Looking to the Future: Patrons in Illuminated Manuscripts Laura Kremmel Laura is a junior English major with minors in history, religious studies, and studio art. Her interests focus on English and medieval history and on history as reflected in literature. She wrote this paper for a summer 2004 course at Cambridge University. An aesthetic feast for the eyes, especially in comparison to the standardized printed page of today, illuminated manuscripts attracted a vast collection of medieval patrons. These manuscripts were expensive: the more miniatures and other decorations the patron wanted, the more money he or she would be expected to pay, especially if they contained the expensive coloration of gold and blue. Reasons why patrons commissioned illuminated manuscripts are various and abundant, such as to display their status and wealth, to follow a trend, or just to satisfy an interest. However, many patrons meant for their manuscripts to fulfill a farther-reaching goal than these, to reach past their own lifetimes and into the future. There are three reasons that suggest this: the way in which manuscripts may have been displayed, the control that patrons had over the creation of such manuscripts, and the large body of personal manuscripts that were created and well preserved. Today, most book-owners display their books on shelves, with the spines facing out so that the titles are visible. Such a method is practical, but does not do much to display what is inside the book to anyone who merely glances at the shelves. While we
can only speculate as to how medieval manuscripts might have been displayed, miniatures can provide us with some clues to suggest similar storage methods. Many of these show cabinets with shelves and doors that can be closed and, perhaps, locked. An example of such a cabinet can be found in The Codex Amiatinus, which portrays a portrait of Ezra sitting in front of the cabinet, with its doors thrown open and the books shown laying long-ways on their back covers. 1 The cramped composition of the miniature and the way in which Ezra hunches over his reading gives the feeling that such a cabinet is in a private room, very secure and even secret. If this is an example of how patrons normally displayed their manuscripts, it would seem that they would not be very effective solely as a symbol of status and wealth, though many certainly were. Such display suggests that there must have been another reason to place so much money and effort into the content of a manuscript that most people probably would not see. It is likely that most illuminated manuscripts were barely used, and a much cheaper, much plainer, version of a text was used instead. When the elaborate versions were on display, they were not extensively read, judging from the condition of books such as The Bedford Hours. 2 If patrons were looking for a display of their status or their wealth, they could just have easily chosen another method of preservation, one more obvious and impressive to the public, such as a commissioned sculpture or painting. While many patrons did do this, there must have been a reason for putting so much wealth into illuminated manuscripts. Since they were not widely displayed for present audiences, it can be speculated that what was inside the manuscripts might have been meant as a record for future audiences. 24
While we do not have solid evidence of how much control the average patron had over what was written and painted into his or her manuscript, it would seem from examples containing portraits and illuminations of patrons that at least some of them enjoyed quite a bit. Beginning in the fourteenth century, the book trade began to use contracts between patrons and those involved with the creation of their manuscripts. Sometimes the patron could hire a librarii, a middleman between the patron and scribe and between the patron and illuminator. These men supervised the creation of the manuscript and took care of payment distribution. 3 How much contact the patron had with the scribe and illuminator is, however, unknown. There are a few examples of patrons very eager to make sure that their manuscripts were created exactly as they wanted. Chimenti di Cipriano di Sernigi hired illuminator Attavante degli Attavanti for a seven volume Bible in 1494. The contract between them reads that Chimenti would be allowed to check Attavante s progress on his manuscript weekly. In addition, Chimenti provided a sample quire for Attavante to use when producing the illuminations. 4 A similar concern is shown in the contract for The Bible of Duke Borso d Este of Ferrara. It states, For every book there is to be a magnificent opening worthy of such a Bible. Such a demand may have been followed by more specific instructions. 5 These various degrees of concern show that patrons could have had control over how illuminators portrayed them in manuscripts and that such control over what future generations would read was one of the appeals of this craft. Patrons used the concepts of future audience and preservation as applied to manuscripts to make sure that they and their families were remembered in times to come. Many examples of such preservation in the forms of miniatures, borders, and letters 25
survive, and more are yet to be discovered. These manuscripts are full of portraits, coats of arms, and symbols showing the importance of the patron and his or her family in history. For example, in 1626, Hernando de Almonte commissioned a family history and patent of nobility, which features pictures of himself and his family. It opens with a miniature of the kneeling Hernando and his wife, displayed with the family arms so there could be no doubt as to who they were and what their status was. 6 The style of patron depictions also gave more specific impressions to readers. In a manuscript of The Statutes of England, five English kings are highlighted, each depicted in an initial at the beginning of their section: Henry III, Edward I, Edward II, Edward III, and Richard II. The style of these depictions was meant to show their vast importance, highlighting the head and richly modeled faces. Such a style would make sure that each king was able to have his features clearly marked and identifiable. 7 Patrons could add to an already existing history as well. Blanche of Burgundy, patron of The Savoy Hours in the late 1300s, had 167 miniatures included in the manuscript, many of which featured her portrait. When Charles V received the manuscript in 1370, he followed her example and added another sixty-eight miniatures, some of which were pictures of him. 8 Charles the Bald, who commissioned quite a few manuscripts, had himself shown in a Psalter in 1152, surrounded by evidence of his wealth. 9 Wishing to build on this already established honor, Henry II commissioned a copy of the Codex Aureus of St. Emmeram, but placed himself on the throne in Charles the Bald s place. 10 By replacing the past ruler with himself, he was adding a sense of authority to his own position. So, manuscripts were indeed a show of wealth and of power; however, because Henry was building on a past manuscript, he was ensuring that 26
his own image would survive him just as Charles the Bald s did. The kings of France took turns playing patron of The Grand Chroniques de France, which was first translated in 1274. Each updated it to include miniatures and passages about himself and his reign. Copies of this manuscript were given to prestigious guests, which shows the twofold purpose of impressing both present notables and future generations: there are at least a hundred of these manuscripts surviving today. 11 Patrons could use the manuscripts they commissioned to show greatness of piety and the favor of God, as if the authority of the written page, so like the authority of the Bible, might make it so. The original Codex Aureus features Charles the Bald, surrounded by angels and blessed by the hand of God, in addition to his complete genealogy in gold lettering. 12 Henry II followed a similar formula in a Gospel Lectionary made for him. One miniature in this manuscript shows the hand of God crowning both Henry and his queen, Cunegund. 13 Perhaps such remembrances could be compared to the buying of indulgences: the images would last and the present and future people that might read about them would pray for the patrons souls and release them from purgatory. Other commissioned manuscripts show their patrons in praise of saints or members of the holy family, emphasizing not only their devotion and piety but also history, personality, and politics. Popular scenes for miniatures in such religious texts were those describing the lives of the saints, and people in medieval times were able to recognize who these saints were and what was associated with them by the situation in which the illuminator placed them. By placing him- or herself in such miniatures with the saints, a patron could associate him- or herself directly with that saint. For example, it is believed that The Bedford Hours was commissioned by Duke Philip the Good of 27
Burgundy for the marriage of his sister Anne to John, Duke of Bedford. Many miniatures in this manuscript depict the Duke and Duchess dutifully at prayer with their patron saints. Even though John s patron saint was not St. George, he is depicted with him because St. George is the patron saint of England, and John was England s regent in France. 14 This was meant to show that the saint looked favorably upon his position. The King of Hungary, Matthias Corvinus, commissioned a manuscript in which one of the pages shows the king and his wife beneath a picture of St. Jerome, peering up at him innocently and devoutly. 15 Similarly, Cardinal Bernardo de Carvajal had a missal created in the early sixteenth century containing a miniature of Christ on the cross. Below this miniature, in a separate box, is a smaller miniature of the cardinal dutifully praying on his knees at mass. 16 Jean Dunois, Bastard of Orleans, is depicted on the Day of Judgment as being personally escorted by St. John the Evangelist in The Dunois Hours. 17 All of these examples are meant to show their patrons as pious Christians, whose virtues must have made them worthy to be depicted amongst such company. Since religious texts were the most common manuscripts created, many of the miniatures displayed common traditional scenes, especially those in manuscripts such as Books of Hours. Still, patrons found ways of incorporating themselves into these scenes, connecting themselves to them as if they had really been there. Charles the Bald commissioned The Bible of San Paolo fuori le Mura, which contains a miniature of Solomon that looks suspiciously like Charles. It also holds a portrait of him that reads, This is King Solomon of the new Rome. 18 Otto III had a similar idea, and The Gospels of Otto III, commissioned in 998 and created by the monk Liuthar, include two whole pages of people from different parts of the world paying tribute to Otto, seated 28
disdainfully on his majestic throne, just like the Magi from the Bible. 19 In the same manuscript, one miniature portrays Otto as, what Christopher de Hamel calls a Christlike figure in heaven. 20 Instead of traditional scenes found in most Books of Hours, Isabelle de Coucy commissioned a manuscript that displayed she and her husband s coats of arms at least ten times. 21 Margaret of Austria had thirty miniatures added to The Hours of Bona Sforza, which she had acquired, one of which features herself as Elizabeth in the Visitation. 22 As curator and author Roger S. Wieck wrote in a study of such manuscripts, What a glorious vehicle for both art and self-aggrandizement a Book of Hours could be. 23 Gifts depicting such scenes were meant to memorialize either their patrons or those who were to receive them. The more people who saw such associations, the more pious and authoritative the patrons would seem, and the more future generations would appreciate them. In 1482, Willem van Bossund commissioned a missal to be given to St. Bravo s Abby. The dedication miniature shows the Virgin Mary and her child, with Willem kneeling before the holy family, showing his fervent faith and the favor and benevolence with which Mary and child receive him. 24 As this was a gift to an abbey, it ensured that not only would future generations think highly of Willem, but very religious generations, those that prayed to God faithfully, would perhaps pray on his behalf. The First Bible of Charles the Bald was given to Charles by Tours, and it uses a miniature of gold coins to connect Charles to the Biblical King David. 25 Charlemagne also liked to compare himself to King David. He commissioned a Psalter to be presented to Pope Hadrian to emphasize this comparison and to preserve it in the opening dedication, which calls Charlemagne King David s golden successor. 26 29
Patrons used manuscripts in order to portray themselves as excessively skilled at something or as a certain type of person so that future generations would consider them as such. Federigo de Montefeltro, who prided himself on his extensive collection of manuscripts, commissioned a manuscript containing a miniature of himself. In this miniature, he is shown holding a manuscript and looking down rather proudly at another man believed to be the author or illuminator, implying his close involvement with book creators. 27 Diane de Poitiers wished to show herself as a strong woman, an unusual medieval depiction, and celebrated this strength by commissioning The Armagnac Manuscript of the Trial and Rehabilitation of Joan of Arc in the 1530s. The manuscript includes two prefaces describing her and the nobility of her past as connected to the ideal of active womanhood. 28 Judging from medieval methods of displaying manuscripts, the vast array of surviving personal manuscripts, and the amount of control patrons had over their creations, made-to-order miniatures, borders, and letters contained within manuscripts gave patrons a method of portraying themselves as they wished to be considered by future generations. The degree of personality exhibited by the patron could add to an already existing history of that person, as perhaps the patron could foresee, almost like a family album of staged and digitally altered portraits. As two often-coinciding concerns of the time, religion and power are obviously exhibited in illuminated manuscripts, showing such controlled perceptions of personality and making the study of such manuscripts a unique and continuous process. Illuminated manuscripts became a patron s way of saying, I was here, and this is what I was like. Christopher de Hamel said of Henry II, his thoughts were for audiences of the future. 29 It would seem that 30
this feeling was shared among many patrons of illuminated manuscripts, and that it had almost prophetic implications. 1 Jonathan J. G. Alexander, Medieval Illuminators and their Methods of Work (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1992), 73. 2 Janet Backhouse, Illuminating the Past, 3 August 2004, Cambridge Medieval Studies Summer School class. 3 Alexander, 52. 4 Ibid., 53. 5 Ibid. 6 Rowan Watson, Illuminated Manuscripts and their Makers (New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc., 2003), 127. 7 St. John s College Library display card, Cambridge University, 30 July 2004. 8 Roger S. Wieck, Time Sanctified: The Book of Hours in Medieval Art and Life (New York: George Braziller, Inc., 1988), 32. 9 Christopher de Hamel, A History of Illuminated Manuscripts (Boston: David R. Godine, 1986), 52. 10 Ibid., 69. 11 Ibid., 149. 12 Ibid., 53. 13 Ibid., 72. 14 Janet Backhouse, Books of Hours (London: The British Library, 1995), 4. 15 de Hamel, 221. 16 Ibid., 195. 17 Backhouse, 5. 18 de Hamel, 52. 19 Ibid., 68. 20 Ibid., 66. 21 Wieck, 34. 22 Backhouse, 26. 23 Wieck, 32. 24 de Hamel, 207. 25 Ibid., 56. 26 Ibid., 45. 27 Ibid., 236. 28 Watson, 124. 29 de Hamel, 69. 31
32