Notes and References

Notes and References 1 Theoretical sociology: the conditions of fragmentation and unity 1. Peter Winch, The Idea of a Social Science (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1958); Aaron Cicourel, Cognitive Sociology (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1972); Harold Garfinkel, Studies in Ethnomethodology (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1967). 2. Thomas S. Kuhn, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, 2nd edn (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1970). 3. For recent alternative attempts at classification, see Russell Keat and John Urry, Social Theory as Science (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1975); Ted Benton, Philosophical Foundations of the Three Sociologies (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1977); Gibson Burrell and Gareth Morgan, Sociological Paradigms and Organizational Analysis (London: Heinemann, 1979); A. Dawe, 'The Two Sociologies', British Journal of Sociology, 21 (1970) pp. 207-18; R. Robertson, 'Towards the Identification of the Major Axes of Sociological Analysis', in J. Rex (ed.), Approaches to Sociology (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1974). 4. Talcott Parsons, The Structure of Social Action (Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press, 1949). 2 Empiricism 1. General discussions of empiricism may be found in L. Kolakowski, Positivist Philosophy (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1972); G. Novack, Empiricism and its Evolution (New York: Pathfinder Press, 1969). 2. See A. Giddens, 'Positivism and its Critics', in T. Bottomore and R. Nisbet, A History of Sociological Analysis (London: Heinemann, 1979) pp. 237-86; Kolakowski, Positivist Philosophy; P. Achinstein and S. F. Barker, The Legacy of Logical Positivism (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1969); C. G. A. Bryant, 'Positivism Reconsidered', Sociological Review, 23 2 1975; R. Bernstein, Restructuring of Social and Political Theory (Oxford: Blackwell, 1976) pp.1-55.

230 Notes and References 3. Metaphysics may be viewed either as meaningless, as in Ayer's empiricism, or as meaningful but non-scientific as in Popper. See A. J. Ayer, Language, Truth and Logic (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1971); K. Popper, Conjectures and Refutations (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1963). 4. On these variations in empiricist explanation, see E. Nagel, The Structure of Science (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1961); C. G. Hempel, Aspects of Scientific Explanation (Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press, 1965); A. Ryan, The Philosophy of the Social Sciences (London: Macmillan, 1970); R. Keat and J. Urry, Social Theory as Science (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1975) pp. 9-22, 67-87; T. Benton, Philosophical Foundations of the Three Sociologies (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1977) pp. 46-77. 5. See Trent Schroyer, The Critique of Domination: Origins anddevelopmentofcriticaltheory (New York: Braziller, 1973). 6. This has led, in recent years, to a number of attempts to reconstruct the bases of sociological theorising: see A. W. Gouldner, The Coming Crisis of Western Sociology (London: Heinemann, 1971); Bernstein, Restructuring of Social and Political Theory; Keat and U rry, Social Theory as Science; Benton, Philosophical Foundations; and A. Giddens, New Rules of Sociological Method (London: Hutchinson, 1976), Central Problems in Social Theory (London: Macmillan, 1979) and A Contemporary Critique of Historical Materialism (London: Macmillan, 1981). 7. On these points see R. Bhaskar, A Realist Theory of Science (Leeds: Leeds Books, 1975) and Possibility of Naturalism (Brighton: Harvester, 1979). 8. On conventionalism and problems of theory-neutral observation languages, see Bernstein, Restructuring, pp. 4-7; Keat and Urry, Social Theory, pp. 46-65; Benton, Philosophical Foundations, pp. 73-6. 9. On Skinner, and problems of Behaviourism generally, see B. F. Skinner, Verbal Behaviour (London: Methuen, 1957) and About Behaviourism (London: Cape, 1974); N. Chomsky, Language and Mind (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1968); A. Koestler, Ghost in the Machine (London: Hutchinson, 1967); S. Mennell, Sociological Theory: Uses and Unities (Sunbury: Nelson, 1974) pp. 9-13. 10. That positivist explanations rely on their capacity to predict and control their subject-matter has been stressed by those writers in the traditions of critical theory: see B. Fay, Social Theory and Political Practice (London: Allen & Unwin, 1975); J. Habermas, Theory and Practice (London: Heinemann, 1974). 11. D. and J. Willer, Systematic Empiricism - A Critique of a Pseudo Science (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall, 1973); C. Wright Mills, The Sociological Imagination (Oxford University Press, 195 9) pp. 60-86, and 'The Ideology of Social Pathologists', in Wright Mills, Power, Politics and People (Oxford University Press, 1967) pp. 525-52.

Notes and References 231 12. R. Blauner, Alienation and Freedom (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1964); J. E. T. Eldridge, Sociology and Industrial Life (London: Nelson, 1971) pp.139-96. 13. D. and J. Willer, Systematic Empiricism, pp. 34-43. 14. J. Irvine, I. Miles and J. Evans, Demystifying Social Statistics (London: Pluto Press, 1979)pp.87-110. 15. D. and J. Willer, Systematic Empiricism, pp. 63-72. 16. On hypothetico-deductivism see P. Cohen, Modern Social Theory (London: Heinemann, 1968) pp. 1-17; Keat and Urry, Social Theory, pp. 9-13; M. Lessnoff, The Structure of Social Science (London: Allen & Unwin, 1973) pp.12-31, 75-109. 17. See W. Pope, Durkheim's Suicide: a Classic Analysed (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1976). 18. G. Homans, TheHumanGroup(NewYork:HarcourtBrace, 1950);1. O'Neill, Modes of Individualism and Collectivism (London: Heinemann, 1973). 19. T. Parsons, The Structure of Social Action, 2 vols (Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press, 1937). For recent sympathetic critiques of Parsons, see: S. Savage, The Theories of T. Parsons: The Social Relations of Action (London: Macmillan, 1981); K. Menzies, T. Parsons and the Social Image of Man (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1977); G. Rocher, T. Parsons and American Sociology (London: Nelson, 1974); z. Bauman, Hermeneutics and Social Science (London: Hutchinson, 1978) pp.131-47; H. Bershady, Ideology and Social Knowledge (Oxford: Blackwell, 1973). 20. Structure of Social Action, Preface, pp. v-ix. 21. Bershady, Ideology and Social Knowledge; Savage, Theories of T. Parsons; Bauman, Hermeneutics. 22. T. Parsons, Toward a General Theory of Action (Cambridge, Mass., 1962) and Working Papers in the Theory of Action (Glenco, Ill.: Free Press, 1953); Rocher, T. Parsons, pp. 28-51. 23. This point provides the central theme ofk. Menzies, T. Parsons and the Social Image of Man (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1977). See also J. Turner, The Structure of Sociological Theory (Dorsey, Homewood, Ill.: 1974). 24. T. Parsons, The Evolution of Societies (edited version of Societies, 1966) and The System of Modern Societies (1971) (Englewood Cliffs, NJ.: Prentice Hall, 1977); T. Parsons, 'Evolutionary Universals in Society', American Sociological Review, 29 (June) pp. 339-57. 25. Societies, Evolutionary and Comparative Perspectives (Englewood Cliffs, NJ.: Prentice Hall, 1966) p. 113. 26. See Toby, introduction to The Evolution of Societies, pp. 20-22. 27. S. Savage, The Theories of Talcott Parsons: The Social Relations of Action (London: Macmillan, 1981) pp.105-27; also, A. Giddens, 'Power in the Recent Writings of Talcott Parsons', in Giddens, Studies in Social and Political Theory (London: Hutchinson, 1977). 28. Parsons, Evolutionary Universals.

232 Notes and References 29. N. Smelser, Social Change and the Industrial Revolution (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1959). 30. Parsons, Evolutionary Universals. 31. P. Cohen, Modern Social Theory {London: Heinemann, 1968) pp.47-66; C. G. Hempel, 'The Logic of Functional Analysis', in L. Gross, Symposium on Sociological Theory (New York: Harper & Row, 1959) pp. 271-302; E. Nagel, 'A Formalization of Functionalism', in Logic Without Metaphysics {Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press, 1956); S. Mennell, Sociological Theory: Uses and Unities (London: Nelson, 1974) pp.141-65. 32. R. K. Merton, On Theoretical Sociology {London: Collier-Macmillan, 1967) pp. 39-73. 33. Ibid, p. 47. 34. Ibid, pp. 149-50. 35. Ibid, pp. 82-4. 36. Ibid, p. 106. 37. K. Davis, 'The Myth of Functional Analysis as a Special Method in Sociology and Anthropology', in N. J. Demerath and R. A. Petersen, System, Change and Conflict {Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press, 1967) pp. 379-402. 38. Cohen, Modern Social Theory, pp. 47-66. C. G. Hempel, 'The Logic of Functional Analysis' in Llewellyn Gross op. cit., pp. 271-307. 39. Parsons, The Structure of Social Action, pp. 728-37. 40. R. Dahrendorf, Class and Class Conflict in Industrial Society {London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1959); J. A. Banks, Marxist Sociology in Action {London: Faber, 1970). 41. T. S. Kuhn, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (Chicago University Press, 1970); K. Popper, The Logic of Scientific Discovery {London: Basic Books, 1959); I. Lakatos and A. Musgrave, Criticism and the Growth of Knowledge {Cambridge University Press, 1970); A. Giddens, New Rules of Sociological Method {London: Hutchinson, 1976). 3 Subjectivism 1. Z. Bauman, Hermeneutics and Social Science {London: Hutchinson, 1978) pp. 23-47; A. Giddens, New Rules of Sociological Method {London: Hutchinson, 1976) pp. 71-92. 2. E. Husser!, The Crisis of the European Sciences and Transcendental Phenomenology (Evanston, Ill.: Northwestern University Press, 1970). 3. Cited in T. Parsons, Structure of Social Action {Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press, 1968) p. 589. 4. M. Weber, Methodology of the Social Sciences {Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press, 1949) pp. 72-112; M. Weber, 'Science as a Vocation', in H. Gerth and C. W. Mills, From Max Weber: Essays in Sociology {London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1970) pp.142-56.

Notes and References 233 5. Weber, Methodology of the Social Sciences, p. 84. 6. Ibid, pp. 171-6. 7. Ibid, p. 97. 8. M. Weber, Economy and Society (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1978) pp. 22-31; A. Giddens, Positivism and Sociology (London: Heinemann, 1974) pp. 23-31. 9. Weber, Economy and Society, pp. 24-6. 10. Ibid, pp. 8-22. 11. For example, T. Abel, 'The Operation Called Verstehen', American Journal of Sociology, 59, pp. 211-18. 12. Weber, Economy and Society, pp. 468-500. 13. Ibid, pp. 241-54, 1111-56. 14. Ibid, pp. 302-7, 926-39. 15. Ibid, pp. 928-9. 16. Max Weber, The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism (London: Allen & Unwin, 1968) pp. 24-8. 17. A. Schutz, Phenomenology of the Social World (London: Heinemann, 1972) pp. 3-20, 38-53, 57-63. 18. Ibid,pp.63-71. 19. Ibid, p. 166. 20. Ibid. 21. Ibid, pp. 31-8. 22. Giddens, New Rules of Sociological Method, pp. 23-70. 23. E. Bittner, 'The Concept of Organization', in G. Salaman and K. Thompson, People and Organizations (London: Longmans, Open University, 1973) pp. 264-76. 24. J. C. McKinney and E. A. Tiryakian, Theoretical Sociology: Perspectives and Developments (New York: Appleton Century Crofts, 1970) pp. 337-66. 25. J. Douglas, The Social Meanings of Suicide (Princeton University Press, 1967). 26. A. Cicourel, Method and Measurement in Sociology (London: Collier Macmillan, 1964). 27. H. Garfinkel, Studies in Ethnomethodology (Englewood Cliffs, NJ.: Prentice-Hall, 1967). 28. A. Cicourel, Cognitive Sociology (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1978). 29. Garfinkel, Studies, pp. 35-76. 30. J. Douglas, Understanding Everyday Life (Chicago: Aldine, 1970) pp.80-103. 31. B. Gidlow, 'Ethnomethodology: A New Name for Old Practices', British Journal of Sociology, 1972, 23, pp. 395-405. 32. H. Blumer, 'Society as Symbolic lnteractionism', in A. Rose, Human Behaviour and Social Process (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1962) pp.179-92. 33. P. Attewell, 'Ethnomethodology since Garfinkel', Theory and Society {1974) pp. 179-210. 34. G. H. Mead, Mind Self and Society {Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1962).

234 Notes and References 35. N. K. Denzin, 'Symbolic Interactionism and Ethnomethodology', American Sociological Review (1969) pp. 922-34. 36. Douglas, Social Meanings of Suicide. 3 7. McKinney and Tiryakian, Theoretical Sociology, pp. 3 3 7-7 6. 38. Cicourel, Cognitive Sociology. 39. A. Blum, Theorising (London: Heinemann, 1972); P. McHugh, On the Beginning of Social Enquiry (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1974). 4 Substantialism 1. H. B. Acton, The Illusion of the Epoch (London, 1955) p. 271. 2. While this systematisation of the discussion to follow is presented as a series of stages having a chronological basis in Marx's work, we would not wish to suggest that Marx's development was as neatly progressive and clear-cut as the concept of stage suggests. He was constantly backtracking and redefining this position as well as failing to recognise the full implications of previously established solutions. The stages, therefore, should be taken as general shifts in emphasis associated with major problems confronted. 3. That this clear expression of a forthright materialism comes from Marx's later work is an indication of the problems facing any attempt at periodization. See Capital, vol.1 (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1976) p.102. 4. This translation comes from Wal Suchting, 'Marx's Theses on Feuerbach: Notes Towards a Commentary (with a New Translation)', in John Mepham and David-Hillel Ruben (eds), Issues in Marxist Philosophy (Brighton: Harvester Press, 1979) pp. 5-34. For alternative translations see T. B. Bottomore and M. Rubel, Karl Marx: Selected Writings in Sociology and Social philosophy (London: Watts & Co., 1956); Karl Marx, Early Writings (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1975) pp.421-3. 5. Suchting, 'Marx's Thesis', pp. 7-8. 6. Ibid, p. 12. 7. George Lukacs, History and Class Consciousness (London: Merlin Press, 1971). 8. Karl Korsch, Marxism and Philosophy (London: New Left Books, 1970). 9. As well as Horkheimer the Frankfurt School included Theodore Adorno, Herbert Marcuse, Franz Neumann, Erich Fromm, and Jurgen Habermas. See David Held, Introduction to Critical Theory: Horkheimer to Habermas (London: Hutchinson, 1980). 10. Edmund Husser!, The Crisis of the European Sciences and Transcendental Phenomenology (Evanston, Ill.: Northwestern University Press, 1970). 11. Of major importance were the 'Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts': see Marx, Early Writings, pp. 279-400. 12. For the phenomenological Marxism of Enzo Paci, see B. Smart, Sociology, Phenomenology and Marxian Analysis (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1976). For the existentialists Sartre and Merleau-

Notes and References 235 Ponty, see James Miller, History and Human Existence (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1979); and Mark Poster, Existential Marxism in Post-War France (Princeton: University Press, 1975). For critical Theory, see Held, Introduction to Critical Theory. 13. Enzo Paci, The Function of the Sciences and the Meaning of Man (Evanston, Ill.: Northwestern University Press, 1972). 14. For a discussion of Marx's usage here, see John McMurtry, The Structure of Marx's World View (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1978) ch. 7, 'Economic Determinism'. 15. L. Easton and K. Guddat (eds), Writing of the Young Marx on Philosophy and Society (New York: Doubleday, 1967) p. 350. 16. Karl Marx, Capital, vol. 1 (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1976) p.176. 17. Ibid. 18. See Nicos Poulantzas, Political Power and Social Classes (London: New Left Books, 1973) pp. 13-15. 19. See, for example, Percy Cohen, Modern Social Theory (London: Heinemann, 1968): 'I am well aware that the views of the early, "romantic" Marx were rather different. But I hold to the opinion expressed by Raymond Aron in his unrivalled discussion of Marx that there is little in the early Marx of value to sociology as such.' p. 79. 20. Marx, Early Writings, p. 355. 21. Ibid. 22. Karl Marx, Poverty of Philosophy (Moscow: Progress, 1976). 23. Karl Marx, Grundrisse (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1973) p. 101. 24. For example, Karl Popper, The Poverty of Historicism (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1965). 25. See ch. 1 of Martin Jay's, The Dialectical Imagination: A History of the Frankfurt School and the Institute of Social Research 1923-50 (London: Heinemann, 1973). 26. Marx, Early Writings, p. 356. 27. Ibid, p. 209. 28. Marx, Capital, vol. III, p. 817. 29. Marx, Grundrisse. 30. The structuralist linguistics of Saussure and Jakpbson have been influential in the work of Marxist structuralists such as Louis Althusser and Nicos Poulantzas. 31. See Colin Sumner, Reading Ideologies (London: Academic Press, 1979). 32. Letter to Engels, 27 June 1967, Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, Selected Correspondence (Moscow: Progress, 1975). 33. Marx, Capital, p. 75. 5 Rationalism 1. See, for example, A. Giddens, The New Rules of Sociological Method (London: Hutchinson, 1976). 2. T. Parsons, The Structure of Social Action (Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press, 1949) pp. 304-5.

236 Notes and References 3. See particularly, S. Lukes, E. Durkheim: His Life and Work (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1975); and P. Hirst, Durkheim, C. Bernard and Epistemology (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1975). 4. E. Durkheim, The Division of Labour in Society (Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press, 1964) p. 32: 'We do not wish to extract ethics from science, but to establish a science of ethics.' 5. E. Durkheim, The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life (London: Allen & Unwin, 1971) p. 19: 'The rationalism which isimminentin the sociological theory of knowledge is thus midway between the classical empiricism and apriorism.' 6. Parsons, The Structure of Social Action, p. 357. 7. E. Durkheim, The Rules of Sociological Method (Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press, 1966) pp. 13, 35. 8. Parsons, The Structure of Social Action. 9. Durkheim's recurrent concern with 'the essence of reality' (e.g. The Rules of Sociological Method, p. 42), means that Popper would undoubtedly have made this accusation had he paid attention to Durkheim's work. See, K. Popper, The Poverty of Historicism (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1965). 10. J. Douglas, The Social Meaning of Suicide (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1967). 11. Parsons, The Structure of Social Action, p. 444. 12. Durkheim, The Division of Labour in Society, book two, Chs 1 and 2. 13. Ibid, pp. 276-7. 14. Ibid, p. 129. 15. Parsons, The Structure of Social Action. 16. Durkheim, The Division of Labour in Society, p. 257. 17. E. Durkheim, Suicide: A Study in Sociology (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1952) p. 302. 18. Durkheim, The Rules of Sociological Method, p. 29. 19. Ibid, p. 103. 20. Durkheim, The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life, p. 228. 21. Ibid, p. 231 22. Ibid, p. 270. 23. Ibid, p. 365. 24. See, for example, recent texts such as Keat and Urry, Social Theory as Science, and T. Benton, Philosophical Foundations of the Three Sociologies, which ignore this tradition of theorising. 25. Durkheim, The Rules of Sociological Method, p. 31. 26. For a sympathetic statement of Husserl's methodological position, see especially, M. Merleau-Ponty, 'Phenomenology and the Sciences of Man', in M. Merleau-Ponty, The Primacy of Perception (Northwestern University Press, 1964). 27. Durkheim, The Rules of Sociological Method, p. 15. 28. Ibid, p. 35. 29. Ibid, p. 125. 30. Ibid, p. 32. 31. K. Popper, Conjectures and Refutations (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1967).

Notes and References 237 32. E. Durkheim and M. Mauss, Primitive Classifications (New York: Harper & Row, 1964). 33. Durkheim, The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life, p. 264. 34. Douglas, The Social Meanings of Suicide. 35. Durkheim, The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life, p. 76. 36. Ibid, p. 8. 37. Ibid, p. 5. 38. See Parsons, The Structure of Social Action, p. 444. 39. See particularly, Popper, Conjectures and Refutations, for an elaboration of this position. 40. Durkheim, The Division of Labour in Society, p. 204. 41. For a modern statement of 'critical theory', see J. Habermas, Towards a Rational Society (London: Heinemann, 1971). 42. A. Meinong, 'The Theory of Objects', in R. M. Chisholm, Realism and The Background of Phenomenology (Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press, 1960). 43. E. Durkheim, 'Value Judgements and Judgements of Reality', in his Sociology and Philosophy (London: Cohen & West, 1968) p. 95. 44. C. Jung, Psychology and Religion (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1958). 45. A. Hardy, The Living Stream (London: Collins, 1965), and The Biology of God (London: Cass, 1975). 46. C. Jung and W. Pauli, 'Naturerklarung und Psyche', in Studien a us dem C. G. Jung-Institut, IV (Zurich, 1952). 47. C. R. Badcock, Levi-Strauss: Structuralism and Sociological Theory (London: Hutchinson, 1975) p. 28. 6 The dialectic of theoretical practice 1. The term 'convention' comes from the 'conventionalism' used by R. Keat and J. Urry in Social Theory as Science (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1975). 2. The rule 'anything goes' is taken from P. Feyerabend, Science in a Free Society (London: New Left Books, 1978). 3. See particularly, H. Marcuse, Reason and Revolution: Hegel and the Rise of Social Theory (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1955), An Essay on Liberation (Boston: Beacon, 1969), and Counte"evolution and Revolt (Boston: Beacon, 1972). 4. K. Popper, Conjectures and Refutations (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1967). 5. Ibid, p. 28. 6. Apparently, when two sub-atomic particles collide, the net result of their fusion is sometimes more, and sometimes less, than their combined masses: F. Capra, The Tap of Physics (London: Wildewood, 1975). 7. Popper, Conjectures, p. 28. 8. A. Giddens, New Rules of Sociological Method (London: Hutchinson, 1976) pp. 140-1

238 Notes and References 9. T. Kuhn, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, 2nd edn (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1970). 10. I. Lakatos, 'Proofs and Refutations', British Journal for the Philosophy of Science, vol. 14 (1963) pp.1-25, 120-39,221-45,296-342. 11. Karl Popper, Objective Knowledge (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1972). 12. This has been a major thrust in the criticism of Althusser. See A. Glucksmann, 'A Ventriloquist Structuralism', New Left Review, March-April1972, pp. 68-92. 13. See B. Smart, Sociology, Phenomenology and Marxian Analysis (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1976). 14. George Herbert Mead, Mind, Self and Society (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1934). 15. The most influential source for such conventionalist arguments is Karl Mannheim, Ideology and Utopia (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1972), who generalises this structural warranty to 'free floating' intellectuals. 16. J. Douglas, Understanding Everyday Life (London: Aldine, 1970). 17. Giddens, New Rules of Sociological Method. 18. Ibid, p. 14. 19. Ibid, p. 15. 20. Ibid, p. 79. 21. Ibid, p. 131. 22. Ibid, p. 92. 23. Ibid, pp. 85-6. 24. Ibid, p. 53. 25. Ibid, p. 121. 26. Ibid, p. 147. 27. Ibid, p. 135. 28. Ibid, pp. 139-40. 29. Ibid, pp. 85-6. 30. Ibid, p. 158. 31. Ibid, p. 144. 32. Ibid, p. 67. 33. Jurgen Habermas, Towards a Rational Society (London: Heinemann, 1971). 34. A. Giddens, 'Habermas' Social and Political Theory', in Profiles and Critiques in Social Theory (London: Macmillan, 1983) pp. 82-99. 35. In A. Giddens, Studies in Social and Political Theory (London: Hutchinson, 1977). 36. M. Hesse, The Structure of Scientific Inference!London, Macmillan, 1974). 37. Giddens, Studies in Social and Political Theory. 38. R. Bhaskar, The Possibility of Naturalism (Brighton: Harvester Press, 1979). 39. Giddens, New Rules of Sociological Method, p. 14. 40. Bhaskar, Possibility, p. 14. 41. Ibid, i, 20. 42. Ibid, p. 35. 43. Ibid, pp. 48-9.

Notes and References 239 44. P. Berger and T. Luckmann, The Social Construction of Reality (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1966). 45. Bhaskar, Possibility, pp. 41-2. 46. Ibid, p. 81. 47. Ibid, pp. 86-7. 48. lbid,p.47. 49. Ibid,pp.45-6. 50. SeeP. Davies, God and the New Physics (London: Dent, 1983). 51. M. Harris, Cannibals and Kings (London: Collins, 1977). 52. Bhaskar, Possibility, p. 44. 53. See particularly the introductory chapters to J. W. Kalat's Biological Psychology (London: Wadsworth, 1980) for a forceful statement of this view. 54. M. Harris, Cannibals and Kings, p. 154.

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Name Index Acton,H.B. 120 Althusser, L. 139 Attewell, P. 106 Austin, R. 205 Bacon,F. 165 Banks,J.A. 73 Bentham,J. 152 Berger, P. 217 Bhaskar, R. 213-25 Bittner, E. 101 Blum,A. 111-12 Blumer, H. 106 Cicourel, A. D. 5, 102, 111, 112 Comte,A. 174 Dahrendorf, R. 73 Davies, P. 222 Davis, K. 71-2 Dewey,J. 197 Douglas,J. 102,109-10,112, 199 Durkheim,E. 9-12,102, 147-83 Feuerbach,L. 121,124-34 Freud, S. 117 Gadamer, H. 205 Garfinkel, H. 5, 103-4, 105, 106 Giddens, A. 205-13 Goffman, I. 106 247 Habermas,J. 205,210-11 Hardy, A. 179 Harris,M. 222-3 Hegel, W. 121, 122-5, 127, 135, 145,157,173,178 Hempel, C. 72 Hesse, M. 211 Homans,G. 45 Horkheimer, M. 127 Hume,J. 165 Husser!, E. 77-9,127,128,163, 205 Jung,C. 179 Korsch, K. 127 Kuhn, T.S. 5, 74,194-5 Lakatos, I. 194 Levi-Strauss, C. 180-3 Lukacs, G. 127 Luckmann, T. 217 McHugh,P. 111-12 Marx,K. 16,26,114-46,172, 186,195-7 Marcuse, H. 189 Mead,G.H. 106,156,197 Merleau-Ponty,M. 205 Merton, R. K. 65-71 Mill,J. 152 Mill,J.S.37-8, 152

248 Namelndex Paci,E. 128-9 Parsons, T. 45-66, 149, 152, 155, 157,158,159,160,171,173, 179-81,183 Plato 157,160 Pollner, M. 105, 106, 111 Popper, K. 72, 74, 190-5 Proudhon,P.J. 135 Ricardo, D. 120, 141 Ricoeur,P. 205 Sacks, H. 102, 111 Schutz, A. 80,94-100, 105 Skinner,B.F. 33-4 Smith, A. 120, 141 Socrates 171 Spencer, H. 47,152,174 Weber,M. 7-9,79-96,99,165, 187 Whitehead, A. N. 78, 157 Willer, D. andj. 37,39 Winch,P. 5,205 Wittgenstein, L. 205 Wright Mills, C. 34-6, 38

Subject Index abstraction 140-5 accounts, accounting 104-5 action, social 45-60,75-7, 86-90,94-7, 103-8,206-8 alienation 123-4, 138 Althusserianism 134, 139, 141 atomism 217 behaviourism 32-4, 45 capitalism 142-5 charisma 91-2 class, social 92-3 collectivism 217 commensurability 184-5 contradiction 201-2 conventionalism 198-200 critical theory 138, 144, 189 cybemetichierarchy 59-60 deductivism, hypotheticodeductivism 30, 40-2, 168, 190-5 dialectics 217-18 Division of Labour in Society 15 7-8 economic determinism 130-4 Elementary Forms of the Religious Life, The 169-73 emancipation 137-9, 218-19 empiricism 19-20,29-74, 185, 190-5 empiricism, abstracted 34-40 empiricism, systematic 34-40 ethnomethodology 100-12 evolution 61-4 evolutionary universals 62-5 exchangetheory 45 experiment 40,214-16 falsification 191-4 Frankfurt School 178 functional prerequisites 55-6 idealism 14-15,48-50, 122-3, 150-1, 156-8, 169-73 ideal type 84-6,98-9 ideology 139-45, 196-7 ideology and science 196-7, 219-20 indexicality 104-5 induction 30,163-7 intentionality 77-9,99-100, 205-6 interests 207-11 logic 21,24,26-7,149-52, 161-9,185-7,200-2 Marxism 2-3, 126-9, 134, 139, 141,189,205,210-11 materialism 13-14,30-1,51-3, 59-60,114-17,122,213-24 materialism, historical 124-34 methodological individualism 17-18 249

250 Subject Index middle range theory 6 7-8 naturalism 32-3, 134-9,213-19 nominalism 15-16,76-7, 152-4, 159-61, 165-6, 170-1 paradigms 194 pathology,social 172-3 pattern variables 54-5 phenomenology 77-9,98-100, 126-9 po~itivism 32-3,47-8,78 practice 126-30, 195-7,218-19 projects, theoretical 22-8, 118-21 rationalism 21,147-83,200-2 realism 16-19,115-17,155, 211-13 realism, analytical 72-3 realism, transcendental 214-25 religion 6-13 science, ideology 196-7, 219-20 science, natural and social 135-8 solidarity, mechanical and organic 172-3 statistics 34-9, 102-3 strategies, theoretical 22-5, 120-1, 188-9,202-5,225-7 structural-functionalism 3-4, 53-7,65-71,180-1 structuralism 181-3 Structure of Social Action 16, 46-53 subjectivism 20-1,75-113, 186, 197-200,208-11 substantialism 21, 114-46, 185-6,195-7 suicide 109-10,199 Suicide: A Study in Sociology 153-4 symbolic interactionism 105, 106-8, 156, 197 synthesis 202-5 tensions, fields of, 22-6, 117-19 Theses on Feuerbach 124-7 ultimate values 181 utilitarianism 46-7, 152-3, 158, 161 validation, problems of 118, 184-227 valueorientation 82-3 Verstehen 81,94-6