying their bows and arrows. So the western scholars say that the origin of the Sanskrit drama is due to influence of Greek dramas. But these points cannot serve as valid for the Greek origin. Firstly, we have a clear reference in the Mahabharata. So it should have been developed before 2nd century B.C. The word Yavanika refers, most probably, to the material of which it was made. Secondly, Greeks themselves do not seem to have curtain for their stage and hence the copying from them is quite impossible. Besides the term nataka is derived from the Sanskrit root 'nat to dance and this testifies to the native origin. In its spirit also the Sanskrit drama differs from the Greek. Sanskrit dramas violate the three classical units (unity of time, unity of place and unity of action) and mixes tragic and comic elements, unlike Greeks. So we conclude that Sanskrit Drama must have had an independent origin, though certain foreign influences might have been exercised on it. It is clear that there has been a wide exchange of culture between the Greeks and the Hindus. Unmistakable marks of such exchange are discernible particularly in the astronomical literature of the ancient Hindus. A few Scholars have attempted to bring out several points of similarity between some plots of the Sanskrit and the Greek plays; but how far these similarities are due to imitation cannot be ascertained. The question of the Greek influence on the Sanskrit drama is still an open one. All that can be said at present is that Sanskrit drama is positively indigenous and might 3

have been influenced by the Greeks, the extent of this Influence being still undecided. Such were the antecedents and the influences that resulted in the making of the Sanskrit drama. We can assume that the Sanskrit drama had attained a definite form clearly before the second century B. C. 4. Drama from Puppet Show There is yet another view that dramas had their origin from the puppet show on the strength of the word 'sutradhara' or holder of the string' found in all the Sanskrit dramas, referring to the stage director. This theory is also not acceptable by most of the scholars. It must therefore be concluded that Sanskrit dramas should have an independent origin, though there is every possibility of certain foreign influences. 5. Language in Sanskrit Plays There is in all Sanskrit plays a mixture of higher and the lower forms of language. The heroes, kings, Brahmins and men of high social rank speak in the literary Sanskrit while the women and low class characters speak in dialectical Prakrit of several grades. This diversity of language adds an element of realism to the play. 6. Characteristic Features of Sanskrit Dramas Almost all the Sanskrit plays are lyrical in character. They are deficient in action as compared with European dramas. The poetic fervour is more predominant than dramatic action, so that elaborate descriptions and long emotional declamations characterize almost all the plays in Sanskrit. Quick and successive action is often missing. The reflections suggested by the several incidents are lyrically described in many stanzas of different meters. The prose is often very ineffective and serves only as an introduction to the lofty idea expressed in verse. The plots are mostly borrowed from the great epics and occasionally from well known historical episodes. The poets still show their talents of originality in their deviation from the sources while weaving the incidents of the plot. Nature occupies a very important place in the Sanskrit drama. The characters are surrounded by nature which not only provides the romantic" background but plays an integral part in the emotional side of the dramatic development and exercises a profound influence on the minds of lovers. Love is the subject of most of the Indian plays and we very often find the repetition of the same dramatic motif and sometimes of the same dramatic situations in many plays; but the Indian dramatist is rarely excelled in the masterly manner in which he describes the intricate working of the lover's heart. The Sanskrit drama does not observe the unities of time and place in the classical sense. Some plays, for instance, Sakuntala, cover the incident of several years. The scene of action also changes very radically, sometimes from earth to heaven. The unity of action is not observed. only one central action is to be depicted; for, two or even three plots are interwoven in the same play occasionally, Thus in Many respects the Sanskrit drama bears greater resemblance to the Romantic Comedy of the Elizabethan age than to the Greek comedy. 4

6.1 Nandi and Sutradhara Every Sanskrit drama will have one or more benedictory stanzas called Nandi which is followed by a prelude called prasthavana or amukha, in which Sutradhara or Stage director conducts a conversation with some other actor or actress giving the preliminary details of the play, the author and also a brief note on the personal history of the author. The play proper follows next and it is divided into acts which vary from one to ten. Dialogues, soliloquies, side comments and regular stage directions for gesticulation are employed to carry on the representation on the stage. 6.2 Pravesaka The prologue is connected with the main drama which follows immediately. The connection between one act and the another is maintained by means of Interludes called pravesaka and vishkambhaka by announcements from behind the curtain, by actual indication of the succeeding event by the last outgoing character, called Ankasya, or by an unbroken continuity called Ankavatara. In pravesaka low characters like servants take part and the conversations are fully carried out in Prakrit language. This Pravesaka should not find a place in the first act. 6.3 Vishkambhaka Vishkambhaka is of two kinds, suddha and mishra. In suddhavishkambhaka middle characters take part and the conversation is carried on only in Sanskrit while in the Mishravishkambhaka the conversation is carried on in Sanskrit and Prakrit language. 7. The Important elements in a Drama The three important elements in a drama Vastu or plot Neta or hero Rasa or sentiment 7.1 Vastu -The plot Vastu is of three kinds namely Prakyaata or well known plot in the ancient epics or history, Udpaadya or invented by the poet's own imagination Mishra or combination of both The plot of the drama is carried on through five stages called sandhis. They are mukhasandhi, pratimukha, garbhasandhi, avamarsasandhi and upasamharasandhi. The plots are mostly borrowed from the great epics and occasionally from well known historical episodes. 5

7.2 Neta or Hero Neta or hero may be of four categories Dhirodaatta Dhiralalita Dhiroddhata Dhirasanta While heroism and fortitude are common to all, sublimity, amorous gaiety, tranquility and boisterousness are respectively their distinctive features. 7.3 Navarasas There are nine rasas or sentiments that are employed in the drama. Sringara or love hasya or comic karuna or pathetic vira or heroic raudra or furious bhayanaka or frightful bhibatsa or loathsome adbhuta or wonder santa or tranquil sringara, vira or karuna may be the predominant sentiment. 8. Dramatic styles Four different kinds of dramatic styles are prescribed in works of dramaturgy to suit the various sentiments and they are called Kaisiki, Arabhati, Sattvati and Bharati. 9. Role of Vidushaka The Sanskrit drama does not keep aloof the tragic and the comic elements, as the classical drama does. Joy and gloom are freely intermingled, sometimes relieving and sometimes intensifying each other as in the romantic type of the drama. Hasya rasa is carried on with the help of a jester of Vidushaka. He is generally a friend of the hero to advise him in his love affairs. The Jester plays a prominent part in the love plays. He is strangely enough always a Brahmin who is the object of the ridicule of the audience. His wit is generally of a low order and his role is usually that of the confidant of the hero in his love intrigues. In general respects the Vidushaka of the Sanskrit drama is a parallel to the Fool or the Clown in Shakespeare's plays. 6

10. Absence of tragedy Tragedy is strictly prohibited in Sanskrit dramas as Sanskrit dramaturgy does not allow unhappy endings. The most important point that strikes the reader of Sanskrit dramas is the entire absence of tragedy. Canons of dramaturgy strictly prohibit an unhappy ending; but no reasons are clearly assigned. An-explanation may be found in the fact that the Hindu conception of virtue and its reward has been such that it would not tolerate to see a good and noble soul falling ultimately, although he might suffer a good deal in a noble cause. That virtue must ultimately triumph over all difficulties is the key-note of the Hindu ethics. A vicious man falling is frequently found in Sanskrit drama; but.such a fall... being a deserved vengeance fails to elicit our sympathy and therefore cannot be a tragedy. Both in the plays and their sources, the epics, we have innumerable instances of the virtuous suffering untold miseries- These no doubt fill the episode with a deep tone of pathos and gloom. Thus they are tragic in spirit and appeal to our sense of pathos as intensely as the gloomiest tragedies of the west. Various scenes in Bhavabhuti's Malatimadhava and practically the whole of his Uttararamacharita are clear examples of this tragic spirit. Among the sources of Sanskrit drama, the Mahabharata is a huge tragedy on an infinite scale. Several episodes there like the end of Abhimanyu are surcharged with abundance of pathos. But, in the plays, a sudden turn of events mostly due to supernatural intervention converts the tragic episodes into a comedy by bringing about a happy end. Thus, if we mean by tragedy, plays suffused with abundance of gloom and pathos, we have several in Sanskrit literature; but tragedy taken technically as plays ending In the death of the hero and the major characters can nowhere be found in Sanskrit. 11. Bharatavakya Mostly all Sanskrit plays end with a benedictory stanza called Bharata vakya which is homage paid to Bharata the author of Indian dramaturgy. 7