Headings: Caldecott Medal. Picture books -- History & criticism. Picture books for children

Stephen R Ashley. Body Image Depictions in Caldecott Award Winning Picture Books: A Content Analysis. A Master s Paper for the M.S. in L.S degree. April, 2013. 31 pages. Advisor: Sandra Hughes-Hassell This study seeks to examine the body sizes of the main characters in Caldecott award winning picture books from 1938 until 2013. 93 characters were examined in order to see whether or not the bodies depicted were as unrealistic as those presented in other popular media. The results found that there were a disproportionate number of underweight characters, though, when analyzed over time, that number is decreasing. Headings: Caldecott Medal Picture books -- History & criticism Picture books for children

BODY IMAGE DEPICTIONS IN CALDECOTT AWARD WINNING PICTURE BOOKS: A CONTENT ANALYSIS by Stephen R. Ashley A Master s paper submitted to the faculty of the School of Information and Library Science of the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Library Science. Chapel Hill, North Carolina April 2013 Approved by Sandra Hughes-Hassell

1 Introduction I am on a diet. This used to be a phrase only commonly heard from adults. But now it s not uncommon to hear these words from elementary school students. In a world of ever-expanding waistlines, people constantly worry about their waistlines and the way they look, and that attitude has trickled down to young children. But why does everyone, even children, want to be so thin? Many studies agree that the media plays an important role. The bodies presented on television, advertisements, films, and in magazines are impossibly small and impossible to recreate. As these unrealistic body images take over, people become distraught that they cannot become that skinny or look like their favorite celebrities. Young children are often exposed to a large number of picture books, so it may be possible that the images presented in these books are just as unrealistic and damaging as the ones presented on television. This study will examine the bodies of the characters in a popular set of picture books the winners of the Randolph Caldecott medal. It seeks to discover whether or not the body images presented in these books are in alignment with bodies in the present day United States or if they are as unhealthy and unrealistic as the bodies presented in the popular media. This study will then go deeper into the findings and see if there any particular areas of strength or weakness based on the age, ethnicity, or sex of the characters or age of the book

2 Background Literature Children s Body Image and Perceptions Body image can be defined as a multidimensional concept that includes the thoughts, feelings, and attitudes related to one s own body (Thompson, 1999). There are a lot of factors that can influence someone s body size, such as the cost of food and the different types available or the opportunities the individual has to engage in physical fitness activities, but unless someone receives what they consider an ideal body type through genetics, there is likely to be a large disparity between the actual body size and the desired body type (Jung & Peterson, 2007). Children have their own issues related to body image. Eating disorders are affecting children of younger ages than in previous decades (Cave, 2009). Children as young as five years old develop body image stereotypes about other children (Hendy et al., 2001). One study (Leduc et al., 2012) found that one out of two elementary school aged children was unhappy with their body. Another study (Collins, 1991) found that 42% of girls between six and seven years old preferred thinner figures than their own body sizes. Children tend to pick up disordered body images from their parents based on what they talk about and how they behave in front of the children (Field et al., 2001). An immoderate parental occupation with the child s weight has also been associated with diminished positive body image and the potential development of disordered eating (Cave, 2009). Children also tend to rely on their peers to develop attitudes and behaviors. Children tend to assign negative terms to people with larger bodies (Hendy et al., 2001).

3 Peer pressure from children to conform to a specific look is correlated with diminished positive body image and the potential development of disordered eating (Cave, 2009). Most research done into children, body image, and disordered eating is done using young girls because it is commonly seen as a female problem (Moriarty and Harrison, 2008). However, boys face the possibility of body image disturbance as well (Striegel- Moore, 2001). One study (Robinson, et al.) found that 35% of girls and 26% of boys wanted to lose weight. Another study (McCreary and Sasse, 2000) found that boys who indicated they wanted to gain muscle were far more likely to report higher levels of body image dissatisfaction. There are differences in the manifestations of body image disturbance and disordered eating in boys and girls (i.e. girls typically want to be thinner and boys want to be more muscular), but one study that analyzed preschool children (Hendy et al., 2001) found that there was no difference in their ideal body images. Children s Body Image and the Media The average Body Mass Index (BMI) in the United States is 27.82 (Where are you, 2012). BMI is a commonly used measure to determine whether someone is underweight, normal, overweight, or obese. It is determined by dividing the weight in kilograms by the square of the height in meters (BMI classification, 2013). Classification BMI Underweight Less than 18.5 Normal 18.5-24.9 Overweight 25-29.9 Obese 30< Table 1, BMI classification

4 In the United States as of 2010, 35.9% of adults are obese and 33.3% are overweight. 18.4% of adolescents ages 12-19 are obese, 18%, children ages 6-11, and 12.1%, children ages 2-5 (Obesity and Overweight, 2013). Bodies in the United States are getting larger, but children are being heavily exposed to media that presents a reality full of underweight people (Brownell, 1991). The media tends to create social norms that are acceptable and preferable in American culture, and they tend to become the standard by which individuals measure themselves. In addition to person, children are likely to compare their own bodies to models and celebrities (Jones, 2001). Preadolescents and adolescents tend to be the most vulnerable to these skewed images (Jung and Peterson, 2007). Images presented in the media are consistently found to rely on ideals and stereotype. They often undermine healthy behaviors and feelings, particularly among children (Jung and Peterson, 2007). 65.5% of boys and 63.2% of girls reported watching television every day (Jung and Peterson, 2007). However, children develop many unhealthy ideas and see unhealthy images from television exposure. In female viewers, one study (Harrison and Cantor, 1997) found a correlation between amount of television watched and body dissatisfaction. Another study (Fouts and Burggraf, 1999) found that underweight females were overrepresented in situation comedies. More than larger characters, these underweight characters received significantly positive verbal feedback from male characters. Characters who were on diets punished themselves verbally more often. Television exposure, after controlling for age, perceived body size, selective exposure to ideal-body television, and baseline disordered eating, significantly predicted disordered eating one year later for girls (Moriarty and Harrison, 2008).

5 Magazines also often encourage negative body image. One study (Katzmarzyk and Davis, 2001) looked at the centerfolds of Playboy magazine from 197-1998 and determined that 70% of the centerfold models were, based on their BMI and waist-to-hip circumference ratio, underweight. Though Playboy is obviously not a magazine for young readers, it continues to prove that the overall images presented by the media do not represent reality. Increased frequency of magazine reading presents a strong association with weight control behaviors and binge eating (Katzmarzyk and Davis, 2001). Another study (Field et al., 1999) found that 47% of young girls wanted to lose weight because of pictures in magazines. Race and Body Image Issues of disordered eating and diminished positive body image are frequently thought of as problems for middle to upper class white communities, so less research has been done on those issues in minority communities. However, various forms of disordered eating appear in every minority group to some degree (Moriarty and Harrison, 2008). Eating concerns are beginning to be recognized as something that affects all ethnic and racial groups (Edwards George and Franko, 2009). There are some differences between the different groups. Some attribute these differences to culture, but culture is a nuanced and difficult to understand variable (Edwards George and Franko, 2009). Some studies suggest that black females accept and even prefer larger body types, though results of these studies are inconsistent (Flynn and Fitzgibbon, 1998). Black and Latina girls reported higher concerns of being overweight (Robinson et al., 2001). Studies of Latino/a children have also found that they have similar levels of body dissatisfaction

6 as white children (Edwards George and Franko, 2009). Binge eating is particularly prevalent in young black males (Johnson et al., 2002). Results from studying Asian children s attitudes tend to be mixed (Edwards George and Franko, 2009). The Problem A large and diverse group of children is affected by body image disturbance. A lot of research has been done on the various media to which they are exposed and they degree to which they affect the development of positive or disturbed body image, but books other than magazines are largely absent from this research. Children are surrounded by books at school every day, most of which have pictures depicting other people. This study seeks to discover whether or not the images in a selection of titles representing the picture book equivalent of popular media present a realistic representation of human bodies in the United States today or if the images are as unrealistic and damaging as other media.

7 Methodology This content analysis seeks to analyze the types of bodies that appear in Caldecott winning books based on a modified version of Stunkard s Figure Rating Scale in order to determine whether, as a whole, the human body sizes of the main characters of the books were comparable in makeup to the body sizes of Americans or if they were presenting an unrealistic image on the same level as many other forms of popular media. Sample Selection The Randolph Caldecott medal is one of the most prestigious awards given to picture books in the United States. Since 1938, the Association for Library Service to Children, which is a division of the American Library Association, has awarded the medal each year to one book. According to their website: The Caldecott Medal shall be awarded to the artist of the most distinguished American Picture Book for Children published in the United States during the preceding year. The award shall go to the artist, who must be a citizen or resident of the United States, whether or not he be the author of the text. Members of the Newbery Medal Committee will serve as judges. (Randolph Caldecott, 2013) Caldecott Award winning books can be considered the popular media of the book world, constantly in use and topping book lists. They are as comparably ubiquitous as any popular television show or film from which a child may receive messages about body image. While it is impossible to consider every single children s picture book, the Caldecott winners serve as an acceptable cross section of widely read and recommended titles. However, not all 76 Caldecott winning titles were used in this study. Books were eliminated if they fell into one of the following three categories:

8 1) Books that did not have a main character were excluded. For example, 2001 s winner So You Want to be President?, written by Judith St. George and illustrated by David Small, contains a collection of facts about various former United States Presidents and does not present a narrative with clear main characters. 2) Books with no human main characters were excluded. For example, 1970 s winner Sylvester and the Magic Pebble, written and illustrated by William Steig, presents several main characters in the form of Sylvester and his family. However, because they are donkeys, their bodies are not comparable to actual humans. 3) Books with illustrations that were drawn in a stylistic manner that made them too difficult to compare to real human bodies were not considered. For example, 1975 s winner Arrow to the Sun, written and illustrated by Gerald McDermott is drawn with a strong Pueblo Indian style that makes the characteristics of the bodies difficult to compare to real humans. Year Title Author Illustrator 1938 Animals of the Bible Helen Dean Fish Dorothy P. Lathrop 1943 The Little House Virginia Lee Burton Virginia Lee Burtin 1944 Many Moons James Thurber Louis Slobodkin 1946 The Rooster Crows Maud and Miska Petersham Maud and Miska Petersham 1947 The Little Island Golden MacDonald Leonard Wiesgard 1949 The Big Snow Berta and Elmer Hader Berta and Elmer Hader 1956 Frog Went A-Courtin' John Langstaff Feodor Rojankovsky 1957 A Tree is Nice Janice May Udry Marc Simont

9 1959 Chanticleer and the Fox Geoffrey Chaucer Barbara Cooney Baboushka and the 1961 Three Kings Ruth Robbins Nicolas Sidjakov 1966 Always Room for One More Sorche Nic Leodhas Nonny Hogrogian 1968 Drummer Hoff Barbara Emberley Ed Emberley Sylvester and the Magic 1970 Pebble William Steig William Steig 1975 Arrow to the Sun Gerald McDerott Gerald McDermott Why Mosquitoes Buzz 1976 in People's Ears Verna Aardema Leo and Diane Dillon 1977 Ashanti to Zulu Margaret Musgrove Leo and Diane Dillon 1978 Noah's Ark Peter Spier Peter Spier The Girl Who Loved 1979 Wild Horses Paul Goble Paul Goble 1981 Fables Arnold Lobel Arnold Lobel 1983 Shadow Blaise Cendars Marcia Brown 1990 Lon Po Po Ed Young Ed Young 1992 Tuesday David Wiesner David Wiesner 1997 Golem David Wisniewski David Wisniewski So You Want to Be 2001 President? Judith St. George David Small 2002 The Three Pigs David Wiesner David Wiesner 2003 My Friend Rabbit Eric Rohmann Eric Rohmann 2005 Kitten's First Full Moon Kevin Henkes Kevin Henkes 2006 The Hello, Goodbye Window Norton Juster Chris Rashka 2010 The Lion & the Mouse Jerry Pinkney Jerry Pinkney 2012 A Ball for Daisy Chris Rashka Chris Rashka 2013 This is Not My Hat Jon Klassen Jon Klassen Table 2, Titles excluded from study Once the books were selected, each one was read and the main human characters were identified. For the purposes of this study, a main human character is one who is a human, serves as an intrinsic part of the storyline, and appears multiple times throughout the book. These characters served as the sample.

10 Coding Scheme Name (or a basic description), age (child, adolescent, or adult), race (White, Black, Latino/a, Asian), and sex were recorded for each character, when available. Then, each character was given a ranking based on Stunkard s Figure Rating Scale. Figure 1, Stunkard s Figure Rating Scale Stunkard s Figure Rating Scale (SFRS) is a scale widely used in studies on body image disturbance where participants are asked questions such as Which of these is your ideal body? or Which of these is most like you? Several studies have found that the SFRS is a valid way of guessing BMI, even if the individual isn t present (Cardinal,

11 2006. Sherman, 2006). The SFRS was used as the beginning of each character analysis, however, it was modified slightly. Because the bodies analyzed were all illustrated and may or may not have been based on actual human forms, artistic representation may have caused the figures to be disproportionate. While much of this guesswork was eliminated by eliminating overly stylized books, the nine points on the scale were broken down into four larger groups to account for human interpretation. Since the middle bodies are supposed to represent healthy, average weights, this also made the results align more closely with the different widely used BMI categories. Original SFRS Rating Modified Rating BMI Category 1, 2, 3 1 Underweight 4, 5 2 Healthy Weight 6, 7 3 Overweight 8, 9 4 Obese Table 3, Modified SFRS categories

12 Results Total # %* Underweight (1) 35 37.6% Healthy Weight (2) 37 39.8% Overweight (3) 11 11.8% Obese (4) 10 10.8% Total 93 *Rounded to the nearest tenth Overall, of the 93 total characters analyzed, underweight and healthy weight appeared far more often than overweight or obese, even though those are the two most common body types found in the United States. There is a large disparity in the types of bodies presented in Caldecott winning picture books and the bodies of people in the United States. Results based on race: Asian # % Underweight (1) 0 0 Healthy Weight (2) 5 83.3% Overweight (3) 1 16.7% Obese (4) 0 0 Total 6 Black # % Underweight (1) 2 28.6% Healthy Weight (2) 3 42.9% Overweight (3) 1 14.3% Obese (4) 1 14.3% Total 7 Latino/a # % Underweight (1) 0 0 Healthy Weight (2) 3 100% Overweight (3) 0 0

13 Obese (4) 0 0 Total 3 White # % Underweight (1) 32 47.8% Healthy Weight (2) 21 31.3% Overweight (3) 6 9% Obese (4) 8 11.9% Total 67 Characters were excluded when their race was unclear. Results were similar to the overall total. This is likely due to the general lack of diversity of characters featured in Caldecott winning picture books. Results based on age: Child # % Underweight (1) 11 32.4% Healthy Weight (2) 18 52.9% Overweight (3) 5 14.7% Obese (4) 0 0 Total 34 Adolescent # % Underweight (1) 10 71.4% Healthy Weight (2) 4 28.6% Overweight (3) 0 0 Obese (4) 0 0 Total 14 Adult # % Underweight (1) 14 31.1% Healthy Weight (2) 15 33.3% Overweight (3) 6 13.3% Obese (4) 10 22.2% Total 45

14 Adolescent characters were characters who appeared to be between the ages of 12 and 18. Child characters were younger, and adult characters were older. There were no obese children, even though obese children make up between 12.1 and 18 percent of the population. There was a relatively small sample of adolescents, but none of them were obese or overweight (which makes up 18.4% of the population.) A huge majority fell into the underweight category. Adults were mostly underweight and healthy weight, unlike the US population. Results based on sex: Female # % Underweight (1) 16 51.6% Healthy Weight (2) 10 32.3% Overweight (3) 3 9.7% Obese (4) 2 6.5% Total 31 Male # % Underweight (1) 19 31.7% Healthy Weight (2) 26 43.3% Overweight (3) 7 11.7% Obese (4) 8 13.3% Total 60 Characters with unclear sex were not counted. The most notable fact is that far more of the female characters fell into the underweight category than males. Results based on year of book s Caldecott win: 1938-1962 # % Underweight (1) 22 68.8% Healthy Weight (2) 8 25% Overweight (3) 0 9% Obese (4) 2 6.3%

15 Total 32 1963-1988 # % Underweight (1) 6 19.4% Healthy Weight (2) 14 45.2% Overweight (3) 4 12.9% Obese (4) 7 22.6% Total 31 2013-1989 # % Underweight (1) 7 23.3% Healthy Weight (2) 15 50% Overweight (3) 7 23.3% Obese (4) 1 3.3% Total 30 Books released in the last 24 years are more likely to feature an overweight character. Most of the underweight characters appear in books released in the first 25 years of the award.

16 Discussion In all categories, the bodies presented in the books did not match up with the types of bodies commonly seen in the United States. Overweight and obese people were underrepresented and underweight people were highly overrepresented, particularly in female images. This shows that, in many ways, the picture books examined by this study present the same unrealistic images as media and could possibly be contributing to children developing disturbed body images. This makes sense, because the Caldecott award winners have a lot of similarities with the popular media. The stories presented are polished, dramatic, and clever, the illustrations are interesting and unique, and the overall packages suggests that, in addition to talented authors and illustrators, a lot of money was put into the creation of these titles by publishers. As with many popular films, television shows, and magazines, the priority is entertainment, and when the priority is entertainment, the other important social issues may fall by the wayside. Unfortunately, there is not a lot of data to compare for different ethnic groups, even though body image disturbance is not just a white problem. This points to a larger issue of the ethnic diversity found in Caldecott winning picture books. Though there are other ALA youth media awards that celebrate diversity, it is problematic that there is so little in one of the flagship awards. This could possibly be related to the fact that some of the older winners with diverse main characters now appear quite stereotypical and racist. One particularly interesting finding was in the results as compared by year the Caldecott was won. A huge percentage of underweight characters appeared in the books that won the award in the period between 1938 and 1962. Many of these characters were thin and blond and fair (for example, 1955 s winner Cinderella, or the Little Glass

17 Slipper.) During the later awards, there was a higher presence of overweight bodies. Though the statistics still don t match up with reality, it shows that the types of characters that appear in the books that win the award seem to slowly be changing to reflect a society with a diverse collection of bodies (if not a diverse society in general.) If anything, the results of this study should remind teachers, parents, and librarians that there are problems with even the most well known, celebrated books, and it is important to critically analyze titles to see if they are appropriate for their specific audiences before they add them to their collections. It is important to remember that there are equally good, lesser known titles that may be more appropriate for a given audience.

18 Further Study One issue that this study didn t consider was the effect of animal characters. Though it is very difficult to align the shapes of animal bodies and the shapes of human bodies, and impossible to consider them using the same scale as human bodies, there may be some general issues of size. For example, in 2013 s winner This is Not My Hat, a small fish steals a very large fish s hat. The small fish is depicted as a nimble, sneaky thief, and the large fish is simple-minded and brutish. Whether or not books like this one could be applied to body image issues is a topic for further study. Illustrator intent is another issue that could be researched whether or not the illustrator intended the characters to be considered a certain size. We only see what the publisher releases, not the original sketches or any changes that were made. Was a character made smaller or larger because the publisher thought it would sell well? These types of questions would involve interviews with the illustrators themselves or editors. One final issue is whether or not these images affect children in the same way a picture in a magazine or a character in a television show might. Since they are all illustrated and not exact replications of reality, do children aspire as strongly to these images? Or would it require another outside element to catch on, such as a certain book becoming popular with a popular peer?

19 Books Used Ackerman, K. (1988). Song and dance man. New York: Distributed by Random House. Bemelmans, L. (1953). Madeline s rescue (A Children s Choice Book Club ed.). New York: Viking Press. Brown, M. (1961). Once a mouse... A fable cut in wood. Scribner. Bunting, E. (1994). Smoky night (1st ed.). San Diego: Harcourt Brace. D Aulaire, I. (1987). Abraham Lincoln ([New ed.].). Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday. De Regniers, B. S. (1964). May I bring a friend? (1st ed.). New York: Atheneum. Ets, M. H. (1959). Nine days to Christmas,. Viking Press. Field, R. (1984). Prayer for a child. New York: Collier Books. Gerstein, M. (2003). The man who walked between the towers (1st ed.). Brookfield, Conn.: Roaring Brook Press.

20 Haley, G. E. (1970). A story, a story; an African tale, ([1st ed.].). New York: Atheneum. Hall, D. (1979). Ox-cart man (1st ed.). New York: Viking Press. Handforth, T. (1938). Mei Li. New York: Doubleday. Hodges, M. (1984). Saint George and the dragon : a golden legend (1st ed.). Boston: Little, Brown. Hogrogian, N. (1971). One fine day. Macmillan. Keats, E. J. (1962). The snowy day. New York: Viking Press. Lawson, R. (1940). They were strong and good,. The Viking press. Macaulay, D. (1990). Black and white. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Martin, J. B. (1998). Snowflake Bentley. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. McCloskey, R. (1957). Time of wonder. New York: Viking Press. McCloskey, R. (1991). Make way for ducklings. Puffin Books.

21 McCully, E. A. (1992). Mirette on the high wire. New York: G.P. Putnamʼs Sons. Milhous, K. (1978). The egg tree. New York: Scribner. Mosel, A. (1972). The funny little woman. ([1st ed.].). Dutton. Ness, E. (1966). Sam, Bangs, and moonshine (1st ed.). New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. Perrault, C. (1954). Cinderella, or, The little glass slipper. New York: Scribner. Politi, L. (1949). Song of the swallows. C. Scribner s Sons. Provensen, A. (1983). The glorious flight : across the Channel with Louis Blériot, July 25, 1909 (1st ed.). New York: Viking Press. Ransome, A. (1968). The fool of the world and the flying ship; a Russian tale,. Farrar, Straus and Giroux. Rathmann, P. (1995). Officer Buckle and Gloria. New York: Putnam s. Say, A. (1993). Grandfather s journey. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin.

22 Selznick, B. (2007). The invention of Hugo Cabret : a novel in words and pictures (1st ed.). New York: Scholastic Press. Sendak, M. (1991). Where the wild things are (25th anniversary ed.). New York: HarperCollins. Stead, P. C. (2010). A sick day for Amos McGee (1st ed.). New York: Roaring Brook. Swanson, S. M. (2008). The house in the night. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company. Taback, S. (1999). Joseph had a little overcoat. New York: Viking. Tresselt, A. (1947). White snow, bright snow; Lothrop, Lee & Shepard Co. Van Allsburg, C. (1985). The Polar Express. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Van Allsburg, C. (1981). Jumanji. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co. Ward, L. (1952). The biggest bear (Sandpiper ed.). Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Wiesner, D. (2006). Flotsam. New York: Clarion Books. Will, 1904-. (1951). Finders keepers. New York: Harcourt Brace & World.

23 Yolen, J. (1987). Owl moon. New York: Philomel Books. Yorinks, A. (1986). Hey, Al (1st ed.). New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux. Zelinsky, P. O. (1997). Rapunzel (1st ed.). New York: Dutton Children s Books. Zemach, H. (1973). Duffy and the devil; ([1st ed.].). Farrar, Straus, Giroux.

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