RESEARCH WRITING
SCHEDULING STEPS IN RESEARCH WRITING 1. Setting a schedule and beginning a research journal 2. Finding a researchable subject and question 3. Developing a research strategy 4. Finding sources, both print and electronic, and making a working bibliography 5. Evaluating and synthesizing sources 6. Mining and interacting with sources, often using summary, paraphrase, and direct quotation 7. Taking steps to avoid plagiarism 8. Developing a thesis statement 9. Creating a structure 10. Drafting the paper, integrating summaries, paraphrases, and direct quotations into your ideas 11. Revising and editing the paper 12. Citing sources in your text 13. Preparing the list of works cited 14. Preparing and proofreading the final manuscript Final paper due 50.1
CHECKLIST FOR A GOOD RESEARCH SUBJECT 1. Published sources are ample: the subject is not so recent that other researchers will still be discovering it. 2. Sources are diverse: the subject is neither wholly personal nor wholly factual. 3. Sources can be assessed objectively: the subject is not solely a matter of belief or prejudice 4. Sources can be examined thoroughly in the assigned time and length: the subject is not too broad. 50.2
INFORMATION FOR A WORKING BIBLIOGRAPHY (for books) Library call number Name(s) of author(s), editor(s), translator(s), or others listed Title and subtitle Publication data: Place of publication Publisher s name Date of publication Other important data, such as edition or volume number 50.3
INFORMATION FOR A WORKING BIBLIOGRAPHY (for periodical articles) Name(s) of author(s) Title and subtitle of article Title of periodical Publication data: Volume number and issue number (if any) in which article appears Date of issue Page numbers on which article appears 50.4
INFORMATION FOR A WORKING BIBLIOGRAPHY (for electronic sources) Name(s) of author(s) Title and subtitle Publication data for books and articles Date of release, online posting, or latest revision Medium (online, CD-ROM, etc.) Format of online source (Web site, Web page, e-mail, etc.) Date you consulted the source Complete URL For source obtained through a subscription service Name of database, service, and electronic address of the service home page or search terms used to reach the source 50.5
INFORMATION FOR A WORKING BIBLIOGRAPHY (for other sources) Name(s) of author(s), creator(s), or others listed, such as a government department, recording artist, or photographer Title of the work Format, such as unpublished letter, live performance, or photograph Publication or production data: Publication title Publisher s or producer s name Date of publication, release, or production Identifying numbers (if any) 50.6
WAYS TO REFINE KEYWORDS Use AND or + to narrow the search. Includes only sources that use all given words Use NOT or to narrow the search. Excludes irrelevant words Use OR to broaden the search. Giving alternative keywords Use parentheses or quotation marks to form search phrases. Use NEAR to narrow the search. Requires the keywords to be close to each other Use wild cards to permit difference versions of the same word. Spell keywords correctly. 51.1
GUIDE TO RESEARCH SOURCES Reference works: helpful for summaries of topics and information for further research General encyclopedias Specialized encyclopedias, dictionaries, bibliographies Unabridged dictionaries and special dictionaries on language Biographical reference works Atlases and gazetteers Almanacs and yearbooks General books: literary works, nonfiction surveys, in-depth studies, and other materials, available for circulation Periodicals: magazines, journals, and newspapers, containing detailed and current information 51.2
RESEARCH SOURCES (continued) The Web: a network of computers providing access to libraries, publications, organizations, governments, and individuals Other online sources Electronic mail Discussion lists Web forums and newsgroups Web logs Synchronous communication Government publications: practical advice, raw data, reports, and other information Images: photographs, paintings, graphs, and other illustrations Your own sources: interviews, surveys, and other primary sources you create 51.3
WEB SEARCH ENGINES Directories that review sites BUBL link (bubl.ac.uk.link) Internet Public Library (www.ipl.org/div/subject) Internet Scout Project (scout.wisc.edu./archives) Librarians Index to the Internet (lii.org) The most advanced and efficient engines AlltheWeb (alltheweb.com) Google (www.google.com) Other engines AltaVista (www.altavista.com) Ask Jeeves (www.ask.com) Dogpile (www.dogpile.com) Excite (excite.com) Lycos (lycos.com) MetaCrawler (metacrawler.com) Yahoo! (yahoo.com) 51.2
QUESTIONS FOR EVALUATING SOURCES Relevance Does the source devote some attention to your subject? Is the source appropriately specialized for your needs? Is the source up to date enough for your subject? Reliability Where does the source come from? Is the author an expert in the field? What is the author s bias? Is the source fair and reasonable? Is the source well written? 52.1
QUESTIONS FOR EVALUATING WEB SITES What type of site are you viewing? Who is the author or sponsor? What is the purpose of the site? What does context tell you? What does presentation tell you? How worthwhile is the content? 52.2
QUESTIONS FOR EVALUATING WEB LOGS AND ONLINE DISCUSSIONS Who is the author? What is the author s purpose? What does the context reveal? How worthwhile is the content? How does the blog or message compare with other sources? 52.3
TESTS FOR DIRECT QUOTATIONS FROM SECONDARY SOURCES The author s original satisfies one of these requirements: The language is unusually bold or inventive. The quotation cannot be paraphrased without distortion or loss of meaning. The author s words are at issue in your interpretation. The quotation represents and emphasizes a body of opinion or the view of an important expert. The quotation emphatically reinforces your own idea. The quotation is a graph, diagram, or table. The quotation is as short as possible: It includes only material relevant to your point. It is edited to eliminate examples and other unneeded material. 52.4
VERBS FOR SIGNAL PHRASES Use verbs that convey information about source authors attitudes or approaches. Author is neutral Author infers or suggests Author argues Author is uneasy or disparaging comments analyzes claims belittles describes asks contends bemoans explains assesses defends complains illustrates concludes disagrees condemns notes finds holds deplores observes predicts insists deprecates points out proposes maintains derides records reveals laments relates shows Author agrees warns reports speculates admits says suggests agrees sees supposes concedes thinks concurs writes grants 52.5
CHECKLIST FOR AVOIDING PLAGIARISM Type of source Are you using your own independent material, common knowledge, or someone else s independent material? You must acknowledge someone else s material. Quotations Do all quotations exactly match their sources? Have you inserted quotation marks around quotations that are run into your text? Have you shown omissions with ellipsis marks and additions with brackets? Does every quotation have a source citation? Paraphrases and summaries Have you used your own words and sentence structure for every paraphrase and summary? If not, use quotation marks around the original author s words. Does every paraphrase and summary have a source citation? 53.1
CHECKLIST FOR AVOIDING PLAGIARISM (continued) The Web Have you obtained any necessary permission to use someone else s material on the Web? Source citations Have you acknowledged every use of someone else s material in the place where you use it? Does your list of works cited include all the sources you have used? 53.2
TIPS FOR DRAFTING A RESEARCH PAPER Reread the assignment to review your instructor s criteria. Write a quick two- or three-paragraph summary of what the paper will be about. Start with the section of the paper you feel most confident about. Work in chunks, one unit or principal idea at a time. Center each section on an idea of your own. Take great care in working with source material. Insert source citations into the draft as you quote, paraphrase, or summarize. 54.1
CHECKLIST FOR REVISING A RESEARCH PAPER Assignment How does the draft satisfy all of the criteria stated in your instructor s assignment? Thesis statement Does it describe your subject and your perspective? Structure Does borrowed material illuminate and support your own idea? Will the arrangement of ideas be clear to readers? Evidence Where might readers need more evidence in order to accept your idea? Where might the evidence seem weak or irrelevant? Reasonableness and clarity How reasonable will readers find your arguments? Where do you need to define terms or concepts that readers may not know or may dispute? 54.2