Martin McDonagh's freewheeling and slightly surreal Irish national theatre, in-yer-face! The life and work of Martin McDonagh until 2009

Ghent University Faculty of Arts and Philosophy Martin McDonagh's freewheeling and slightly surreal Irish national theatre, in-yer-face! The life and work of Martin McDonagh until 2009 Supervisor: Prof. Dr. Jozef De Vos Paper submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master in de Taal- en Letterkunde: Engels Nederlands. by Rhea Vanhellemont August 2009

Thanks to Prof. Dr. Jozef DeVos, source of ideas, for bringing on Martin McDonagh as a subject in the first place, and for his help with finding the definite topic. Margot Vanhellemont, clever sister, for her comments during the whole writing process, on the early drafts as well as on the final text. Judith Van Doorselaer, enthusiastic friend, for reading a part of my thesis and making her useful intelligent observations. Raphaël Cielen, attractive distraction, for making up for the lost time by ardently encouraging me to finish my thesis before the second deadline. Nell X, noble stranger, webmaster of the one and only Martin McDonagh website, for sharing a passion with me and for her constructive remarks on some parts of my discussion of his work. Martin McDonagh, brilliant playwright, for existing and writing his witty and fecking great plays.

TABLE OF CONTENTS 1 Introduction p. 1-2 2 National (anti-nationalistic) Irish theatre: its development, p. 2-8 representatives and its influence on Martin McDonagh 2.1 The development of cultural nationalism in nineteenth p. 2-5 twentieth century Ireland: the Irish Literary Revival: 1898-1939 2.2 Characteristics and famous representative Synge and O Casey p. 5-7 2.3 Irish Nationalism and McDonagh p. 7-8 3 In-Yer-face-Theatre: characteristics and representatives p. 9-10 4 Martin McDonagh p. 10-17 4.1 Biography and work p. 10-14 4.2 An Irish storyteller? p. 14-16 4.3 As a writer p. 16-17 5 The trilogies p. 17-51 5.1 A mixture of nationalist and in-yer-face theatre p. 17-18 5.2 The Leenane Trilogy p. 18 5.2.1 Synopsis p. 18-19 5.2.2 Characteristics of Irish nationalist theatre in p. 19-29 The Leenane Trilogy 5.2.2.1 Realism p. 19-22 5.2.2.2 The challenging of the ideal image of the Irishman p. 22-29 and Ireland 5.2.3 Characteristics of in-yer-face-theatre in The Leenane p. 30-39 Trilogy 5.2.3.1 Language p. 30 5.2.3.2 The building up of tension: distrust, cruelty and p. 30-34 murder

5.2.3.3 Malice and morality p. 34-38 5.2.3.4 Black humour p. 38-39 5.3 The Aran Islands Trilogy p. 39-51 5.3.1 Synopsis p. 40 5.3.2 Characteristics of Irish nationalist theatre p. 40-45 5.3.2.1 Realism p. 40-42 5.3.2.2 The challenging of the ideal image of the Irishman p. 42-45 and Ireland 5.3.3 Characteristics of in-yer-face-theatre used p. 45-51 5.3.3.1 Language p. 46 5.3.3.2 Malice and morality p. 46-49 5.3.3.3 Black humour p. 49-51 6 Something different: The Pillowman p. 51-61 6.1 Synopsis p. 52 6.1 Characteristics of in-yer-face theatre in The Pillowman p. 52-57 6.1.1 Language and intensity p. 52-53 6.1.2 Standards and values p. 53-57 6.1.2.1 Right/wrong p. 54 6.1.2.2 True/untrue p. 54-56 6.1.2.3 Real/unreal p. 56 6.1.2.4 Art/life p. 56-57 6.2 The aspect of storytelling in The Pillowman p. 57-61 6.2.1 The balance between fact and illusion p. 58-59 6.2.2 The title story The Pillowman p. 60-61 7 Conclusion p. 62-63 8 Sources p. 63-67 8.1 Primary literature p. 63 8.2 Secondary literature p. 64-66 8.3 Websites p. 66-67

1 Introduction Davey: Your son will be dead and them fecks will be gone, and Inishmore can get back to normal then. Donny: It s incidents like this that put tourists off Ireland. (The Lieutenant of Inishmore, p. 42) Audiences are advised not to sit in the front row to avoid being splattered with stage blood, spectators are warned against the play s abrasive content and the abundant use of weapons on stage, critics condemn the playwright for using shock tactics (Young 2003) on the one hand and call him a dangerously prodigious master of theatrical form who has a talent that goes far deeper than most people understand (Jones 2003) on the other hand. The success of this both cherished and reviled playwright speaks for itself: Martin McDonagh decisively conquered the stage with his violent, hilarious and seemingly politically incorrect plays. The divergent reactions bring about one certainty: McDonagh s plays will hit you right in-yer-face. This paper provides a discussion of the important literary influences on Martin McDonagh s work. An Irishman living in Great Britain, McDonagh ingeniously intermingles the Irish national tradition of playwriting with the new British in-yer-face theatre. His oeuvre will be discussed closely, with special attention to the characteristics of both genres. Is the mixture of Irish national elements and in-yer-face characteristics homogeneous? Can an evolution be discovered in McDonagh s work? In the second chapter, the Heimat of the national Irish theatre is discussed, with a focus on its development, representatives, and the influences that can be found in the plays of McDonagh. Characteristics that appear in McDonagh s plays are the realistic setting, the further challenging of the ideal image of the Irishman, and references to Irish heritage, politics and Ireland s bloodspattered history. The third chapter then focuses on the new, violent British theatre form of which characteristics and representatives are given. In McDonagh s work, the brutality and explicit cruelty are present, as well as the abrasive language and dark humour. Chapter four centres entirely on the playwright himself. The biography is pieced together of information of several interviews given by McDonagh. A separate section is dedicated to the Irishness of McDonagh: can McDonagh be called Irish? And how does this influence his plays? To conclude this chapter, McDonagh s ideas about being a writer and what he wants to achieve is commented on. Chapter five and six focus on his plays. First, in chapter five, the trilogies, The Leenane Trilogy and The Aran Islands Trilogy, are thoroughly discussed and placed in the tradition of Irish national thea- 1

tre and in-yer-face theatre. In chapter six, finally, his last play to date, The Pillowman, is tackled. Chapter seven provides a conclusion with the findings of this paper. 2 National (anti-nationalistic) Irish theatre: its development, representatives and its influence on Martin McDonagh 2.1 The development of cultural nationalism in nineteenth and twentieth century Ireland: the Irish Literary Revival: 1898-1939 Theatrical performance in Ireland has never been truly Irish: the early forms of drama were always linked to the island s colonization by England (Diehl 2001: 102). This changed when feelings of nationalism arose during the fight for an independent Ireland. As a consequence of the growing nationalism, only plays that glorified Ireland were produced on the nineteenth century stage. For the reason that theatre has proven to be [i]n times of acute national consciousness [ ] the form of literature which makes the most direct impact on the people, becoming at times a means for propaganda, but ultimately the means by which the deeper life of the people is expressed (O Driscoll 1971: 12). Irish theatre in the nineteenth century consisted primarily in melodrama. The task of a melodramatic play is to present the audience with a nice and easy alternative for their daily lives. Stereotypical battles between good and bad forces are fought, always rushing to a happy end. Melodrama presented life [i]n a time of political, social, and artistic deprivation as [the nation] would want it to be rather than life as it was (O Driscoll 1971: 13). At the end of the nineteenth century, the interest in folklore and folk music grew: the discoveries made by nineteenth century scholars and antiquarians resulted in the translation and interpretation of the early sagas and the publication of a host of novels and poems set in a mythical heroic age or in a romantic Irish landscape (Fitz-Simon 1983: 133). Through the study of Irish folklore, an interest in the Irish language revived as well, acted out with deep nationalistic fervour by the members of the Gaelic League (founded in 1893). These elements added even more feelings of proud nationalism to the melodramatic plays. The predominantly melodramatic tradition did not give way until 1898, when the Irish Literary Theatre was formed by Lady Gregory, William Butler Yeats and Edward Martyn. Although they wanted to create a national theatre, they did not want to produce nationalistic plays; they did not want to lionize Ireland. Lady Gregory, Yeats and Martyn shared a passion for Irish 2

language and folklore and on their first meeting, in 1898, they started discussing the possibility of establishing an Irish theatre. Especially Yeats was an ardent supporter of the cause of a national drama. In 1886, when he was about twenty-one Yeats declared: I turned my back on foreign themes, decided that the race was more important than the individual (Fitz-Simon 1983: 135). Lady Gregory wrote in her autobiographical memories Our Irish Theatre that things seemed to grow possible as we talked, and towards the end of the afternoon we had made our plans, which existed in forming a little theatre to produce, among others, some of their own plays. These three founders all belonged to the Anglo-Irish Ascendancy 1. It is remarkable that they of all persons should have been responsible for the foundation of a theatre which in due course would express the spirit of an Ireland quite different from that known to other members of their social class [i.e. the Ireland of the peasantry] (Fitz-Simon 1983: 134). The Irish Literary Theatre broke dramatically with the political and melodramatic traditions that occupied the stage in Ireland (O Driscoll 1971: 13). Lady Gregory declares in Our Irish Theatre their desire to bring upon the stage the deeper thoughts and emotions of Ireland and states that they will show that Ireland is not the home of buffoonery and of easy sentiment, as it has been represented, but the home of an ancient idealism. They are confident of the support of all Irish people, who are weary of misrepresentation, in carrying out a work that is outside the political questions that divide us (Lady Gregory 1914: 8-9). She was wrong; the audience did not like the new nationalist plays at all. Through the new playwrights, J.M. Synge in particular (cf. 3.2), the Ireland they adored suddenly became the land of drunken, violent and brawly peasants. Most of the productions of the Irish Literary Theatre s first three seasons were staged by English actors. Not only were the actors non Irish, but also did the literary and theatrical strains which had their bearing on what was to become Ireland s national theatre [come] very much from outside Ireland (Fitz-Simon 1983: 136). Irish playwrights tried to find an intermediate position between the followers of Ibsen and the realistic drama of everyday life, and the followers of Maeterlinck and the symbolic drama of the inner life. Thus, the Theatre became one of opposites and presented rich, varied and very original plays though not intrinsically Irish. 1 Anglo-Irish is a term to describe a privileged social class in Ireland, the Anglican social elite. Its members were the descendants of the Protestant Ascendancy, and belonged mostly to the Anglican Church of Ireland (the state church of Ireland until 1871). The Protestant Ascendancy refers to the political, economic, and social domination of the former Kingdom of Ireland by a small group of wealthy landowners, establishment clergy, and professionals. (Blackwell and Hackney 2004: 93-94). 3

Only in the third season, in 1901, a play was produced on the stage of a professional theatre for the first time in the Irish language. It was the play Casadh an tsugáin by Douglas Hyde (1860-1949). While Hyde is called one of the most influential and inspiring figures of the Irish Literary Revival, he was never recognized as a good playwright even though his plays were nice, unpretentious comedies. The most important Irish plays of the nineteenth and twentieth century were written in English; plays in Gaelic simply remained unnoticed regardless of their quality and despite the fact that the State encouraged them actively (Fitz-Simon 1983: 138). Not only were influential Irish plays written in English, they were also performed by English actors. This situation came to an end when Yeats met the brothers William and Frank Fay, two Irish actors that ran the Ormond Dramatic Society and had experience in devising plays and sketches. The brothers had already performed professionally in small halls in Dublin and elsewhere. Yeats convinced them to use their talents for the cause of the development of the national drama. The Fays enthusiastically participated and renamed their group the National Dramatic Society. The Irish National Theatre now had a group of Irish actors and playwrights; what they still needed was a theatre building of their own. An answer to this problem came in May 1903; the Irish Literary Theatre gave two performances in London and impressed the London critics who described their show as if it had been the theatrical event of the year. The style of writing and acting was totally new, and the themes were unexpected for those who thought they would be shown some stereotypical Irish melodrama. A.B. Walkley of The Times wrote (Fitz-Simon 1983: 140): Stendhall said that the greatest pleasure he had ever got from the theatre was given him by the performance of some poor Italian strollers in a barn. The Queen s Gate Hall, if not exactly a barn, can boast none of the glories of the ordinary playhouse; and it was there that, only a day or two ago, a little band of Irishmen and women [ ] gave some of us, who for our sins are constant frequenters of the regular playhouses, a few moments of calm delight quite outside the range of anything which those houses have to offer [ ]. William Archer, the Nestor of the English critics, wrote about the company (Fitz-Simon 1983: 140): In almost all of them there was a clear vein of talent, while the work they presented was all of it interesting, and all of it exquisitely and movingly beautiful [ ] Annie Horniman, an enthusiastic English theatre manager, was also part of the audience and liked what she saw. Horniman had already designed costumes for a play of Yeats in the past and 4

had also financed some other plays. She was impressed by the Irish Literary Theatre and offered to provide and equip a small theatre in Dublin and maintain it free of charge for a number of years (Fitz-Simon 1983: 140). This small theatre happened to be a concert hall in Abbey Street. Since then the Irish Literary Theatre has been referred to as the Abbey Theatre. Horniman continued to finance the theatre until 1910. After the positive critiques in London, the Dublin audience felt that they could not stay behind and that they had to learn to like the new and truly Irish theatre. 2.2 Characteristics and famous representatives: Synge and O Casey Only with the imminence of independence, writers could begin to confront their audience with the truth about their nation. In the beginning of the twentieth century, Irish national writers initially upset their countrymen s preconceptions and propaganda, for they presented Ireland, not as her political apologists would wish her to be seen, but as she was (O Driscoll 1971: 9). The playwrights abandoned the melodramatic genre and wrote from personal experience. In doing so they developed an exceptional style that contradicted with the demand and expectation of their nation (O Driscoll 1971: 9). The Irish audience reacted acutely sensitive to this new kind of Irish theatre and it felt called upon to do battle for what it believed to be the honour of the nation (O Driscoll 1971: 10). The honour of the nation consisted in what the Irishmen believed in their hearts to be true; that the Irishman combined in his nature a set of unique virtues: piety, loyalty, tenacity, love of his hand, love of country, concern for his family and friends (Boyce 1982: 254). Typical of the new Irish theatre was that it rebelled against this belief and that it often took themes from traditional forms of peasant and rural life. Also the artistic style of the company was revolutionary: in order to ensure that the play itself was the focus of attention, the emphasis was on beauty and simplicity in all aspects of stage presentation (Worall 2006: 12). This minimalism contrasted with the commercial English theatre staging of the time with elaborate sets and costumes and celebrity actors. The plays also presented a more realistic approach of the image of the peasantry, in opposition to the image of the stage Irishman : the Catholic peasant as the repository of noble qualities (Worall 2006: 14). Another typical feature of the new theatre was that the characters were cruel and violent, yet also deliberately presented with lots of humour. Not a romantic view of the peasant class was now staged, but a rather satirical presentation 5

of an enclosed community. In the plays constant balance existed between realism and the poetry inherent in the characters and the themes. Realism was present in the everyday speech and occupations of the peasantry in a rural atmosphere. Also characteristic of the new plays were the strong reactions they evoked. Synge and O Casey were two prominent Irish writers who dared to write about their own nation in non-muffled terms. In their plays, they presented with uncompromising brutality the suffering of people who in the deprivations of their daily lives found little solace in nationalistic abstractions, whose only weapons for survival were not fabricated idealisms but their own native cunning and their own native wit (O Driscoll 1971: 14). John Millington Synge (1871-1909), famous for the great Irish play The Playboy of the Western World, is seen, by Fitz-Simon, as the figure for which the Irish Literary Renaissance had been waiting (Fitz-Simon 1983: 150). Synge s writing is a fusion of Gaelic and European traditions expressed in a language that is neither Standard English nor Irish (Fitz-Simon 1983: 150). In May 1898, Synge went to the Aran Islands, following a suggestion from Yeats. During his visit there, he took photographs and made notes on the way of life and language of the islanders. From then until 1902, he spent every summer on the Aran Islands. On the 27th of June 1898, he met Lady Gregory, Martyn and Yeats while they were planning to produce Celtic and Irish plays in Dublin. Seventeen years later, in 1905, Synge became one of the three directors of the Irish National Theatre Society (Martyn had left the society by then). Because Synge was the only one of the three living in Dublin, he began to play a very active role in the theatre management. At that time, he was already working on The Playboy of the Western World, and soon the society started the rehearsals of his most famous play. On 26 January 1907, The Playboy was staged for the first time and became instantly notorious 2. Synge s plays were produced at a time of intense nationalist ferment ; the nationalist agitators in the audience reacted hurt because they felt that the plays insulted the Irish character or the Irish nation especially since Synge had a Protestant background (Fitz-Simon 1983: 145). It is true that the characters in Synge s plays are very close to the soil, or else they are vagrants, constantly speaking of the earth, of roadsides and ditches (Fitz-Simon 1983: 150). It was not only the audience who failed to recognize Synge s genius, also the players and other members of the National Irish Theatre Society had 2 All dates taken from the overview John Millington Synge: 1871-1909 in Synge, J.M. (2006), The Playboy of the Western World, Methuen Drama: London, p. iv-viii. 6

their doubts. Lady Gregory wrote about the script: We were almost bewildered by its abundance and fantasy, but we felt, and Mr. Yeats said very plainly, that there was far too much bad language (Fitz-Simon 1983: 156). For the second performance of the play, the police was present to deal with the continuous uproar during the play. Because of these turbulent theatre nights, the Abbey Theatre got enormous publicity. The Irish critics reacted very sensitively to Synge s view of Irish life; The Evening Mail 3 dubbed him the dramatist of the dung heap. The negative critiques were undeserved; The Playboy is a very complex comedy interlaced with tragic feeling [a characteristically Irish trait]. A unique consistency. It contains elements that are in turn farcical, tragical, sentimental, melodramatic, romantic and wildly comic (Fitz-Simon 1983: 155). Again, London provided recognition. In the summer of 1908, The Playboy was performed in the Great Queen Street Theatre, where it was immediately recognized as a masterpiece (Fitz-Simon 1983: 158). In 1909, Synge died and a chapter of the Irish Literary Theatre was closed; also the Fay brothers departed due to disagreements on management policy and the end of the subsidies by Annie Horniman. Synge influenced two whole generations of playwrights in the usage of certain themes (peasantry, the common people), realistic speech, and the humorous depiction of some characters. After the death of Synge until the demolition by fire of the Abbey property in 1951, the outstanding Irish achievements in the theatre are the plays of Sean O Casey (1880-1964) (Fitz- Simon 1983: 160). O Casey is said to dominate the history of Irish drama after the independence. His demythologizing attitude in the Dublin trilogy initiates the stance taken by Irish playwrights after him. 2.3 Irish nationalism and Martin McDonagh Synge and O Casey smoothed the way for generations of young playwrights. Also Martin McDonagh is tributary to this literary inheritance. In McDonagh s work the ideal of the melodramatic Irishman is challenged further and the melodramatic Ireland is further demythologized. Piety is exchanged for disrespect for priests, loyalty makes place for jealousy and treason, tenacity is still present but then in the state of being drunk. The love of the country is completely 3 Introduction by Non Worall to Synge, J.M. (2006), The Playboy of the Western World, Methuen Drama: London, p. 14. 7

abandoned since almost every character in McDonagh s plays wants to flee Ireland. This fleeing of the country also has a realistic resonance, since due to unemployment, a lot of Irish people moved to Great Britain or even America (e.g. McDonagh s own parents). The concern for family and friends is non-existent: children slaughter their parents, brothers fight, a mother lies to her daughter In Synge s work there was still a lot of realism, he mimetically represents a stable, coherent sense of Irish identity [through the villagers] (Diehl 2001: 105), not so with McDonagh who abandons the realist frame [ ] and opts instead for a more open-ended and ambiguous narrative (Diehl 2001: 106). McDonagh s plays often start realistically: the characters are real, everyday figures who talk their dialects and references to Irish history and heritage add to the realistic value. However, underneath the surface a surreal feeling starts to develop, strange events pop up and sudden absurdist twists diminish the realistic outset. McDonagh establishes ambiguity in his plays through shifts in characterization and the deliberate choice for an open ending. In doing so he rejects the possibility that identity is either stable or coherent (Diehl 2001: 107). A very important element, which adds to the surrealist feel in McDonagh s work, is storytelling. Lots of fairytale elements or folklore references are present. Asked about his choice for fairytales, McDonagh answers that it is the dark side of the tales that inspired and intrigued him. In rereading the Grimm s, they re pretty bloody dark. It was interesting to compare my memory, what I remembered about the fairy tales, and then to see the actual text. [ ] Little Red Riding Hood is a bloody dark story. And in the original it s quite horrific at the end; they cut the wolf open. I like the details. They cut the wolf open, took out Little Red Riding Hood and her friend. They put rocks in the wolf s stomach, and sewed him back up with green wire. They watched him as he awoke, and waited until he jumped out of bed in fright at everybody watching him, and dropped down dead cause the stones were grating against his intestines! I would love to write something as horrific as that if I could (O Toole 1998). Thus, the speed and violence in his plays (cf. 3. In-yer-face theatre) stem partly from this obsession with storytelling and fairytales. The ultimate example of this balancing between realism and fiction is The Pillowman; storytelling lays at its basis. The Irish nationalist inheritance will be discussed in more detail in the context of McDonagh s plays in chapter 5 and 6. 8

3 In-yer-face theatre: characteristics and representatives In the nineties, a new form of British theatre emerged, which challenged the common boundaries by bringing taboos on stage. It is drama that takes the audience by the scruff of the neck and shakes it until it gets the message (Sierz, 2000: 4). This drama is called in-yer-face theatre because its purpose is to shock the audience; the playwrights test how far they can go. Sierz (2000: 4) mentions the New Oxford English Dictionary definition of in-your-face: blatantly aggressive or provocative, impossible to ignore or avoid. He further sums up the distinguishing features of this kind of theatre: the language is usually filthy, characters talk about unmentionable subjects, take their clothes off, have sex, humiliate each another, experience unpleasant emotions, become suddenly violent (Sierz, 2000: 5). What is more, the playwrights mix their cruel stories with clever humour. The audience will at times be torn between horror and laughter. In-yer-face theatre is thus not just about showing violence on stage or about using bad language. It is mainly about the relationship between stage and audience. In an interview in 2003, Sierz states 4 that [in-yer-face theatre] is about that relationship being communicated at a very heightened emotional level. It's a bit like punk rock. A lot of young writers I have spoken to say that they want theatre to be as exciting as a gig. That was their project.' The powerful and shocking images are bound to cause extreme reactions: either people respond with disgust and indignation, or they are convinced that it is the best theatre they have ever experienced. That is what makes in-yer-face theatre that distinctive: it is theatre that gets under one s skin anyhow. To see such a play is a baffling experience; it is a confrontation with one s standards and values. It challenges the distinctions people use to describe their identity: human/animal, clean/dirty, healthy/unhealthy, normal/abnormal, good/evil, true/untrue, real/unreal, just/unjust, art/life (Sierz, 2000: 6). All these aspects are even more striking because they are put live on stage; the story does not get to the audience indirectly like it does through films and books. The actor, a real person, is actually present; hence if this person is naked or if he/she is assaulted brutally, it evokes a stronger reaction than when the same thing is shown in a film. In-yer-face theatre compels the audience to look at ideas and feelings they would normally avoid, because those ideas remind them of the awful things human beings are capable of (Sierz, 2000: 6). 4 Interview on: http://www.culturewars.org.uk/2003-02/sierz.htm visited on 06.07.2008 9

Sierz 5 lists the in-yer-face playwrights and splits them into two groups. He calls the first group the big three of in-yer-face theatre : Sarah Kane, Mark Ravenhill and Anthony Neilson. They were the most provocative new writers of the decade and had a big influence on British theatre. The second group includes Simon Block, Jez Butterworth, David Eldridge, Nick Grosso, Tracy Letts, Martin McDonagh, Patrick Marber, Phyllis Nagy, Joe Penhall, Rebecca Prichard, Philip Ridley, Judy Upton, Naomi Wallace and Richard Zajdlic. They were highly influenced by the big three, but each of them developed a personal style. Martin McDonagh incorporates in his brutal in-yer-face theatre some elements of Irish nationalist theatre. He mixes the brutality, the dirty language and the challenging themes with rural Irish elements. He portrays the Irish peasantry as violent and drunk aggressors. In blending in-yer-face theatre with Irish nationalist theatre, McDonagh carries the work of Synge and O Casey to the next level. The result of this blend is a baffling exposure of men s cruelty. McDonagh is very interested in the darkness in every human being; he does not believe in purely good people. He states: Well, we're all cruel, aren't we? We're all extreme in one way or another at times, and that's what drama, since the Greeks, has dealt with. I hope the overall view isn't just that, though, or I've failed in my writing. There have to be moments when you glimpse something decent, something life-affirming even in the most twisted character. That's where the real art lies. See, I always suspect characters who are painted as lovely, decent human beings. I would always question where the darkness lies (O Hagan 2001). The in-yer-face elements will be discussed in detail in relation to McDonagh s plays in Chapter 5 and 6. 4 Martin McDonagh 4.1 Biography and work Martin McDonagh was born in London in 1971 to emigrated Irish parents 6. His mother is originally from Killeenduff, Easky, County Sligo and his father from Lettermullen, Connemara, County Galway. In 1989, when Martin was sixteen, his parents moved back to Ireland. After they left, Martin quit school and lived alone with his elder brother John in South London. Martin was deliberately unemployed for the following five years, which made it possible to spend a lot 5 http://www.inyerface-theatre.com/what.html 6 http://www.irishwriters-online.com/martinmcdonagh.html 10

of time at home. He states: I didn t want to educate myself toward some kind of job. I didn t even want a job. I didn t want a boss (O Toole 2006). Because Martin s mother insisted that he find work, he would go on interviews and make his lack of interest so obvious that he never got any jobs. Martin survived happily on unemployment benefits (fifty dollars a week): he played snooker, watched television, and read books that John brought home. After a while, he started to experiment with writing through his brother John, an aspiring screenwriter 7, and spent his time at home writing short stories, films and radio plays. Influenced by John s talk about filmmakers and writers, an idea began to take shape in Martin s head: [h]ere was a job where all you had was your head, a pencil and a piece of paper. That's the coolest kind of job there is. For a teenaged school drop-out, being a writer seemed the perfect excuse for sitting around the house all day and not doing anything in particular: [i]t was unemployment with honour, I never thought I'd get anywhere (Lyman: 4). When McDonagh turned twenty-one in 1992, he lost his unemployment benefits and started working part-time for the Department of Trade and Industry. At that time he wrote television scripts and short stories. None of them worked out. He started writing radio plays and sent off twenty-two of them to the BBC and other stations. Only one Australian station wanted to produce two of his radio plays; his radio career was not a huge success either. In 1994, his brother John won a fellowship to study screenwriting at the University of Southern California and moved to Los Angeles. McDonagh quit his job at the Department of Trade and Industry and, alone in the house in Camberwell, began to write every day (O Toole 2006). It was then that he wrote the drafts of all his plays that have been produced thus far. Convinced by the geniality of his plays, McDonagh started to send off copies to theatre companies. In the spring of 1995, Garry Hynes, the director of the Druid Theatre in Galway, read the script of A Skull in Connemara. She states: [a]s soon as I read the dialogue, I wanted to hear it, to the degree that I started reading it aloud to myself. I very clearly remember reading it aloud and throwing myself on the floor in paroxysms of laughter (O Toole 2006). She contacted McDonagh, and asked for more of his work. He sent her the rest of The Leenane Trilogy, and Hynes immediately bought the rights to produce all three. 7 John produced its first film in 2000, without much success, and wrote the screenplay of Ned Kelly, starring Heath Ledger and Orlando Bloom, in 2003. John was nominated for two awards for best screenplay: a Film Critics Circle of Australia Award, and an Australian Film Institute Award. All this happened after Martin already booked success with his plays. 11

Nothing was heard of Martin McDonagh until the first of February 1996, when his first play, The Beauty Queen of Leenane, opened at the Town Hall Theatre in Galway. Only a month later, the same play was produced at the Royal Court Theatre Upstairs in London. The Beauty Queen of Leenane turned out to be a big hit. In 1996, it won three major awards: the George Devine Award and The Evening Standard for Most Promising Playwright, and the Writer s Guild Best Fringe Play. The Beauty Queen also won four prestigious Tony Awards when it opened on Broadway in New York. McDonagh, not used to public attention and fancy occasions caused a scandal at the London Evening Standard Theatre Awards ceremony, which was held at the Savoy Hotel. He relates the evening as such: I was so nervous at having to collect it that myself and my brother got tanked up on vodka, and the vodka really kicked in by the time we arrived at the Savoy. And we were a little bit rowdy when they started toasting the Queen [of England], good Irish boys that we were. And Sean Connery came over and told us to shut up and I told him to fuck off. He backed away and we left, and I can t remember a single thing about the rest of the event. Apparently I kissed Jessica Lange, but I have no memory of that whatsoever (O Toole 2006). After the premiere of The Beauty Queen, with remarkable speed, other plays came, followed by more recognition and a celebrity status for the playwright. The Daily Telegraph declared McDonagh perhaps the most promising playwright to have emerged in Britain over the past 10 years (Lyman: 2). At the age of twenty-seven, in 1998, Martin was the first playwright since Shakespeare to have four plays running in London at the same time to which McDonagh answered and mine were better (Lyman 1998: 3). McDonagh s following plays are The Cripple of Inishmaan (December 1996), A Skull in Connemara (June 1997), The Lonesome West (July 1997, nominated for a Tony Award for Best Play in 1999), The Lieutenant of Inishmore (April 2001, nominated for a Tony Award for Best Play in 2006) and, for the time being his most recent published play, The Pillowman (April 2003). The Pillowman won the Laurence Olivier Award for Best New Play in 2004 8, and was nominated for a Tony Award for Best Play in 2005. The remarkable speed of the succession of plays is due to the fact that he wrote the first drafts of his entire dramatic corpus (all six of his produced plays and a seventh that he finds awful and forbids to be produced) in the nine-month period in 1994 during which his brother John was away. 8 McDonagh, M., 2003. The Pillowman. Faber and Faber Limited, London. (On the back cover.) 12

After writing The Pillowman, McDonagh focused on his real passion: writing and directing movies. His first cinematic experiment resulted in the prizewinning action short film Six Shooter 9. In an interview (Abeel 2008) about his feature film debut In Bruges (2008), McDonagh states: I was really scared of the move [from theatre to film] in lots of ways because I always had a healthy disrespect for theatre. I always tried to write plays that a film fan, which is what I was, would like. Plays for people who don't like plays. And because I had a disrespect for the form - at the outset, anyway - it was easy to write plays that were kind of different and shook things up a little bit. But then with film, I'd always loved everything about great cinema. So it was much harder to write a script [.]. It took longer than the plays. McDonagh affirms that he prefers films and that he knows little about theatre. In his own words: I only started writing for theatre when all else failed. It was a way of avoiding work and earning a bit of money (Sierz 2000: 222). And more: I would be unhappy if I wrote ninety good plays and didn t make a good film. But if I made one good film. If I made one brilliant film, one really, really good film, I d be happy. One would be enough [ ]. [W]ith a film, if they get it right, it s there forever. That knowledge that a work of beauty will always be there to inspire somebody (O Toole 1998). Be that as it may, it is in the first place his body of plays that made him the famous artist he is today. What is more, we should probably nuance his bold statements; it could be so that McDonagh only diminishes the art of playwriting to shock the enthusiastic theatre critics and create in line with his offensive plays an image of an enfant terrible or a new sort of angry young man 10. It is important for that matter to moderate McDonagh s quotes, flip them around and look at them again. He has, plenty of times, said and done things merely to shock or entertain or even hide behind a persona. Now, 2009, McDonagh has written a new play: A Behanding in Spokane 11. Unexpectedly, since it seemed that he had permanently exchanged theatre for films. Unlike his other plays (but like The Pillowman) this story does not take place in Ireland. A Behanding in Spokane is set 9 In Six Shooter McDonagh tells a typical violent McDonagh-story about a cruel kid that is responsible for the death of his mother and the suicide of a woman. The kid dies during a gunfight with the police. 10 Diehl (2001: 107) talks about McDonagh in the context of the Angry Young Man movement: Because McDonagh does not articulate visions of hope for an altered future, but instead remarks on the emptiness of older social structures, he shares some thematic concerns with the movement known as angry young man drama. [T]his claim stands in direct opposition to McDonagh s [statement]: You don t need to pay ten quid to be lectured to. [A]s long as you tell good stories, people will be more interested than they will in whatever political question is going around that month or that year. 11 http://www.martinmcdonagh.net/ visited on 19.05.2009. 13

in Spokane, a small town in Washington, in the United States of America. The four-member cast includes a man in mid- to late 40s who is missing his left hand and a black man and a white chick (Schwartz 2009). The identity of the fourth person has not been revealed yet. Although the play is not set in Ireland, it is still very Martin McDonagh. The handicapped man wants his left hand back and the couple, trying to trick him, ends up getting tied to a radiator with a bomb that will go off if they stir. This will be another bloody, gore and hilarious McDonagh production. It's brand new, McDonagh said when asked about the play. It's still under wraps but it should be for the next season. It is exciting to see what McDonagh will do with this new American element in the play and whether he will be able to pull off an American idiom. Both in his first and last play and in his film, the in-yer-face characteristics are present: a lot of violence is shown, raw language is used in quick and witty dialogues, and the audience is challenged in many ways. These characteristics will be discussed within the context of McDonagh s work in Chapter 5 and 6. 4.2 An Irish storyteller? Martin McDonagh s plays breathe out Irishness: the setting, characters, tradition of storytelling, speech and religion. Both of his trilogies are set in the Irish places he knows intimately: the Aran Islands and Connemara. According to O Hagan (2001), these are two of the most mythologized and elementally beautiful areas of rural Ireland. Irish culture has a tradition of storytelling, an oral tradition and a whole body of inherited stories that pop up in contemporary culture. In an interview with Fintan O Toole (1998), an important drama critic, McDonagh talks about the Irishness of his plays. On O Toole s question whether growing up in a mixed Irish-English background has had any influence on McDonagh s work, McDonagh answered: [t]hinking about being Irish only came into my life when I decided to write Irish plays. Before that, I tried to write a few re-workings of Irish fairy tales or myths I d heard growing up. But none of them were specifically Irish at that point. The whole history of Irish storytelling didn t really come into it, and has only come into it in the last two or three years. Actually, McDonagh claims, there is not really much Irish influence at all: [i]f I was Italian or Luxemburgian, they would be the same stories. It depends on the way you see the world, to me anyway, more than the way you ve been brought up or your history of storytelling. McDonagh claims that he did not even read many Irish works before. However, this bold statement should be questioned. Even though 14

there are much differences between Synge (who claims to be a realist) and McDonagh (who only claims the title of storyteller), there is a possibility to see some similarities between for example Synge s The Playboy of the Western World and McDonagh s The Cripple of Inishmaan, thematically (bold women, the acceptance towards violence, ). It could be possible that McDonagh secretly or even unconsciously parodied Synge at some point (Diehl 2001: 104-105). Be that as it may, the playwright continues to give interviews in which he states that influences mainly stem from American culture and not in the least American movies: the films of Martin Scorsese, Sam Peckinpah and Sergio Leone. Alongside these films, McDonagh puts forward as his main source of inspiration the raw punk rock of The Clash, The Sex Pistols and The Pogues (O Hagan 2001). The Clash had taught him to be sceptical of the established power, but The Pogues, a London Irish punk band that mixed the harsh violence of The Sex Pistols with the lyrical storytelling of traditional Irish ballads, offered a worldview that would become important for his work: they showed McDonagh that he did not have to abandon his Irish heritage; he could make use of it instead. McDonagh states about The Pogues: Even while they were trying to destroy the crap side of Irish folk, they still had brilliant lyrics, brilliant tunes, and a love of music. Maybe not consciously, I was beginning to get the same idea: taking the parts you love and destroying the parts you hate (O Toole 2006). Like The Pogues put raw new lyrics to old Irish tunes, McDonagh s plays submit the devoutness of Irish Catholicism and nationalism to impertinent satire. McDonagh admits that after he had written his first plays, he became more aware of the tradition of Irish storytellers. The Banshees of Inisheer 12, the third play in the second trilogy (i.e., The Aran Islands Trilogy), has as chief subject Irish storytellers in the countryside telling the myths, the stories and legends. Although McDonagh acknowledges the existence of such an Irish storytelling tradition, he adds (O Toole 1998): it would be phony of me to say I have anything to do with Irish storytelling. The plays are Irish stories, and I hope someday they ll be recognized as Irish stories But for me, now, I feel kind of phony. Maybe I m just having a bad morning. I hope someday they ll be regarded as true Irish stories, I don t think they are at this minute. It is interesting that McDonagh feels phony when calling his work Irish. This feeling is deeply rooted in the still existing tension between Ireland and England. When the Irish press does not like his work, they tend to make him out to be more British but when he does well, they claim his work 12 This play was never published. 15

as Irish. For example, he was nominated for Best Irish Director at the Irish Film & Television Awards this year for In Bruges, whereas other Irish journalists have accused him of mocking the Irish on stage. The Irish British relationship remains a touchy subject. O Toole (1998) remarks that there is one aspect of Irishness that is the most powerful, that will be inherent in any Irish work: Catholicism. Is this element of Irishness present in McDonagh s work? Did religion influence his plays? McDonagh answers that he never set out to comment on Catholicism or priests but that seeing The Leenane Trilogy again in Sydney [...] was interesting. It was the first time I saw them without seeing through an English or Irish person s eyes, it was completely new and fresh. But all the seemingly anti-clerical or anti-catholic or anti-christian jokes still came through. For me they seemed more a comment on the faith than they were when I was writing them. [ ] All the things that have been going on in Ireland in the last few years, the revelations about child abuse by priests, were at the back of my mind while I was writing. Having somebody representing a gang of people, some of whose members are vicious bastards who are defended by the same system - it is like the mafia, the church with the cappos. In the interview with O Toole (1998) he talks about having been raised and educated by Catholics. He adds that he discarded religion at a certain age because of a personal disagreement with some aspects. At the same time he calls the priest in The Lonesome West a Christ-like figure and interestingly, he admits that he worked his childhood vision of Christ into his play unconsciously. In addition, he states that In Bruges is about Catholic guilt. Hence, even if he renounced his faith, it is interesting to see how much of an influence it might have still had on him, contrasting McDonagh s typical anarchist tough-talk. In the discussion of the plays, in chapter 5 and 6 will be elaborated on characteristics of Irish storytelling in McDonagh s work. In chapter 5, which focuses on the trilogies, the language, the setting of the Irish country side, the stereotypical characters and the strong Catholic religion is commented on. The tradition of storytelling present in the fairytale elements will be discussed in the context of The Pillowman in chapter 6. 4.3 As a writer Every interview with McDonagh shows the writer s point of view about playwriting. It is not a nice picture of a passionate playwright, but rather the image of a jokey nihilist. He is very clear about his preference of films and about the fact that he only started writing plays as the next step, 16

after failures in radio and television. Also, writing short stories was not an option: [t]hat didn't work at all - I have no prose style whatsoever (Lyman 1998: 3). Although he does not really care much about theatre, he has a special talent for it. Maybe it is just because he started without many hopes or much respect for the form that he can let thoughts and imagination run free, not bound by any formal restrictions. McDonagh claims that he writes plays in a few weeks: Beauty Queen is a play I wrote in a week and a half, Cripple was a play I wrote in five weeks. I think I could do the same things again and better next month if I put my mind to it (O Toole 1998). He has a regular writing ritual: I begin by sharpening six pencils and laying them out. My first draft is done in pencil on a pad. I do three pages a day. I like the speed of a pencil. Then I type it up. That s like my second draft, and I make changes while I type. Sometimes that s it (Lyman 1998: 4). After a few weeks of working on a play, he takes time off, not to visit friends or to go on a holiday, however. He did not even go to pubs: I haven't been out for years, not really. My life is staying at home and watching TV. It really is. I sleep a lot. I sometimes just sit and look out the window. At birds, at nothing. For hours (Lyman 1998: 4). Although McDonagh does not seem to take theatre very seriously, he is very serious about his growth as an artist (McDonagh does not care much for the word career ). He wants to move on and keep reinventing himself, keep on creating new things: [it] would horrify me to still be going in twenty years time if I hadn t written anything better than what I ve done so far (O Toole 1998). An evolution in his work becomes clear when comparing the trilogies with his last play The Pillowman. 5 The trilogies 5.1 A mixture of Irish national theatre and in-yer-face theatre Through the sharp observational talent and humour of Martin McDonagh and the combination of elements of Irish nationalist theatre and in-yer-face theatre, the trilogies provide a unique theatre experience. Influences of the Irish nationalist theatre are present in the typical Irish setting, the realistic framework and the further challenging of the ideal image of the Irishman: McDonagh s Irishman swears, gossips, is unfaithful, cannot be trusted and does not value his country. The plays start out realistically but the storyline features sudden twists. Tension is constantly bubbling underneath the surface and cruelty pops up in almost every character. Through McDonagh s exaggerations, the plays get a surreal feel to them. In McDonagh s own words: I 17

suppose I walk that line between comedy and cruelty, because I think one illuminates the other. And, yeah, I tend to push things as far as I can because I think you can see things more clearly through exaggeration than through reality. In incorporating cruelty and comedy in his plays, McDonagh adds to the tradition of in-yer-face theatre. Cruelty is present in the characters, their actions, and the abrasive language they use, humour is present in the witty dialogues and in the extremely absurd situations. Humour is also inherent in the surreal situations or twists, for instance, a large part of what makes The Lieutenant of Inishmore a comedy is its ending that final twist, where you realize that everyone pretty much died for nothing and you comprehend the universal irony of it all. 5.2 The Leenane Trilogy The three plays of The Leenane Trilogy 13 are The Beauty Queen of Leenane (BQL), A Skull in Connemara (SC) and The Lonesome West (LW). In this trilogy McDonagh draws a peculiar portrait of Leenane, a tiny village in county Galway in the west of Ireland. Western Ireland is known for its rural lifestyle, its thinly populated land, for its holding to old Irish traditions and for the green hilly landscape. Leenane is considered to have the smallest population of any village in Ireland. Its only source of fame is that it served as the location for the movie The Field (1990) starring Richard Harris and Tom Berenger. The Leenane of McDonagh is inhabited by murderers, torturers, aggressors and one self-pitying priest. The inhabitants live in a close community in which gossip and stories are told over and over again. Most young people experience the village as a suffocating hole and not one of the characters gets away undamaged in the end. In what follows the characteristics of both Irish nationalist theatre and in-yer-face theatre inherent in The Leenane Trilogy are discussed. First, for the sake of intelligibility, a short summary of the three plays is given. 5.2.1 Synopsis The Beauty Queen of Leenane, centres on the dysfunctional relationship between Maureen, aged forty, and Mag, her seventy-year-old manipulative mother. Maureen loathes her mother, and when she finds out that Mag has been sabotaging her future again as well as her last chance at 13 Passages from the play are taken from the edition of 1998: The Beauty Queen of Leenane and Other Plays, Vintage International: New York. 18