TABLE OF CONTENTS Part I: The Theoretical and Practical Foundations of Theater 1 Chapter 1: From Storytelling and Ritual to Theater 3 Chapter 2: From Theater to Drama 9 Chapter 3: From the Page to the Stage: Theater Artists at Work 17 Part II: An Anthology of the World s Drama 25 Chapter 4: The Theater of Greece and Rome 27 Chapter 5: The Theater of Asia 45 Chapter 6: The Early Modern Theater 69 Chapter 7: The Modern Theater 101 Chapter 8: The Theater of Africa and the African Diaspora 151 Chapter 9: The Contemporary Theater 177 Answers to Examination Items 219 Appendices 229 Appendix A: An Extensive Bibliography 231 Appendix B: A Selected List of Videos 269 iii
Part I: The Theoretical and Practical Foundations of Theater 1
2
PART I THE THEORETICAL AND PRACTICAL FOUNDATIONS OF THEATER CHAPTER 1 From Storytelling and Ritual to Theater GOAL: To identify some of the human impulses that create theater. KEY POINTS: 1. Theater is among the oldest, most instinctive art forms. 2. Theater developed from: the innate human impulse to imitate; the innate human impulse to tell and act out stories; rituals, especially those related to spiritual needs, the agricultural calendar, and rites for the dead; ceremonies that sustain cultural, civic, and institutional values. 3. Rituals: are symbolic actions that satisfy the spiritual and cultural needs of a community; are arranged in a pattern that eventually becomes precise in its repetition--this gives a sense of order and permanency that comforts the performers and audiences; originally seem to have been intended to produce magical effects. 4. There are remarkable similarities in the origins of theater throughout the world: theater most often developed in conjunction with spring planting and/or harvest rituals; theater often dealt with a slain god-king who restores life and vitality to the land and its people; theater involves a spiritual dimension, i.e., the recognition of a power or force greater than that of human beings. 5. Masks are a ubiquitous symbol of the theater and a global cultural phenomenon. 6. Master Pierre Pathelin is a play that embodies many of the concepts discussed in Chapter One. 3
TERMS, CONCEPTS, PEOPLE Balinese Barong dance ceremony Feast of Fools The Ion mask mimesis ritual story tellers griot sutradhara shaman rhapsode sympathetic magic Robert Edmund Jones Aristotle Plato Victor Turner ACTIVITIES AND TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION 1. Describe a storyteller at work, emphasizing how s/he uses theatrical elements such as gesture, voice, body attitudes, bits of clothing and props to embellish the story. Discuss how storytellers from early cultures may have used the same elements to enhance their tales. 2. Describe a ritual at your school/university or in your community. Identify and discuss in particular those elements that are theatrical in nature. If possible, trace the history and evolution of this rite. Discuss the needs it satisfies within your community. 3. Visit a museum and investigate rituals and ceremonies devised by earlier peoples of the region. Note also any tales that may have become mythologized. Describe and discuss those elements that are theatrical. 4. Collect pictures of masks. Discuss their common characteristics and purposes, as well as those things that make the masks distinctive. 5. View the Jim Carrey film, The Mask: analyze it as it relates to the ideas discussed in Chapter 1. 6. Discuss how one functions in the daily world by knowing how to play roles, wear masks, and participate in rituals. 7. Collect and discuss some of the terminology we use in daily discourse that is drawn from the theater. Why do these words serve us well? 4
8. Read some popular folk tales drawn from various world cultures. Discuss how they reflect the needs and cultural concerns of the people who created them. Also, discuss how they could serve as useful material for plays. For instance, look at some of the tales of Coyote drawn from Native Americans or any of the delightful animal tales from Africa. GENERAL EXAMINATION ITEMS 1. Which of the following is not an example of a Story Teller: A. the West African griot B. the German kleinswertz C. the Brahman sutradhara D. the Pueblo shaman E. the Greek rhapsode 2. The characteristics of Rituals may be characterized by all of the following except: A. they are symbolic actions developed by and performed for a community, usually to satisfy its spiritual or cultural needs B. they are arranged in patterns that eventually become precise in their execution C. they are not necessarily synonymous with ceremonies D. they are believed to have originally been performed to achieve magical effects E. they are vitually indistinguishable from ceremonies 3. Which of the following aspects of American football are characteristics shared with rituals: A. the recitation of incantations in support of the favorite combatants B. the use of elaborate costumes C. the battle between the combatants which ends with the vanquishing of one by the other D. all of the above E. none of the above 4. All of the following are examples of the evolution from rituals to theater except: A. the Greek springtime rituals in honor of the god Dionysus B. the inspiration of the Hindu priest Bharata by the gods Brahma, Vishnu and Siva C. the Nordic celebrations in honor of the gods Thor and Valkrie D. the creation of the art form by Ogun as a means of bridging the gap between humanity and the gods E. the religious and agricultural festivals sponsored by Buddhist monks in ancient Japan 5. Masks, the quintessential symbol for the theater, serve many functions; among these functions are all of the following except: A. they have power to transform individuals into something more than they are in the ordinary world B. they empower, embolden, and permit us to do things we would not ordinarily do C. they discourage or stifle imagination because they supply an objectified symbol D. they are metaphors which symbolize something else E. they are appealing to us aesthetically TRUE/FALSE 5
6. Most people demonstrate an innate theatricality when they embellish their daily activities with symbolic gestures and visual symbols like costumes which are appropriate to the activities in which they are engaged. 7. Story telling, rituals, ceremonies, pageants, and carnivals, along with the basic human impulse for imitation, are among the cornerstones of the theatrical arts. 8. Because the contemporary theater often addresses various sociological, political, and aesthetic needs of its audience, it does not depend on commercial success. 9. Because the particulars of ritualistic events vary from place to place as a result of cultural influences and differences, the impulses to use theatrical means to engage the participants and audiences have very little in common. 10. Among the common characteristics of the theater in nearly all cultures are facts that we are mimetic and communal beings who seeks order and employ masks throughout our lives. 6
Master Pierre Pathelin 1. In Master Pierre Pathelin, Pierre's profession is: A. merchant B. carpenter C. lawyer D. we are not told his profession E. he has no job but lives only by his wits and cunning 2. The title character in Master Pierre Pathelin is one of the prevailing stock characters in world theater called the: A. witty fool B. con artist C. trickster D. unscrupulous lawyer E. country bumpkin 3. Master Pierre Pathelin contains which of the following Aristotelian qualitative elements of drama: A. diction B. spectacle C. thought D. all of the above E. none of the above 4. In Master Pierre Pathelin the literary term for the scene in which the shepherd outwits Pierre to keep the money is: A. exposition B. climax C. crisis D. denouement (falling action) E. point of attack (inciting moment) 5. In Master Pierre Pathelin one of the tricks Pierre and his wife use to convince the cloth \ merchant that Pierre is ill is: A. Pierre speaks "in tongues" by using a combination of languages and gibberish B. Pierre pretends to see demons C. Pierre feigns blindness and swears he cannot see the merchant D. Pierre s wife administers huge quantities of medicine (actually it is ale) to Pierre E. Pierre pretends he is paralyzed and cannot get out of bed to walk 7
TRUE/FALSE 6. The climax in Master Pierre Pathelin occurs when the shepherd cheats Pierre out of his money. 7. Music is a significant element in Master Pierre Pathelin. 8. Master Pierre Pathelin displays similarities to a popular medieval festival called the Feast of Fools. 9. In Master Pierre Pathelin, the title character promises to get cloth for his wife because it is their anniversary and he needs a gift for her. 10. In productions during the fifteenth century, Master Pierre Pathelin most likely would have been performed on a bare stage with a few simple props. 8
PART I THE THEORETICAL AND PRACTICAL FOUNDATIONS OF THEATER CHAPTER 2 From Theater to Drama GOAL: To identify and define the elements and performance modes that make drama and theater art. KEY POINTS Theater and Drama 1. Theater refers to those elements that bring drama a play script to life before an audience. 2. Drama is a specialized, highly organized, and compressed form of literary expression; conflict is central to the dramatic experience. 3. The term playwright denotes a conspicuous and conscientious attempt to craft a story to meet the demands of the theater. 4. Aristotle identified and defined six elements that are common to drama and theater: plot; character; thought; diction; music; spectacle. Genre 1. Genre classifies literary works into specific types (i.e., tragedy, comedy, and tragicomedy) each of which has its own subsets (farce, melodrama, etc.). 2. Genre frequently reflects the author s world view and may determine the degree of audience involvement with or distance from the subject matter. 3. Aristotle offers the first and still the most influential analysis of tragedy in The Poetics. 4. Tragedy stems from an optimistic premise that we are essentially admirable beings who are flawed and therefore susceptible to misfortune. 9
5. The tragic action traces the fall of an essentially good individual from prosperity to misery, generally as the results of an error in judgment (hamartia) and/or an excess (hubris). Such a fall usually depends on a reversal and a recognition and arouses pity and fear, which contribute to the tragic effect. 6. There is less consensus about the nature and impact of comedy than that of tragedy. 7. Comedy stems from the essentially pessimistic premise that humans are weak and follyridden. 8. Comedy, of which there are many sub-sets, has been used as a social corrective that attempts to laugh human weakness out of existence. 9. Tragicomedy is an essentially twentieth century genre (with antecedents in classic literature) that reflects a bleaker world view in which individuals are trapped by their existence. Style and Conventions 1. Style involves the manner of presentation and is determined by the degree of artificiality with which the artists wish to treat the subject. 2. Style is often determined by a culture s philosophy, aesthetics, and tastes, as well as the theater space and other variables. 3. Conventions are theater s rules of the game which determine the actor/audience relationship and the degree of artificiality of the performance. 10
TERMS, CONCEPTS, PEOPLE Aristotelian elements of drama plot climactic plot episodic plot cyclic plot character archetypal characters stock characters thought diction dialogue monologue soliloquy music spectacle antagonist/protagonist agon catharsis character conflict convention dramatic structure exposition point of attack (inciting incident) complication crisis climax denouement drao genre comedy farce melodrama tragedy tragicomedy hamartia hubris (hybris) Kadensho mythos The Natyasastra playwright The Poetics praxis recognition (discovery) reversal (peripeteia) stock characters style presentational representational text/subtext/intentional text theatron Tractatus Coislinianus Aristotle Bharata Horace Northrup Frye Tao Ching-hsu Zeami ACTIVITIES AND TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION 1. List/discuss the ways a play script differs from: a novel; a television script; a film script. 2. Apply what you learned about the elements of drama and the structure of a plot by analyzing an episode of a television show or a film. 3. Identify and discuss the stock characters in a popular TV sit com or popular comic or melodramatic film. 4. Define archetype and discuss archetypes in non-theatrical works such as George Lucas Star Wars trilogy or other pop-entertainment media (e.g. video games, pop music, etc.). 11
5. Discuss the O. J. Simpson trial, the John F. Kennedy, Jr. plane crash, or some similar event as a tragedy. What elements of Aristotle s analysis of the tragic experience are present and/or absent? How do we use the term tragic? 12
GENERAL EXAMINATION ITEMS 1. The most notable means a playwright uses to focus a story is: A. through the use of dialogue B. through the use of dialogue mixed with narration C. through the use of the representation of conflict or the clash of opposing forces D. through the use of rituals which are used in the story E. through the use of spectacle such as scenery, costume and lighting 2. All of the following are true according to Aristotle s Poetics except: A. plot, which is the soul of dramatic poetry, is the arrangement of the incidents B. character, in addition to being the people in the drama, also refers to that which reveals moral purpose C. thought refers to the ideas or themes expressed by the playwright D. diction refers to the way the words are articulated by the actors as opposed to language and words chosen by the playwright E. spectacle, which Aristotle refered to as the least artistic of the elements of drama, includes such things as costumes, makeup, scenery, and the stage composition and pictures 3. In examining the plotting of most plays in Western theater it is clear that: A. the exposition and climax usually follow the complication B. the climax and the denouement are essentially synonymous terms C. the exposition and the complication are essentially synonymous terms D. the complication and the climax are essentially synonymous terms E. the point of attack usually precedes the complication 4. Archetypal characters are those agents of the action that: A. transcend the particulars of a given story and become universal symbols of such things as vice, virtue, and human dilemmas B. are easily recognizable characters like the bragging soldier and the conniving trickster C. exist only in Western drama D. all of the above E. none of the above 5. The terms comedy, tragedy and tragicomedy are: A. stylistic classifications of dramatic literature B. generic classifications of dramatic literature C. mutually exclusive terms used to describe the basic tone of all dramatic literature D. Aristotelian terms commonly used throughout The Poetics E. all references to the basic structure of dramatic literature 6. Among the key characteristics in Aristotle s description of tragedy is (are) the following: A. a tragedy is serious, complete and of a certain magnitude B. a tragedy is the imitation of a noble individual rather than a specific action C. a tragedy usually, but not always, includes a reversal and recognition D. A and B E. A and C 13
7. All of the following are key characteristics of comedy except: A. like tragedy, it usually includes a hero of sorts B. unlike tragedy, which is viewed as being serious and of magnitude, it deals with the ludicrous C. like tragedy, it has little to do with the here and now and translates well to all generations D. unlike tragedy, which displays the select few who possess a truly noble spirit, it displays virtually all people as candidates for comedy E. like tragedy, it usually includes reversals and recognitions 8. Tragicomedy is characterized by: A. more than the simple blending or fusion of comedy and tragedy B. the lack of or very subtle recognitions and reversals C. an ambiguity of character D. all of the above E. only A and B 9. Which of the following are terms which refer to style: A. tragedy and realism B. tragedy and comedy C. presentational and representational D. comedy and farce E. representational and melodrama TRUE/FALSE 10. One of the distinctions between the dramatic and the epic is that the dramatic is usually more selective in the events that it imitates or portrays. 11. According to Thornton Wilder narrative form (i.e., the epic) is what one person tells us took place and dramatic form (i.e., a play) is what takes place. 12. Aristotle s Poetics is unique in that the non-western world has no similar early treatises to be used as guides to understanding drama. 13. Plato s and Aristotle s views regarding the value and good of drama coincide with each other because, as Aristotle s teacher, Plato passed on his view of the theater which Aristotle accepted and refined. 14. In contemporary drama it is not uncommon for playwrights to create characters that are fragmented beings rather than fully developed individuals. 15. When discussing drama, style and genre are usually used interchangeably because they are synonymous. 16. In terms of Western drama, comedy and tragedy are the oldest and most elemental 14
generic classifications of dramatic literature. 17. Because they are different styles, comedy and tragedy are usually analyzed or interpreted according to different sets of dramatic elements. 18. A tragic hero usually is defeated not because of some evil aspect of character, but because of some error or frailty. 19. While there is a good deal of controversy over the general definition of tragedy, the general interpretation or definition of catharsis is rarely argued. 20. While the general definition of catharsis is hotly debated, nearly all would agree that is has to do with the emotions of pity and fear. 21. Comedy and tragedy are equally dependent on the specific customs and mores of the particular culture which produces them. 22. While the term tragicomedy was coined hundreds of years ago and examples of it have been in existence for hundreds of years, it is most often associated with the modern drama. 23. As its name implies, tragicomedy is little more than the fusion or blending of comedy and tragedy. 24. Style refers essentially to the playwright s point of view or perspective on the conflict that is presented in the play. 25. Although it is logical to assume that presentational and representational are antithetical styles, there is really very little difference between them. 26. While examples of representational style can be found elsewhere, it is essentially a style which is peculiar to the late nineteenth century and twentieth century Western drama. 27. Conventions are the rules of the game --the basic agreements between the audience and the performers to accept or believe in what appears on the stage. 28. The history of both Western and non-western drama is filled with plays which are essentially presentational in their writing and performance. 15
16
PART I THE THEORETICAL AND PRACTICAL FOUNDATIONS OF THEATER CHAPTER 3 From the Page to the Stage: Theater Artists at Work GOAL: To define the contributions and responsibilities of the various theater artists who produce a script. KEY POINTS: Theater and Drama 1. Theater is a collaborative art in which artists (playwrights, actors, directors, and designers) work together to present a play to an audience. 2. Understanding the kinds of choices theater artists make and the rationale for those choices enhances our understanding of the theater event. The Actor 1. The actor the only indispensable theater artist is the first artist of the theater. 2. There are three approaches to the craft of acting: the external approach, which relies primarily on voice and body to create the role, is largely a pre-twentieth century approach; the internal approach, which relies primarily on personal experience (emotion memory) and psychology to create the role, is essentially a late-nineteenth/twentieth century approach; the integrated approach which synthesizes the external and internal approaches. The Playwright 1. The playwright is responsible for taking an idea and realizing it through plotting, characterization, and the written word. 17
2. The playwright is bound by the demands of the theater: a play must appeal to a group rather than the individual; a play is written for a collection of theater artists; a play is bound by time and space. The Director 1. Although the director was among the last artists to enter the theater, s/he has become a powerful force. 2. The director has several functions: to develop and articulate an interpretation (concept) for the play; to coordinate the work of all artists involved in the production; to provide an aesthetically pleasing experience for an audience; to assist the actors as they prepare their roles. The Designer 1. The scenic, costume, lighting, and sound designers contribute to a production by: The Critic developing design elements which support and extend the directorial concept; providing a workable space and environment for the actors to do their work; creating an emotional atmosphere for the play; engaging the audience visually and aurally by providing the audience with information about setting, locale, time period, etc. 1. There are two primary types of critics in the theater: the reviewer, who describes and evaluates the elements of the theatrical production; the critic-analyst who describes, interprets, and evaluates the artistic choices manifested in the play. 2. The reviewer and critic serve useful purposes in the theater experience when they: encourage excellence and weed out incompetence; promote originality; provide insight and understanding for audiences. 18
TERMS, CONCEPTS, PEOPLE actor actor/manager actors studio auteur didaskalos critic directorial concept emotion memory external acting/internal acting Hamburg Dramaturgy the method or system maitre de jeaux paradox of acting reviewer scenario scenography text scripted text subtext intentional text Adolph Appia Peter Brook Denis Diderot Georg II, Duke of Saxe Meiningen Horace Gottholt Lessing Jo Mielziner Caroline Neuber Sebestiano Serlio Constantin Stanslavsky Julie Taymor Thespis Thornton Wilder ACTIVITIES AND TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION 1. Compare the acting styles of an external actor (e.g., Jim Carrey) and an internal actor (Tom Hanks). Is one necessarily better than the other? 2. Based on your experience at a play, concert, or some other spectacle, discuss the impact inventive scenic, light, and sound designs can have on a theatrical event. Is it possible that design elements can overwhelm the actual performance? Cite examples from your experience. 3. Read Julie Taymor s discussion of the problems she encountered while directing The Lion King for Broadway. Enumerate and discuss the kinds of decisions required of her. What does this tell you about the tasks confronting a stage director? 4. Collect five or six television, and/or movie reviews from your local paper and/or magazines (such as Time and Rolling Stone). What criteria concerning the art of criticism can you establish by looking at the work of professional critics? 19
GENERAL EXAMINATION ITEMS 1. All of the following are true about acting and/or actors except: A. in the simplest terms an actor is one who performs or impersonates B. actor training and acting styles have undergone considerable changes over the last 2500 years C. actor training and acting styles vary little throughout the contemporary world D. actor training and acting styles exhibit a wide variety throughout the contemporary world E. none of the above 2. Of the following statements, which accurately reflects the work of the actor: A. while it is essentially a modern approach, both Aristotle and Shakespeare pointed the way to internal acting B. for centuries theorists have debated the question of whether actors should actually feel the emotions they are portraying C. external actors work essentially from the outside in D. all of the above E. none of the above 3. Because language of the text is of utmost importance to actors, it is necessary that they understand all the levels of texts which exist in a play, including: A. the scripted text which is the purpose, objective, or intention of the text as it is printed B. the subtext which is the meaning of the text or what is implied in the text C. the intentional text which is the actual words as they are printed on the actors scripts D. the external text which is the way the actor would deliver the text in real life E. the authorial text which includes the playwright s directions on how to deliver the text 4. In general, playwrights: A. are among the latest additions to the list of the artists involved in the theater B. are among the most solitary of the artists involved in the theater C. have always included a great deal of stage direction in their texts so that actors and directors know how and where to move and speak. D. are the oldest artists in the theater and most indispensable E. have always been the most important artist in the theater 5. All of the following are true of playwrights except: A. they are first and foremost story-tellers who present their work in the form of the dramatic rather than the narrative B. part of their job is to keep people interested and in the theater for a couple of hours C. they nearly always work according to a prescribed formula so that their plays will meet the public s expectations D. their methods of working and creating plays are as varied as the cultures that have produced them E. a significant portion of their job is rewriting, reworking and polishing their script 20
6. In addition to the artistic problems and the other challenges contemporary American playwrights face, another pressure they encounter is: A. the rapidly declining interest in and popularity of theater throughout the United States B. the freedom to deal with politically and sociological innovative subject matter C. the availability of well trained directors to stage their plays D. the lack of interested and highly trained actors to play the roles in their plays E. the financial pressures of a very commercially orientated theater 7. Among the most important and influential individuals involved in the evolution of the director in the Western theater during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries were: A. George II (the Duke of Saxe Meiningen), Peter Brook and Konstantin Stanslavsky B. David Garrick, Caroline Neuber and George II (the Duke of Saxe Meiningen) C. George II (the Duke of Saxe Meiningen), William Shakespeare and Moliere D. David Garrick, Caroline Neuber and William Shakespeare E. George II (the Duke of Saxe Meiningen), Peter Brook and Julie Taymor 8. The most important and rewarding, but also the most difficult task, a director undertakes is: A. the development of the directorial concept B. casting the play C. handling the financial and business arrangements before staging the play D. securing designers E. securing the rehearsal and performance spaces suitable for the play 9. Among the four primary tasks facing a director are: A. devising a directorial concept and coordinating the other artists contributions B. coordinating the other artists contributions and creating an aesthetic experience C. creating an aesthetic experience and helping the actors D. all of the above E. none of the above 10. All of the following are true of the designer or of theatrical design in general except: A. the Greeks included elements of design and spectacle in their plays B. unlike their Western counterparts, the court theaters of Japan and China minimized extravagant scenery C. the Renaissance brought the scene designer to the forefront of theatrical activity D. scenic design world-wide has been and continues to be realistic rather than symbolic or abstract in nature E. the design elements of a play or production evolve out of the style of the production and the directorial concept 11. Among the common requirements for scenic, costume and lighting design are which of the following: A. the design elements should be consistent with the directorial concept but need not complement each other 21
B. the design elements should support the work of the actor but aesthetically draw focus to themselves C. the design elements should establish the degree of reality or theatricality demanded by the production but need not provide relevant information about the historical period or character relationships D. the design elements should be consistent with the directorial concept but should also reinforce the emotional atmosphere of the production E. the design elements should reinforce the emotional atmosphere of the production, but needn t be a visual metaphor for the production because that would interfere with the acting 12. Which of the following are tasks performed by designers: A. meeting with the director and the other designers to discuss and develop a design concept B. researching the plays and its historical, political, and social milieu to develop a visual metaphor for the production C. select the line, mass, forms, colors, textures, etc., that are appropriate for the production and which help to express the production concept D. all of the above E. none of the above 13. In addition to transforming the performance space into an appropriate environment for the play s action, a good scenic design: A. should have great aesthetic appeal even at the expense of the actors B. should have a single playing area or level even at the expense of variety in stage pictures C. should provide strong focal points for key moments of the action, even at the expense of being practical in terms of entrances and exits D. should have great aesthetic appeal while taking into account the practicality of entrances and exits E. should provide a stunning visual metaphor so that if the actors are weak the audience will feel that it has got its money s worth 14. Among the valuable functions of good criticism are all of the following except: A. it encourages excellence in the theater by providing and sometimes raising standards B. it provides insight and understanding of the art in general and may also help to weed out incompetence C. it provides a context within which to appreciate a particular work and theatrical work in general D. it encourages self-satisfaction and helps to develop the self-exhibitionist flair which is a prerequisite for a good actor E. it promotes originality, encourages good work, and challenges the artists involved 15. A good critic or critic-theorist: A. possesses a thorough knowledge of the technical and theoretical principles of theater and drama along with an open mind 22
B. possesses an awareness and acceptance of one s own limitations and an ability to point out the same in others C. possesses an ability to think analytically, and to write clearly and vividly along with an inquisitiveness and willingness to learn D. A & B E. A & C TRUE/FALSE 16. While theater is produced by numerous artists including playwrights, directors, and designer, the actor is the oldest and most indispensable of the artists involved. 17. Many Asian theater traditions, including the essentially external style of their acting, have been incorporated into the training programs of American acting schools and training programs. 18. External based acting precludes any incorporation of strongly felt emotion. 19. While the actor was the first artist in Western theater, the playwright was the first to attain star status. 20. Because the theater is first and foremost a collaborative art, one of the primary demands on playwrights is that their work is playable --it should inspire and interest both participants (actors and directors) and the recipients (the audience.) 21. Because the theater is universally subsidized by governments, the business aspects of playwriting are low on the list of the playwright s concerns and worries. 22. Although the director is one of the most recent artists of the theater, the role of the director has evolved slowly as the theater has developed. 23. As directors have become increasingly more involved in the presentation of plays over the last century and a half, their names and reputations have become nearly as widely known as those of playwrights and actors. 24. The rise of the popularity and importance of the director in the theater is a phenomenon that is essentially Western and has gone almost unnoticed in Asia and Africa. 25. Devising a directorial concept and coordinating the work of the other artists involved in a production are among the primary tasks of the director in the contemporary theater 26. The use of scenery, costumes, masks, props, sound, and lighting effects, albeit sometimes in rudimentary form, has been a part of the theater from its earliest moments 27. Playwrights can rightly be considered among the first designers of the theater. 28. Historically accurate costumes and scenery have been a staples of theatrical presentation in nearly every style and genre of theater and drama, and in nearly all cultures. 29. Because they are not a part of the production team or company, critics are not an 23
integral part of the process involved in theater. 30. Good theatrical costume, scenic, and lighting designs complement each other and the directorial concept, as well as provide the right visual metaphor for the particular production of a particular play. 31. The art of theater criticism is essentially the process of identifying the weak aspects of a production, pointing them out and giving the production a thumbs up or thumbs down verdict. 32. As much as actors, directors, and designers dislike and are uncomfortable in the presence of critics, there is much to be learned from perceptive criticism. 33. While the terms critic and reviewer are used to identify those who see and respond in writing to a production, there is little difference between the two terms and they can be used interchangeably. 24
Part II: An Anthology of the World s Drama 25
26
PART II AN ANTHOLOGY OF THE WORLD S DRAMA CHAPTER 4 The Theater of Greece and Rome GOAL: To understand the development, major styles, distinctive characteristics and conventions of theater and drama in classical Greece and Rome. KEY POINTS Greece 1. There are several theories concerning the origins of theater in ancient Greece, including the ideas that Greek theater evolved out of : spring time festivals and ceremonies in honor of Dionysus, the god of wine, passion, the creative urge (Aristotle); rites of passage involving puberty and/or changes in the agricultural calendar (Murray and Harrison); tomb, hero-cult worship, and other ceremonies honoring the dead (Wm. Ridgeway); shamanistic practices (Kirby); dances performed by women on the threshing floor; the storytelling inventions of Thespis and Aeschylus (Else); 2. Greek drama festivals were civic, military, and spiritual events in which the entire free male populace of the city state participated. 3. The Greeks were humanists who valued human achievement, harmony, order, and justice, ideals that are reflected in the structure of the plays and dramatic festivals. 4. There were three principal tragic playwrights (Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides) and one primary comic playwright (Aristophanes) who wrote during the golden age of Greek drama. 5. The Greek physical theater was constructed to house the populace of a city state and its design reflected the classical ideals of harmony, balance, and beauty. 27
Rome 6. Greek actors used many non-realistic techniques, most of which were dictated by the size of the theaters and the larger-than-life qualities of the characters portrayed in the dramas. 7. Greek Old Comedy was satiric and addressed particular social and cultural issues of the time; the plays were carefully structured and included a debate of the central idea examined by the playwright. 1. Theater in Rome evolved from ludi (games) held in conjunction with civic ceremonies and from the work of histriones (story tellers), which became the name associated with actors. 2. Seneca was Rome s principal tragic playwright, while Plautus and Terence were its principal writers of comedy, the dominant genre produced by Rome. All three influenced Renaissance dramaturgy. 3. Rome introduced popular entertainment as a staple of the theater--gladiatorial contests, sea battles, circuses, and other spectacles typify Roman popular entertainment. 4. Of the many philosophies followed by Romans, Stoicism the acceptance of life s hardships had the most lasting influence, especially on Christianity. 5. The Romans imitated the Greeks in their dramaturgy and in the construction of their theaters, although they added distinctly Roman touches. 6. Roman theater declined because of the over-all decline of the Empire, the invasion of northern tribes, and the rise of Christianity, which had an anti-theater bias. 28
TERMS, CONCEPTS, PEOPLE agon agora ananke cavea Circus Maximus City Dionysia deus ex mechane dike dithyramb dominus gregis dromenon ekkyklema exodos gamos the happy idea histrioines humanism koryphaeus kothornoi hypokrites logeion ludi maenads New Comedy Old Comedy onkos orchestra Oresteia parados parabisis polis prologue proskenion pulpitum satyr skene skena frons stasimon strophe antistrophe stoicism tetralogy theatron trilogy Aeschylus Aristophanes Euripides Menander Plautus Roscius Seneca Sophocles Terence ACTIVITIES AND TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION General 1. Identify and visit buildings in your community and/or campus that have been influenced by Greco-Roman ( classical ) architecture; your campus may have an outdoor theater modeled after those of the Greeks. Discuss how these spaces reflect the values of the Greeks, especially their harmony, balance, proportion, symmetry, etc. 2. Develop more fully the argument that we have started in this chapter: a Greek play retained its ritual qualities long after ancient rituals gave way to the development of drama as an art form. 3. Identify and discuss some contemporary entertainments that are modern equivalents of the ancient Roman popular entertainments, e.g., an air show, a rodeo, professional wrestling. 29
30
Prometheus Bound 1. Is Zeus a completely unsympathetic figure? Defend, if you can, Zeus's actions. 2. Discuss the character of Hermes, the messenger of Zeus. Describe some of the ways an actor might portray him? Is it possible that he is meant to be a comic character? 3. What "secret" does Prometheus know that terrifies Zeus? What is symbolic about this secret? That is, what does it suggest about the human-god relationship? 4. In 1911 T. S. Eliot wrote "The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock," an indictment of modern civilization. Its character asks the question, "Do I dare disturb the universe?" What if Prufrock were chained to the mountain beside Prometheus? Write a short scene in which Prometheus and Prufrock discuss "daring." 5. Discuss other Promethean figures with which you may be familiar in literature or film. 6. We learn something about Prometheus' character from each of his visitors: how do Hephaestus, Oceanos, Io, and Hermes help define Prometheus? Oedipus the King 1. Select one of the other characters in the play and compare and contrast that character with Oedipus. In particular, how does the character act in times of crisis? 2. Write an essay comparing your religious beliefs--or lack thereof--with those of the characters in Oedipus the King. 3. Staging a modern production of Oedipus the King is a challenging task. Select a venue on your campus (especially outdoors) and describe how you would stage the play. Pay particular attention to how you would use the chorus. 4. Oedipus is a character who exhibits excessive pride. Identify some modern individuals who exhibit the same characteristics. How have they dealt with the world? How has the world dealt with them? 5. Taking the well-known story of some other historical figure (e.g., Bill Clinton, Richard Nixon or O. J. Simpson), outline a synopsis of a "tragedy" that you might write. Try to use Sophocles' method of simultaneous forward and backward movement to shape your tragedy. Medea 1. Twentieth century American newspapers are filled with example of individuals who have murdered their children. Select one story and develop a scenario of how it might be written as a Greek tragedy. 31
2. Compare the character and actions of Medea to those of Oedipus. How are they similar? How important is pride to the understanding of each character? 3. Contemporary films are filled with violence which many argue is gratuitous. Is the same true of Medea? How might a filmmaker of today script/plot the story? 4. With which character in the play do you empathize the most? The least? 5. Compare Medea to your favorite character in a novel or short story; in a play; in a film. How would Medea have to be changed to be presented in a different form? Lysistrata 1. Analyze Lysistrata's arguments to the Athenian Commissioner in the agon in which she justifies the women s innate abilities to rule. Look especially at the examples she draws from daily life and comment upon the effectiveness of her argument. 2. Other than the Viet Nam War era (which is an obvious choice), describe how you might stage Lysistrata in an historical period other than Greece. Be sure to discuss any textual revisions and rewrites that such a transposal would dictate. 3. Identify the sources of humor in the characterizations of Lysistrata's three principal cohorts: Kalonike, Myrrinhe, and especially the Spartan, Lampito. What makes each of them distinctly funny? Which three modern actresses would you cast in these roles? 4. Shortly after World War II the Los Angeles police department actually issued a warrant for the arrest of Aristophanes for writing an indecent play! What if he were brought to trial? Play his attorney and defend the use of the phalluses, sexual innuendoes, and other ribaldry in the play on artistic merits rather than purely on "freedom of speech" grounds. 5. Read Luis Valdez's short play, No saca nada de la escuela. Compare it to Lysistrata. In what ways are Aristophanes and Valdez kindred spirits? Brothers 1. Reversal and recognition are as important to comedy as they are to tragedy. What are the major reversals and recognitions in Brothers? What do the fathers learn about themselves? About their sons? What do the sons learn about themselves? 2. Discuss how the women of the play are viewed and treated. How might they be interpreted and played today to take into account our contemporary view of women? 3. Modern newspapers, magazines, radio and TV are filled with information on good parenting and problem children. As your favorite columnist or talk show host, respond to a letter written to you by Micio, Demea, Aeschinus or Ctesipho. 32
4. Identify popular TV sit coms, past and present, and find counterparts for the characters in Brothers. 5. As the casting director for a forthcoming film based on Brothers, cast it with your favorite film actors. 33
GENERAL EXAMINATION ITEMS 1. Among the following, which has been cited by scholars as one of the most likely origins of Greek theater: A. the ceremonial worship of the Titans, especially Zeus and Hera B. the celebration of the Greek victory over the Persians C. the theata-celebrations in honor of the Greek gods of agriculture D. the dithyrambs- improvisational songs and dances in honor of the god Dionysus E. the sacrifices and celebrations of the spring equinox 2. All of the following are true of Greek tragedy except: A. the plays were written in the form of a tetralogy and were presented at sacred festivals B. while they are referred to as tragedies, these plays contained a great deal of levity and humor C. in their original form the tragedies were usually followed by a humorous play D. they were originally presented at a religious festival known as the City Dionysia E. while we know the names of a many Greek tragedians, we have complete plays by only three of them 3. In describing the Greek mind, all of the following are accurate except: A. the Greeks were humanists who believed that the human being was the measure of all things B. the Greeks believed that there was a universal justice that ruled the world and kept order C. the Greeks appreciated the complexity of life and enjoyed debate D. all of the above E. none of the above 4. From what we can gather from written records and archeological evidence, it appears that Greek acting was: A. an early form of realistic presentation in which great attention was paid to life-like detail B. an essentially stylized form of presentation C. done only by men D. A&C E. B&C 5. Similar to Greek theater and drama, Roman theater and drama: A. had its roots in the worship of Dionysus B. in its early years was performed at religious and civic festivals and celebrations C. has supplied the Western world with a number of great classical tragedies which are still produced today D. limited the number of stage performers to 3, excluding the chorus E. was supported almost exclusively by what we would call the box office 6. As we view the Roman theater in retrospect, it is generally conceded that: A. its tragedy was superior to its comedy B. it has served as a much greater influence on later theater than its Greek counterpart C. its origins and development were much more closely tied to the gods D. its comedy was superior to its tragedy E. the overall quality of its drama was far superior to that of its Greek counterpart 34
TRUE/FALSE 7. The roots of theater can usually be traced to storytelling, shamanistic ritual and other sacred rites; however, it gradually becomes dominated by secular concerns. 8. While we tend to perceive tragedy as a refined and lofty genre of dramatic literature which deals with the misfortunes and catastrophes of heroic individuals, in all likelihood the term is derived from the Greek tragoida which literally translates as goat song. 9. While Thespis is generally considered to be the first actor and Aeschylus and Sophocles are credited with adding the second and the third actors, by the time Greek tragedy reached its zenith most productions included the performance by nearly a dozen actors--not counting the chorus. 10. In spite of their love for democracy, women were essentially second class citizens and that position extended to the theater in which women were not allowed to perform. 11. It is fairly accurate to say that the Romans borrowed a great deal from the Greeks in terms of theater, including the basic structure and arrangement of the theater and the plots of many plays. 12. The Greek tragedians--aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides and Seneca--are generally considered to be the fathers of Western tragedy. 13. Roman comedy is generally considered to be better than Roman tragedy. 14. While the Roman and Greek physical theaters had a similar structure, each also had a number of distinguishing features which made them unquestionably Roman or Greek. 35
Prometheus Bound 1. In Prometheus Bound, which character laments: I'm frightened when I see the shape of Argos,/ Argos the Herdsman with ten thousand eyes./ He stalks me with his crafty eyes. A. Prometheus B. Oceanus C. Io D. Hermes E. Hephaestus 2. The chorus in Prometheus Bound is composed of: A. the Erinyes of Zeus B. the Daughters of Oceanus C. Might and his Keepers D. birds of Prey E. the are simply referred to as "The Chorus" without designation 3. According to a prophesy, Prometheus will ultimately be freed by: A. Zeus himself B. his own strength and perseverance C. Might, who overthrows Zeus D. a child from the thirteenth generation of Io E. no one; Prometheus is doomed forever 4. Scholars believe that Prometheus Bound is part of a lost trilogy, the second play of which is entitled Prometheus Unbound. The third play was titled: A. Prometheus Triumphant B. Prometheus the Fire-Bringer C. Prometheus Resurrected D. Prometheus the Titan E. None of these 5. The character least sympathetic to Prometheus's plight is: A. Oceanus B. Io C. Hephaestus D. Hermes E. all are sympathetic to Prometheus 36
TRUE/FALSE 6. In Prometheus Bound, the character Io is described as wearing the horns of an ox. 7. The members of the chorus of Prometheus Bound are dressed to resemble waves of the sea. 8. Hermes is much like Prometheus because he is "full of pride." 9. While Prometheus Bound is generally considered to be among the earliest examples of Greek tragedy, it is more narrative than dramatic in its structure. 37
Oedipus the King 1. In Oedipus the King, which of the following is aware of the truth regarding Oedipus birth: A. Jocasta B. Creon C. The leader of the Chorus D. Teiresias E. none of the above 2. When Oedipus confronts Teiresias about the death of Laius: A. he has no reason to believe that Teiresias will be able to give him any useful information B. he does so at the insistence of Jocasta C. he accuses Creon of involvement in Laius death D. he does so alone so that no one will hear the conversation E. he does so only after it is suggested by Creon 3. The Chorus in Oedipus the King: A. consists of the lesser or unimportant gods from Olympus B. sides with Oedipus from beginning to end C. consists of the Elders of Thebes D. consists of the Elders of Athens E. sides with whomever is debating with Oedipus 4. In Oedipus the King, Oedipus sons, Polyneices and Eteocles: A. are portrayed as dutiful sons B. are moved to challenge each other following Oedipus death C. vacillate but eventually choose Creon over their father D. never appear in the play E. play more prominent roles than do his daughters, Antigone and Ismene 5. When Sophocles wrote Oedipus the King, he: A. like other Greek tragedians, based the play on a well known episode in Greek mythology B. adapted the play from an earlier work of Euripides C. invented the story in its entirety D. invented all of the story except the part dealing with his parents --Polybus and Merope E. like other Greek tragedians, adapted the story from the Roman original 38