INSTITUTO SUPERIOR DEPORTEA SUBJECT: ENGLISH Section: THEORY 3 rd YEAR 1
CONTENT: PAST PERFECT P 4 CONDITIONALS P 5 VOZ PASIVA P 9 REPORTED SPEECH P 11 2
PHONETICS This is the standard set of phonemic symbols for English (RP and similar accents). Consonants p pen, copy, happen b back, baby, job t tea, tight, button d day, ladder, odd k key, clock, school g get, giggle, ghost tʃ church, match, nature dʒ judge, age, soldier f fat, coffee, rough, photo v view, heavy, move θ thing, author, path ð this, other, smooth s soon, cease, sister z zero, music, roses, buzz ʃ ship, sure, national ʒ pleasure, vision h hot, whole, ahead m more, hammer, sum n nice, know, funny, sun ŋ ring, anger, thanks, sung l light, valley, feel r right, wrong, sorry, arrange j yet, use, beauty, few w wet, one, when, queen Vowels ɪ kit, bid, hymn, minute e dress, bed, head, many æ trap, bad ɒ lot, odd, wash ʌ strut, mud, love, blood ʊ foot, good, put iː fleece, sea, machine eɪ face, day, break aɪ price, high, try ɔɪ choice, boy uː goose, two, blue, group əʊ goat, show, no aʊ mouth, now ɪə near, here, weary eə square. fair, various ɑː start, father ɔː thought, law, north, war ʊə poor, jury, cure ɜː nurse, stir, learn, refer ə about, common, standard i happy, radiate. glorious u thank you, influence, situation ˈ (stress mark) 3
PAST PERFECT THEORY The past perfect simple expresses an action taking place before a certain time in the past. Form of Past Perfect Simple Positive Negative Question no differences I had spoken. I had not spoken. Had I spoken? For irregular verbs, use the past participle form (see list of irregular verbs, 3rd column). For regular verbs, just add ed. Exceptions in Spelling when Adding ed Exceptions in Spelling when Adding ed Example after final e, only add d love loved final consonant after a short, stressed vowel or l as final consonant after a vowel is doubled admit admitted travel travelled final y after a consonant becomes i hurry hurried Use of Past Perfect action taking place before a certain time in the past (putting emphasis only on the fact, not the duration) Example: Before I came here, I had spoken to Jack. Conditional Sentences Type III (condition that was not given in the past) Example: If I had seen him, I would have talked to him. Signal Words already, just, never, not yet, once, until that day (with reference to the past, not the present) 4
Conditionals Theory INTRODUCTION Las oraciones condicionales están formadas por dos partes: 1. La if-clause (oración condicional) 2. La main clause (oración principal) Se puede comenzar la oración con la main-clause o por la if-clause. Cuando la oración comienza con IF, WHEN O UNLESS ponemos una coma entre la if-clause y la main clause. Pero si la oración comienza por la main clause, no se separan las dos partes de la oración por una coma. If the temperatura drops to 0ºC, water turns into ice. Water turns into ice if the temperature drops to 0ºC. (El agua se congela si la temperature baja a 0ºC.) Existen cuatro tipos de oraciones condicionales. ZERO CONDITIONAL Utilizamos la Zero Conditional para expresar hechos que siempre ocurren de la forma indicada por la if-clause, como por ejemplo verdades generales o leyes naturales. If you heat water, it boils. (Si calientas agua, hierve.) People wear lighter clothes when it is hot. (La gente lleva ropa más ligera cuando hace calor.) El tiempo verbal utilizado en estas oraciones es el Present Simple tanto para la if-clause y como para la main clause. If he comes home early, he sits in the garden. (Si viene a casa pronto, se sienta en el jardín.) Podemos utilizar WHEN en lugar de IF. When / If I am tired, I get black circles under my eyes. (Cuando / Si estoy cansado, tengo ojeras.) FIRST CONDITIONAL Utilizamos la First Conditional para expresar algo que es posible o probable que ocurra en el presente o el futuro. 5
If we finish early, we will go to the cinema. (Si terminamos pronto, iremos al cine.) En estas oraciones utilizamos el Present Simple para la if-clause y el Future Simple para la main clause. If he comes, I ll go. (Si él viene, yo iré.) If we hurry, we won t be late. (Si nos damos prisa, no llegaremos tarde.) En la main clause también podemos utilizar el imperativo o un verbo modal (may, can, must, have to, etc.) seguido de infinitivo en lugar del Future Simple. If you are hungry, make a sandwich. ( Si tienes hambre, haz un bocadillo.) If you don t feel well, you must see a doctor. (Si no te encuentras bien, debes ver a un médico.) En la if-clause también podemos utilizar Present Continuous en lugar de Present Simple. If they are comino for lunch, we ll have to buy some more food. (Si vienen a comer, tendremos que comprar más comida.) En la First Conditional podemos utilizar UNLESS (a menos que) en lugar de IF + oración negativa. UNLESS nunca puede ir seguido de una oración negativa. Unless you hurry up, we ll be late. / If you don t hurry up, we ll be late. (A menos que te des prisa, llegaremos tarde. / Si no te das prisa ) Las expresiones PROVIDED (THAT), PROVIDING (THAT), AS LONG AS y SO LONG AS se pueden utilizar en la First Conditional en lugar de IF para enfatizar la condición. Su significado es siempre que, a condición de que, con tal (de) que. If you promise to be careful, you can use my computer. (Si prometes tener cuidado, puedes usar mi ordenador.) Provided (that) / Providing (that) / As long as / So long as you promise to be careful, you can use my computer. (Siempre que / A condición de que / con tal de que prometas tener cuidado, puedes usar mi ordenador.) SECOND CONDITIONAL Utilizamos la Second Conditional para: - Hablar de algo que no se refiere el presente y es bastante imposible que ocurra en el futuro, o para situaciones imaginarias. If I were prime Minister, I would make school holidays longer. (Si fuera Primer Ministro, haría las vacaciones escolares más largas.) If I had wings, I could fly like Peter Pan. (Si tuviera alas, podría volar como Peter Pan.) - Hablar de algo que no se refiere al presente pero que puede ocurrir en el futuro. If I became astronaut, I would travel into space. (Si llegara a ser astronauta, viajaría al espacio.) - Dar consejos. En este caso, utilizamos If I were you en la if-clause y would en la main clause. 6
If I were you, I would study harder for this test. (Si fuera tú / Yo en tu lugar, estudiaría más para este examen.) - En estas oraciones utilizamos el Past Simple para la if-clause y el Conditional Simple (would) para la main clause. If I had time, I would help you. (Si tuviera tiempo, te ayudaría.) - En la Second Conditional podemos usar la forma WERE en la if-clause para todas las personas. Esto es obligatorio cuando se utiliza este tipo de oración para dar consejos. If he weren t so lazy, he would find a job. (Si no fuera tan perezoso, encontraría un trabajo.) If I were you, I wouldn t do that. (Yo en tu lugar no haría eso.) - En la main-clause también podemos utilizar un verbo modal (could, might, should, ought to, etc.) seguido de infinitvo en lugar del Conditional Simple. If he had the book, he might lend it to me. (Si tuviera el libro, podría dejármelo.) - Si queremos expresar un deseo para el presente o para algo que nos hubiera gustado que fuera diferente, utilizamos el verbo WISH seguido de una oración con el verbo en Past Simple. Si queremos utilizar el verbo TO BE en la segunda oración, utilizamos WERE para todas las personas. En muchos casos detrás de I WISH utilizamos COULD. THIRD CONDITIONAL Utilizamos la Third Conditonal para: - Referirnos a algo que podría haber sucedido en el pasado pero no sucedió. If he had lent me the money, I would have bought that car. (Si me hubiera dejado el dinero, habría comprado ese coche.) - Expresar como imaginamos que algo hubiera sido si las cosas hubieran ocurrido de forma diferente. If he had left on time, he wouldn t have missed his flight. (Si hubiera salido a tiempo, no habría perdido su vuelo.) I would have gone on holiday if I hadn t been ill. (Habría ido de vacaciones si no hubiera estado enfermo.) - Expresar nuestro pesar por algo que hemos o no hemos hecho o para ser críticos con las acciones de alguien. If I had been more careful, I wouldn t have broken the glass. (Si hubiera tenido más cuidado, no habría roto el vaso.) If he had followed the instructions, he wouldn t have damaged the CD player. (Si hubiera seguido las instrucciones, no habría estropeado el reproductor de CD.) - En la main clause también podemos utilizar un verbo modal (could, might, should, ought to, etc.) + have + participio en lugar del Conditional Perfect. If I had been more careful, I might not have broken the glass. (Si hubiera tenido más cuidado, podría no haber roto el vaso.) MIXED CONDITIONALS 7
Podemos crear Conditional Sentences utilizando la if-clause de la Third Conditional y la main clause de la Second Conditional. Este tipo de condicionales se refiere al resultado que una acción que sucedió en el pasado tiene en el presente. If I hadn t been so careless, I wouldn t be in trouble now. (Si no hubiera sido tan descuidado, ahora no tendría problemas.) 8
VOZ PASIVA Theory In English, the subject of a sentence is usually an actor that is doing an action. For example: The boy broke the window. In this sentence, the boy is the actor who did the action (breaking). The object of the sentence (the window) is what receives the action. The sentence is about the subject (the boy), which is more important than the object of the verb (the window). This is an active sentence, which is also called the active voice. The Passive Voice: "The window was broken by the boy." In a passive sentence, the situation is the opposite. We move the object of the verb (window) to the beginning of the sentence, so it can become the subject. This is how we build a passive sentence: Subject (The window) + BE verb (was) + past participle (broken) [+ by actor (by the boy)]* * the phrase by the boy is optional. Why do we use the passive voice? There are several reasons. Here are four of them. Reason #1: The object of the verb is more important. Example: "A body was found in the park." This sentence in the active voice is: "The police found a body in the park." Which is more important: the police (the subject) or the body (the object)? Answer: The body! That is the surprising information! And because the object of the sentence is the most important thing, we change the sentence to the passive voice. We move the object of the verb to the beginning of the sentence so it can become the subject: A body was found in the park (by the police). In this sentence, you probably don't even need to say "by the police" because that information isn't important. The most important thing is the body so it becomes the subject and the first word of a passive sentence. Reason #2: We don't know who the actor is. Example: "John F. Kennedy was killed in 1963." This sentence in the active voice is: "Someone killed John F. Kennedy in 1963." In the above active sentence, the subject ("someone") doesn't give us any useful information. We don't know who killed John F. Kennedy so there isn't really a reason to make "someone" the subject. Again, like reason #1, the object of the verb (John F. Kennedy) is the most important thing. Reason #3: The actor is obvious so you don't need to say it. Example: "English is spoken in many countries." This sentence in the active voice is: "People speak English in many countries." 9
Does the active sentence give us any useful information? No. Why? Well, when we see the verb speak, we know that we are talking about people. People are the only animals who would be able to speak a language like English. There can be no other subject. So, in this case, we can make a passive sentence to focus on the object (English). Reason #4: You don't want to say who the actor is. Example: "Unfortunately, the report wasn't finished on time." This sentence in the active voice could be: "Unfortunately, John didn't finish the report on time." Are you John's friend? If so, you might want to use the passive sentence. The passive sentence doesn't focus on the actor. In fact, it doesn't even mention John. By using the passive voice, we can take the attention away from the actor and just focus on the object that received the action (the report). The report wasn't finished on time. By not including the actor, the listener doesn't know who to blame. A good example of why we use the passive voice can be seen in this simple conversation: A: Where were you born? B: I was born in 1978. Did you know that both the question and the answer are in the passive voice? The word 'born' is the past participle of the verb bear (bear/bore/born). We don't ask "Where did your mother bear you?" nor do we answer "My mother bore me in 1978" because we want to talk about you, not your mother. Your mother is not important (Rule #1). In addition, we don't use the active voice because we know that your mother bore you. The only person that can give birth to a person is his or her mother. The actor is obvious so we don't need to say it (Rule #3) Note: You can only use the passive voice with transitive verbs. Transitive verbs, such as eat, throw, and read, are followed by a direct object. You can eat something, throw something, and read something. Intransitive verbs, such as happen, come, and die, are not followed by a direct object. You cannot happen something, you cannot come something, you cannot die something. Because intransitive verbs do not have a direct object, they cannot be used in the passive voice. I hope this is helpful. I have included some exercises below if you want to practice. - Matthew Barton / Creator of Englishcurrent.com 10
REPORTED SPEECH REPORTED SPEECH Theory Reported Statements When do we use reported speech? Sometimes someone says a sentence, for example "I'm going to the cinema tonight". Later, maybe we want to tell someone else what the first person said. Here's how it works: We use a reporting verb like 'say' or 'tell'. If this verb is in the present tense, it's easy. We just put 'she says' and then the sentence: Direct speech: I like ice cream. Reported speech: She says she likes ice cream. We don't need to change the tense, though probably we do need to change the person' from 'I' to 'she', for example. We also may need to change words like 'my' and 'your'. On the other hand, if the reporting verb is in the past tense, then usually we change the tenses in the reported speech: Direct speech: I like ice cream. Reported speech: She said she liked ice cream. Tense Direct Speech Reported Speech present simple I like ice cream She said (that) she liked ice cream. present continuous I am living in London She said she was living in London. past simple I bought a car She said she had bought a car OR She said she bought a car. past continuous I was walking along the street She said she had been walking along the street. 11
present perfect I haven't seen Julie She said she hadn't seen Julie. past perfect* I had taken English lessons before She said she had taken English lessons before. will I'll see you later She said she would see me later. would* I would help, but.. She said she would help but... can I can speak perfect English She said she could speak perfect English. could* I could swim when I was four She said she could swim when she was four. shall I shall come later She said she would come later. should* I should call my mother She said she should call her mother might* "I might be late" She said she might be late must "I must study at the weekend" She said she must study at the weekend OR She said she had to study at the weekend * doesn't change. Occasionally, we don't need to change the present tense into the past if the information in direct speech is still true (but this is only for things which are general facts, and even then usually we like to change the tense): Direct speech: The sky is blue. Reported speech: She said that the sky is/was blue. Reported Questions So now you have no problem with making reported speech from positive and negative sentences. But how about questions? Direct speech: Where do you live? How can we make the reported speech here? In fact, it's not so different from reported statements. The tense changes are the same, and we keep the question word. The very important thing though is that, once we tell the question to someone else, it isn't a question any more. So we need to change the grammar to a normal positive sentence.: Reported speech: She asked me where I lived. Do you see how I made it? The direct question is in the present simple tense. We make a present simple question with 'do' or 'does' so I need to take that away. Then I need to change the verb to the past simple. Another example: 12
Direct speech: Where is Julie? Reported speech: She asked me where Julie was. The direct question is the present simple of 'be'. We make the question form of the present simple of be by inverting (changing the position of)the subject and verb. So, we need to change them back before putting the verb into the past simple. Here are some more examples: Direct Question Where is the Post Office, please? What are you doing? Who was that fantastic man? Reported Question She asked me where the Post Office was. She asked me what I was doing. She asked me who that fantastic man had been. So much for 'wh' questions. But, what if you need to report a 'yes / no' question? We don't have any question words to help us. Instead, we use 'if': Direct speech: Do you like chocolate? Reported speech: She asked me if I liked chocolate. No problem? Here are a few more examples: Direct Question Do you love me? Have you ever been to Mexico? Are you living here? Reported Question He asked me if I loved him. She asked me if I had ever been to Mexico. She asked me if I was living here. Reported Requests There's more! What if someone asks you to do something (in a polite way)? For example: Direct speech: Close the window, please. Or: Could you close the window please? Or: Would you mind closing the window please? All of these requests mean the same thing, so we don't need to report every word when we tell another person about it. We simply use 'ask me + to + infinitive': Reported speech: She asked me to close the window. 13
Here are a few more examples: Direct Request Please help me. Please don't smoke. Could you bring my book tonight? Could you pass the milk, please? Reported Request She asked me to help her. She asked me not to smoke. She asked me to bring her book that night. She asked me to pass the milk. Would you mind coming early tomorrow? She asked me to come early the next day. To report a negative request, use 'not': Direct speech: Please don't be late. Reported speech: She asked us not to be late Reported Orders And finally, how about if someone doesn't ask so politely? We can call this an 'order' in English, when someone tells you very directly to do something. For example: Direct speech: Sit down! In fact, we make this into reported speech in the same way as a request. We just use 'tell' instead of 'ask': Reported speech: She told me to sit down. Direct Order Go to bed! Don't worry! Be on time! Don't smoke! Reported Order He told the child to go to bed. He told her not to worry. He told me to be on time. He told us not to smoke. 14
Time Expressions with Reported Speech Sometimes when we change direct speech into reported speech we have to change time expressions too. We don't always have to do this, however. It depends on when we heard the direct speech and when we say the reported speech. For example: It's Monday. Julie says "I'm leaving today". If I tell someone on Monday, I say "Julie said she was leaving today". If I tell someone on Tuesday, I say "Julie said she was leaving yesterday". If I tell someone on Wednesday, I say "Julie said she was leaving on Monday". If I tell someone a month later, I say "Julie said she was leaving that day". So, there's no easy conversion. You really have to think about when the direct speech was said. Here's a table of some possible conversions: Now today yesterday last night last week tomorrow then / at that time yesterday / that day / Tuesday / the 27th of June the day before yesterday / the day before / Wednesday / the 5th of December the night before, Thursday night the week before / the previous week today / the next day / the following day / Friday 15