MEDIA STUDIES KEY CONCEPTS

MEDIA STUDIES KEY CONCEPTS

Representation - Key Concepts When analysing a text, we are interested in HOW the subject is represented, but also WHY they may be represented in that way. HOW Positively Negatively Over-represented Under-represented Empowering Disempowering Subverting a stereotype Reinforcing a stereotype 1

WHY To make an interesting narrative or story (humour/intensity) To comfort the audience by reinforcing their view of the world, providing a sense of security or continuity To promote or reinforce a particular view or ideology To reinforce or challenge hegemony* (e.g. a male hegemony) * - Power To enable audiences to relate to the characters To challenge audiences by offering an alternative perspective 2

Identifying the Target Audience How to Specify a Demographic: Start with age: Select an age range, e.g. 25-31, or... Describe the age of your target audience: (children, teenagers, young adults, adults or mature) e.g. 'a teenage demographic' or 'children' Then consider gender: e.g. 'female demographic' or 'men' Next, consider interests: e.g. 'fans of...', 'people who enjoy...' or 'people who are interested in...' Consider education, ethnicity, religion, cultural practice and sexuality: e.g. 'educated', 'Christians' or 'homosexual men' 3

Consider viewing habits: e.g. 'regular readers/viewers of...' Also consider the size/type of the audience: Is it a large (mass) audience or a small (niche) audience? Is is a mainstream audience or an alternative audience? Where relevant, also consider... DEMOGRAPHICS. Category A (Upper middle class - bankers, doctors); Category B (Middle class - teachers, middle managers); Category C1 (Lower middle class - office supervisors, nurses); Category C2 (Skilled working class - tradespeople); Category D (working class - unskilled manual labour); Category E (People at the lowest level of income - unemployed, students, pensioners) PSYCHOGRAPHICS. (More suitable for advertising) Adverts are more likely to be identified using psychographics rather than demographics, for example... Aspirers: people who want to appear rich and attractive. 'People who aspire to be...' Reformers: people who want social change, are unimpressed by status and make decisions based on their values (e.g. environmentalists) Explorers: adventurous people who like talking risks Mainstreamers: people who follow the crowd Strugglers: people who find it hard to achieve (often connected with poverty) IDEOLOGY (SHARED VALUES AND BELIEFS). Also consider audiences' values (e.g. concern for the environment) and ideologies (e.g. a predominant left or right wing stance, a distrust of the youth or sexism), which they may share with the text. PRIMARY AND SECONDARY AUDIENCES. Texts often have a primary target audience, but also a secondary one. For example, Pixar studios primarily make their films aimed at a young audience, but appeal to a secondary audience of adults (e.g. parents). 4

How are audiences targeted? MODES OF ADDRESS. Direct mode of address: The model looks directly at the audience, or the writing speaks to 'you'. Indirect mode of address: The model looks away, or the writing refers to 'people' or 'the public'. Formal mode of address: Using formal phrasing and terminology. Informal mode of address: Using more conversational language and slang. Friendly mode of address: The tone is optimistic and comforting. Hostile mode of address: The text challenges or insults the reader. Humorous mode of address: The writer/presenter is trying to make you laugh. The tone could be sarcastic or ironic. Serious mode of address: The writer/presenter wants you to take their point seriously. The tone would be sincere. ZONING AND STRIPPING. Zoning: The placing together of programmes of the same genre to encourage audiences to stay watching that channel, e.g. Channel 4 comedy programmes on a Friday evening or a string of Channel 5 crime dramas. Stripping: Placing programmes at the same time every evening so that audiences get used to watching them as part of their evening's viewing, e.g. Coronation Street and Eastenders. 5

BLUMLER AND KATZ 'USES AND GRATIFICATIONS' (1974). According to Blumler and Katz, these are the reasons why people consume media texts. Media producers may design their texts to appeal to these needs and desires. INFORMATION Finding out about events, seeking advice, learning, satisfying curiosity/interest, security through knowledge. PERSONAL IDENTITY Reinforcing personal values, finding models of behaviour (role models), identifying with people in the media, gaining insight into self. SOCIAL INTERACTION Finding a basis for conversation, identifying with others, gaining a sense of belonging, having a substitute for real-life companionship, gaining insight into the circumstances of others, helping to carry out social roles, enabling one to connect with family, friends and society. ENTERTAINMENT Escaping, being diverted from problems, relaxing, getting cultural enjoyment, filling time, emotional release, sexual arousal. 6

RICHARD DYER'S 'UTOPIAN SOLUTIONS' (1992). Audiences can be targeted by offering something that is lacking in modern life. COMMUNITY For example, giving audiences the illusion of sharing experiences with characters on TV. INTENSITY Watching exciting and interesting things happen, that are out of the ordinary and help people momentarily escape their dull little lives. ABUNDANCE James Bond's department never seem to be cut by budget constraints. The Queen Vic. never seems closed for refurbishments or out of lager. TRANSPARENCY In most media texts, you know what is happening and which characters are good and bad (this includes the news). Reality is more complex than this. ENERGY Our daily routines make us tired, so the media offer us action, vibrant colours and exotic locations. 7

How will the audience respond? Theorists used to believe that audiences were passive, accepting the messages of media texts without question. They believed that audiences were easily influenced and often imitated what they saw or read. Current thinking rightly sees audiences as more active and discerning, often challenging and questioning what they encounter in the media. STUART HALL'S RECEPTION MODEL (1980). Stuart Hall identified that there are three ways in which audiences can respond to a text. He said there were preferred, negotiated and oppositional readings. Preferred reading Negotiated reading The reader accepts the message that is intended by the writer and sees it as natural and transparent (e.g. that page 3 of The Sun is sexually alluring or a bit of fun ) The audience slightly modifies the original message, partly reflecting on their own views and experiences (e.g. that page 3 is not my kind of thing, but is still harmless) Oppositional reading The reader understands the original message, but chooses to criticise or go against it (e.g. that page 3 of The Sun is an example of base sexual inequality and crass female objectification) DAVID GAUNTLETT'S 'PICK AND MIX' THEORY (2002). David Gauntlett argues that audiences are very selective when engaging with media texts. They may pick their own values and identities when reading a text, whilst ignoring other parts. For example, when reading The Sun, readers may choose to ignore page 3 altogether and concentrate instead on stories they can relate to. 8

Narrative Theories & Concepts Linear narratives Linear narratives are stories that have a beginning, middle and an end (which happen in time order). Non-linear narratives These narratives play with the time order in which the story is shown and may include flashbacks (for example, in Pulp Fiction). Todorov (Disequilibrium) Todorov suggested that all stories are based on a change from equilibrium (where everything is in order) to disequilibrium (chaos/disorder). This can also be described as stability versus instability. Binary oppositions Claude Levi Strauss (as well as Roland Barthes') identified that narratives were often drawn out of the conflict of oppositions (good vs. evil, strong vs. weak). Roland Barthes' Enigma Code Texts can often tease the audience with mysterious or unexplained elements to draw them into the narrative. Why has that car exploded? Closure Most texts have closure (or a closed ending) where all of the problems are resolved and all of the questions have been answered. 9

Open ending Some texts have an open ending and leave some elements a mystery. Exposition Very often, narratives use exposition, where characters explain essential parts of the plot (this can include sub-titles or a voice-over). Propp s 'Spheres of Action' (1928). Vladimir Propp analysed one hundred Russian folk tales and found an identical narrative structure in each of them. He identified spheres of action, where a character would appropriate specific roles to progress the story. The eight character roles and their spheres of action are: 1. The villain: villainy, fighting, action 2. The donor or provider: giving, magical agent or helper 3. The helper: moves the hero, rescues from a pursuit, solves difficult tasks, transforms the hero 4. The princess and her father: a sought-for person who assigns difficult tasks, brands, exposes, recognises, punishes 5. The dispatcher: sends the hero on quest or mission 6. The hero: departs on search, reacts to donor, attempts difficult tasks 7. The false hero: takes unfounded glory for the hero's actions However, many of these theories have limitations. For instance, can you think of any texts which do not follow the above patterns? 10

Name of Shot (and shortcut) Camera Shots Example (with description) Useful for A wide view of the scene. Cuts the body just below the waist. Just above the head down to the lower chest - usually only one character in the shot. Cuts right into the character s face, usually focusing on facial features such as the eyes. The camera is positioned behind the character as if looking over the shoulder. 11

Taken from below the character as if they are looking down on us. Taken from above the character(s). The shot is shakey, as if someone is holding the camera. Shot from a character's viewpoint. Close-up (CU) High-angle shot Point-of-view shot (POV) Mid-shot (MS) Long shot (LS) Extreme close-up (XCU) Over-the-shoulder shot (OSS) Low-angle shot Hand-held camera 12

Sound Diegetic sound Sound which characters can hear (e.g. speech, the sound of explosions etc.) Non-diegetic sound Sound that has been added (which the characters cannot hear) e.g. voice over and music. Parallel sound Sound that complements the actions onscreen. Asynchronous sound Sound which contradicts or conflicts with the actions onscreen. Voice over A person who talks over the images, usually narrating or contributing to the story. Soundtrack Music or songs that create mood and atmosphere to the visuals. 13

Transitions (edits) A straight cut is when the second shot suddenly appears. Or the editor could use a dissolve where one shot momentarily merges into the next for a smoother transition. Or they could fade in or out (to white or black). Horror trailers make good use of fading in and out of black, for instance. Editing, which gives the illusion of time running smoothly and uninterrupted is called continuity editing (most productions use continuity editing). Editing, which assembles images from different places and times to create meaning (sometimes by juxtaposition) is called montage editing, often used by film trailers. Sometimes a film-maker may use ellipsis, where parts of the scene are cut, but the meaning remains clear (e.g. we may not see an actual murder, but we know who did it and how through shots before and after). Sometimes a film will use a specific shortcut (called a metonym) to signify something particular (e.g. the shots of a clock, with the hour hand moving, to show the passing of time). Newspaper Layout The masthead gives the name and date of publication. A puff is a small promotion of a product or service. The strapline is a short statement that sums up the story in a few words. The headline are words in large type found at the top of the story, grabbing the audience's attention and flagging up the narrative. The sub-heading usually informs the audience as to what is happening, where and when and also who is involved. The deck is the number of lines in a headline (e.g. a two-deck headline). A banner headline is a page-width headline. An exclusive is a story published by only one newspaper, e.g. a scoop. The byline is the name of the writer (by.). A pull-quote (where an interesting / funny / shocking quote from the article is put in a large font, often in a text box) can peak the audience s interest (more often used in magazines and supplements). The lead is the first paragraph or two of a news story. The caption is the headline under a photo. This can sometimes anchor the image to a specific meaning or message. The copy is the writing in a print piece (the word text refers to the whole product). You can also analyse the typography of a text (e.g. the font style, size, colour used). The way the text has been arranged to appear is referred to as the layout or graphology. 14

Magazine Cover Layout Barcode Direct Mode of Address Strapline Cover lines Masthead Main Cover Line Cover lines (2) 15

Advanced Theories/Concepts Theory/Concept Laura Mulvey - The Male Gaze (Mulvey, 1975) Description Mulvey argued that women are often presented as passive (often sexualised) 'objects' for the pleasure of the male gaze. John Berger - "Men act. Women appear." (Berger, 1972) In his book 'Ways of Seeing', John Berger argued that, in art: "Men act. Women appear." Similar to Mulvey, he argued that texts often present women as passive objects of beauty, while men are the decisive characters of action. Naomi Wolf - The Beauty Myth (Wolf, 1991) Wolf argued that, for women, beauty is an economic value. Women (more than men) need beauty in order to be successful and it is this value which the media often presents as being of prime importance. The Female Gaze (Gamman & Marshment, 1988) These theorists claim that men can also be positioned as sexualised objects for the pleasure of the female gaze. Winship (Winship, 1987) Winship argued that women need lifestyle magazines because they are excluded from mainstream culture and that they are encouraged to use products to please men. Intertextuality The concept that media texts reference or borrow from other texts (make an intertextual reference) perhaps in the form of a parody or pastiche. Moral Panics (Cohen, 1972) The concept of moral panic was developed as a result of Stanley Cohen's studies of youth groups in the 1960s and may affect how an issue is represented. Cohen argues that a moral panic occurs when society sees itself threatened by the values and activities of a... 16

Theory/Concept Description (continued) group who are stigmatised as deviant and seen as threatening to mainstream society's values. The process by which a moral panic develops involves stages: 1) The occurrence of a deviant act or social phenomenon 2) The act or problem being widely reported on in the media, e.g. initially on the news and then spilling over into internet chatrooms and incorporated into fictional narratives etc. Imagined Communities (Shaun Moore, 1998) Shaun Moore (1998) argued that media texts often allow audiences to perceive themselves as part of an imagined community, where the audience feel that they have something in common with other imagined members of the audience. Racial Stereotypes (Alvarado, 1987) Alvarado (1987) has suggested that there are four types of representations for members of the black community. The humorous e.g. Eddie Murphy The exotic models such as Naomi Campbell The pitied representations of needy black communities through charity advertising or films such as Blood Diamond The dangerous portrayed in news and documentary reports of black inner-city gangs or gun crime. Left and right wing (political ideologies) In short, left wingers believe in the community (e.g. increased taxes so the wealthy can take care of the poor, regulation of companies to avoid exploitation) and right wingers believe in the freedom of the individual (less tax and regulation and more freedom to make your own way in the world). Hegemony This can mean two things. Firstly: any dominant power (e.g. hegemonic masculinity), but can also be used to refer to the process by which making that power appear natural or 'common sense'. 17

News Values Theory/Concept Description This concept poses that news is prioritised according to the following criteria: Is it a negative story or bad news? Is there the potential for personalisation and human interest? Does the story have shock value? Does it feature or create celebrities out of people to whom the general public can relate? Is there continuity with this or other stories? Does the story have close enough proximity to the target audience (e.g. are British people involved?) 18

Analysing Moving Image HOW Visual Codes (mise-en-scene). Scenery Props Iconography Costume Technical Codes. Close up Mid shot Long shot (establishing shot) POV shot Zoom (in or out) Hand-held camera Pan High/low key lighting Graphic Montage Cut Dissolve Fade / Cross-fade Juxtaposition Ellipsis Genre Codes. Genre codes / tropes Repertoire of elements Hybrid-genre Sub-genre Subverts generic conventions Verisimilitude (realism) Narrative Codes. Linear narrative Non-linear narrative Closure (open or closed ending) Exposition Equilibrium/disequilibrium Enigma code Binary oppositions Propp's spheres of Action (Proppian hero/villain etc.) Technical Codes for Non-Fiction. Vox-Pops Narrator Presenter Anchor Audio Codes. Diegetic sound Non-diegetic sound Parallel sound Asynchronous sound Voice over Soundtrack 19

WHY Connotations To signify... To connote... To symbolise... To suggest... To promote or reinforce a particular view/ideology (e.g. to encourage the audience to view something in negative light) To appeal to the target audience To shock To enhance/make a more interesting narrative Uses and Gratifications So audiences can relate to the characters / content To provide information/advice/satisfy curiosity To gain insight into the circumstances of others To help escape, relax, provide sexual arousal Richard Dyer's Utopias Create a sense of community To offer intense experiences To signify abundance To enable the narrative to be transparent To create a sense of energy 20

Analysing Print HOW WHY Technical Codes. Masthead Puff Strapline Cover-line Deck Headline Byline Pull quote Lead Caption Copy Graphology Layout & Design. Juxtaposition Anchorage Mode-of-address Typography Colour scheme Narrative Codes. Equilibrium/disequilibrium Enigma code Binary oppositions Connotations To signify... To connote... To symbolise... To suggest... To promote or reinforce a particular view/ideology (e.g. to encourage the audience to view something in negative light) To appeal to the target audience To shock To enhance/make a more interesting narrative Uses and Gratifications So audiences can relate to the characters / content To provide information/advice/satisfy curiosity To gain insight into the circumstances of others To help escape, relax, provide sexual arousal Richard Dyer's Utopias Create a sense of community To offer intense experiences To signify abundance To enable the narrative to be transparent To create a sense of energy 21

Analysing Web-Pages HOW Technical Codes. Hyperlinks Banner-ads Web 2.0 UGC (User-Generated-Content) Buttons Header Footer Body Text-wrap Menu Animation Layout & Design. Navigation Juxtaposition Anchorage Mode-of-address Typography Colour scheme Genres. News Shopping/E-commerce Blog Wiki Social Education/Information Arts/Entertainment Intranet Promotional Connotations To signify... To connote... To symbolise... To suggest... WHY To promote or reinforce a particular view/ideology (e.g. to encourage the audience to view something in negative light) To appeal to the target audience To shock To enhance/make a more interesting narrative Uses and Gratifications So audiences can relate to the characters / content To provide information/advice/satisfy curiosity To gain insight into the circumstances of others To help escape, relax, provide sexual arousal Richard Dyer's Utopias Create a sense of community To offer intense experiences To signify abundance To enable the narrative to be transparent To create a sense of energy 22

Analysing Computer Games HOW Visual Codes (mise-en-scene). Scenery Graphic Iconography Technical Codes. Close up / Mid shot / Long shot etc. Zoom (in or out) / Pan High/low key lighting Graphic Montage / Cut / Dissolve Fade / Cross-fade Juxtaposition Ellipsis Gamer Audio Codes. Diegetic / Non-diegetic sound Parallel / Asynchronous sound Voice over Soundtrack Genre Codes. Repertoire of elements Hybrid-genre Sub-genre Subverts generic conventions Verisimilitude Strategy Simulation Role-play First-person shooter Third-person shooter Narrative Codes. Linear/ Non-linear narrative Closure (open or closed ending) Exposition Equilibrium/disequilibrium Enigma code Binary oppositions Propp's spheres of Action (Proppian hero/villain etc.) 23 WHY Connotations To signify... To connote... To symbolise... To suggest... To promote or reinforce a particular view/ideology (e.g. to encourage the audience to view something in negative light) To appeal to the target audience To shock To enhance/make a more interesting narrative Uses and Gratifications So audiences can relate to the characters / content To provide information/advice/satisfy curiosity To gain insight into the circumstances of others To help escape, relax, provide sexual arousal Richard Dyer's Utopias Create a sense of community To offer intense experiences To signify abundance To enable the narrative to be transparent To create a sense of energy

TABLE OF CONTENTS Representation: Key Concepts................. Identifying a Target Audience................. How are audiences targeted?.................. Uses and Gratifications Theory................. Richard Dyer's Utopian Solutions................ Audience Responses............................. Narrative Theories & Concepts................. Propp's Spheres of Action........................ Camera Shots...................................... Sound............................................... Transitions (edits)................................ Newspaper Layout................................ Magazine Cover Layout.......................... Advanced Theories/Concepts.................. p. 1 p.3 p.5 p.6 p.7 p.8 p.9 p.10 p.11 p.13 p.14 p.14 p.15 p.16 GUIDE SHEETS Analysing Moving Image......................... Analysing Print.................................... Analysing Web-Pages............................ Analysing Computer Games..................... p.19 p.21 p.22 p.23 24