Analysis 1 Martijn Hooning September 7, 015 n the following texts you find description and explanation of some analytical terminology short analyses to demonstrate and clarify these terms; music examples are either in the text, or in the seperate score-handouts. [ The phenomena am describing below are largely classical which does not imply that for instance Baroque music would not use cadences, or would be not 'structured'. But the Classical style is without any doubt the style where terms like antecedent, consequent, period etc. fit best. And it is largely through the study of compositions of the Classicists that most of this terminology has been developed. ] 1. closes /cadences Cadences often mark the end of a phrase or a structure, or the end of a section of the form; see for instance the beginning of the opening choir of Bach's Cantata No.39. Some closes are clear, others somewhat hidden, and weaker. We can distinguish: Perfect authentic cadence (PAC): in the final tonic chord both the top and bottom voices have the root of the tonic triad. Normally we see/hear the dominant before the final tonic and that dominant is V, in root position, so that the bass leaps 5^ 1^ (and ideally the top voice also moves by step: ^ 1^ or 7^ 1^. Good example: measure /3 of the Bach's Cantata 39. mperfect authentic cadence (AC): two possibilities: 1 The soprano (top voice) is not ending on the root of the tonic triad, but on 3^ or 5^; then the phrase is not 'entirely closed' (we sense the possibility of motioning on) The bass is ending on 3^, or not leaping to the root of the tonic triad, but reaching 1^ by stepwise motion; in both cases the cadence is weakened, even when the soprano ends on 1^ n the Bach example these posibilities are actually combined: in mrs. 7/ and 13/1 we observed that the bass reaches by stepwise motion (7^ 1^); at the same time the soprano is ending on 3^, thus contributing tot the 'imperfection' of the close. Half cadence (HC sometimes the term: semicadence is used): temporary ending on the dominant, normally V (the term applies to Classicistic music rather than to Baroque music: in homophonic music a half cadence tends to stand halfway a musical structure (and PAC or AC at the end). Good example: msr. 17 of the Bach Cantate: V stands at the end of a sequential pattern. A good example of how half cadence and authentic cadence 'behave' in a (pretty symmetrical) phrase is the beginning of the Haydn quartet: the first two measures, the 'question' end on V, whereas we see an 'answer' ending on in msr.. Three other forms of cadence are: Deceptive cadence (DC): an ending where the final tonic, after a preceding dominant chord is replaced by something else; we could say: the close 'goes wrong'. Normally we find that the leading tone (7^) is resolving, but that the is replaced by another chord (often V). Plagal cadence (PC): an ending where the final tonic is not preceded by a dominant, but by a subdominant (e.g.: V or ). Plagal half cadence (PHC): a temporary ending like the much more common HC, but not on the dominant, but on the subdominant, normally V. A good example is in measure 5 of the second movement of Beethoven's Sonate in D major Op. 10 No. (see page 7). Apart from the above, we can also make another distinction: we may speak of a complete cadence when in the cadence all three functions are represented (subdominant, dominant, tonic, normally in this order); we may call a cadence with only two 1
functions: incomplete (normally such cadences contain only dominant and tonic). The final cadence in the Bach Cantata in msrs. /3 is a good example of a complete cadence: on the notes Eb end C in the bass we find subdominant chords, on the D the dominant, and of course on the G the tonic.. phrases / structures / period When comparing the Bach example with the beginning of Haydn's String Quartet in C major, Op.76 No 3 we may observe (though genereralizing a bit..) that Baroque music tends to rather asymmetrical structures, and Classicistic music rather to symmetrical structures. The first measures of the Haydn quartet can easily be divided in ; both halves are subdividable in groups of 1 measure. And we find a clear question /answer relation, in the sense that the first msrs. 'pose a question' by aiming at the V, and the last msrs. 'answer' the 'question' by returning to the (HC versus AC). We can therefore call the first two measures (or: the first phrase): antecedent, and the last (or: the second phrase): consequent. Together a structure like this can be labelled: period. This Haydn example is not even the clearest example we can find. Compare for example this Haydn example with the beginning of Mozart's A major Piano Sonata. Here the motivic structure is more consistent, in the sense that the consequent is starting as a repeat of the antecedent, and only the end of the consequent differs (so that is reached instead of V). deally a period looks (more or less) like this: apart from the 'symmetry' in the harmony (antecedent V versus consequent ) we find motivic analogy as well: a b / a b'. To distinguish between situations like in the Mozart sonata, and situations like in the Haydn quartet (where the Mozart, Piano Sonata in A major, KV 331 beginning of the first movement motivic analogy is much less clear) we can use the term parallel period and describe the Mozart example with this term. The period in the Haydn example is much less clear: though the initial motif (first violin in msrs. 1 / ) is repeated (in the viola in 3/ ) it is much more 'hidden' than in the Mozart example. The first measures of Mozart's sonata can be put in a scheme like this: ( ` a b ) ( ` a b' ) HC PAC antecedent consequent period
3. homophony versus polyphony / imitation and sequence n polyphonic music voices act (more or less..) 'independent' from each other: they all may take the lead, but not in the same moment. This results in a texture with different rhythmical structures (and often: different 'speed') in different voices at the same time. n homophonic music one voice (often: the top voice) takes the lead, the other are accompaniment. The most important voice after the top voice then normally is the bass (as main carrier of he harmony). Rhythmically, the voices tend to be much more similar than in polyphonic music. n Bach's Cantata 39 we observe: 1. Durchbrochener Satz (or: durchbrochene Arbeit) in the beginning. Polyphony (with sequences and imitations) from measure 1 The first measures of Haydn's string quartet Op.76 No 3 on the other hand are clearly homophonic. When we look at (only) the flutes in msrs. 1-16 in the Bach example we see that they play 3 times the same pattern, but this pattern descends a second at both repeats. Such a situation is called a sequence (and in this case the sequence takes place in the top voices). We could label such sections 'sequence' in their entirity (in this case: 1-16), but we can also be more precise, and describe measure 1 as the model, 15 as the first sequence, and 16 as the second sequence. Together with this sequential pattern something else is happening: the two oboes are doing exactly the same as the flutes, but later (and a fifth lower). This is called: imitation (a certain element is repeated in another voice, or in other voices, at the same or at another pitch). Of course we cobserve a similar sequential pattern also in other voices (for instance: the bass: moves down a second every bar). At the same time we hear also a very important (very common) harmonic pattern: the harmony moves down a fifth each time the motif is played either by the flutes or the oboes: g c F Bb Eb a(dim) D The chords all fit in the key (G minor) therefore this pattern is called: diatonic sequence of descending fifths. We could also label the chords as degrees in G minor: V V V V. pedal point n measure 16 of Bach's Cantata 39 a pedal point is used (also sometimes called: pedal, or: organ point in elder sources). This is the situation that a tone (and by implication: a chord) is kept in the bass in a very literal way (long note), or in a more free way (we repeat, or 'play around' the tone). The higher voices move on, partly 'independent' from the pedal point so that we get the impression that the harmony is 'split' in two layers: the sustained harmony in the bass on the one hand, and the faster moving other voices on the other hand. The situation might become pretty, or very, dissonant: see measure 0 of the Bach example (or even more extreme: think of the beginning of the First Symphony of Brahms...). Normally 1. a pedal point starts and ends as a consonant situation: in the beginning and the end all the voices are part of the same harmony. pedal points on either V ('creating tension'') or on (often: 'extending the resting point') are the most common. 5. motives and groups of motives Motives are the smallest entity in a piece of music. Especially in the music of the Classicists is often clearly visable how phrases or even larger structures are developing from a single small group of notes. A motif consists of at least two notes (in fact: two 'beats' a motif might have no actual pitch, but just consist of rhythm, which shows that rhythm is at its basis always). The first movement of Beethoven'sSymphony No.5 is a fine example of how a composer can develop a comlete movement just from the 3
very first motif. We can distiguish (amongst other distinctions) between male and female motives: a male motif ends on a strong beat, a female motif ends after a strong beat. A motif can be considered the smallest possible musical entity. n order to label something as a motif, it has to have rhythm. This means also: any motif contains at least two notes (one note alone can not form a rhythmical pattern). We can distinguish: motives containing arsis and thesis, in other words: motives starting on a weak beat, and going at least until the next strong beat (for instance: upbeat and first beat of a measure) motives starting on thesis (=thetic motif), in other words: motives starting on a strong beat, and containing t least one more note after the strong beat (for instance: first and second beat of a measure). Apart from this distinction, we can also speak of female versus male motives (this is probably a bit oldfashioned wording, but nonetheless the difference is obvious, and worth noticing): a male motif ends on a thesis; logically, it must therefore contain an arsis as well (else it would contain only one note) a female motif ends after the thesis, on a weak beat; logically, it is not necessary that it contains an arsis before the thesis (but of course it can start on an arsis). Logical conclusion: a thetic motif is normally female: when we start on a strong beat we need at least one more note, which will probably stand on a weak beat. And another logical conclusion: it is possible to crete a motif even without using pitches (=rhythmic motif), but motives always must have some sort of rhythm. When applying these definitions to the example from Beethoven's Symphonie No. 5, we can say that the first two measures contain a motif, and that in measures 3-5 a second motif is played (sequence of the first motif). We then apply the term as stated above: 'motif' really refers to the smallest musical entity. And both motives contain aristhesis (and they are both 'male'). On the other hand, when speaking about music, we may also use the term 'motif'' a bit more loosely - as a term that decribes a more or less 'complete entity' and then we could label the first 5 measures of this Symphony as just one motif. Motivic work (motivische Arbeit) is a very important issue in music in general, and especially in music of the Classicists: repetions, sequences, variations or development of motives often lead to typical classical (often thematic) structures like period and sentence, and it plays also often an important role in the construction of for instance development sections. As said before: think that Beethoven's Fifth Symphony is a good example of how a piece can be developed from a single motif: almost everything in the first movement is in some way or other connected with the initial statement in measures 1 and. See the example on the following page, which shows some aspects of the first 1 measures of this movement.
6. Examples of more complex periods; extensions Periods can be defined as structures of measures (or, or ), in which the harmony is 'symmetrical' in the sense that the antecedent normally moves 'up' to the dominant, and the consequent normally 'down' to the tonic. We have also seen that normally both antecedent and consequent are dividable in two smaller groups of equal or similar length, and we have seen at least one example (Mozart's A major Piano Sonata) in which these smaller groups, because of their motivic content, can be labelled as a b and a b'. But this is not the only possibility: 5
other cadences may be used at the end of the antecedent and/or consequent; we can observe that the following combinations of cadences are possible in periodical structures: extensions may be used, either within the structure (= before the final cadence), or after the actual structure (= after the final cadence); we thus can distinguish between internal and external extensions. The structure can be more irregular, which is often caused by an (internal) extension, and/or a period can use another number of measures than, or 16. The first theme of Schubert's Piano Sonata in Eb major clearly uses a periodical structure at the beginning; a scheme of the first 16 measures could look like this: ( (6) V7 ) ( 6 V 6 6/ (V7) V (6) V7 ) 6 V 6 6/ V7 little dominant pedal point ----- a ------- ------------- b -------------- ----- a ------- ------------- b' -------------- antecedent consequent HC AC nterestingly, this period ends on AC; but as the antecedent ends on HC, we can still hear the end of the consequent as an 'answer' to the end of the antecendent (the consequent is more conclusive than the antecedent) so there is no reason to be in doubt about the periodical structure because of the AC. On the other hand, maybe the 'open ending' in measure 16 provokes the continuation of the theme as we find it in measures 17-. Here we see a second period, of 1 measures (antecedent and consequent both contain 6 measures). would divide both halves of this second period in measures. At the end, in measure, we reach a PAC, making pretty clear that the theme ends there (and we hear confirmation of this interpretation in as the pattern is radically changing immediately after the close). nteresting: the antecedent in this second period ends on DC. So we can conclude that the relation DC / AC can as well function as an alternative for the more 'typical' HC/AC-relation in a period: ( 6 (V7) V7 6 ) ( 6/ (V7) V (V7) V7 ) 6/ V7 prepared DC --------- a ----------- ---------- b ---------- --------- a ----------- ---------- b' ---------- antecedent consequent DC PAC 6
We reach a AC in measure 16 and even though it is an imperfect cadence: the first section of the theme ends here, and 16 could turn out to be the final bar of the whole theme. Therefore we can label measures 17- as external extension. n the first theme of the first movement of Beethoven's Violin Sonata No. 5 in F major on the other hand an internal extension is used. Here the antecedent of the period contains six measures, and think we hear measures 5 and 6 as 'extra' (or 3 and..). Another reason to think the antecedent ends in measure 6: here the HC is reached. The consequent has measures, and ends on PAC. t starts (in 7/) with the motif of the previous measures, but slightly changed which is still another reason to believe that the consequent starts in measure 7. And a last reason: we observe that, starting in measure 7, the harmony is moving in a different way, and at a different speed: 1 3 5 6 7 9 10 V V V7 V 6 V 6 / V7 Below you see the beginning of the second movement of Beethoven's Piano Sonata in D major Op. 10 No. : Here we observe that the antecendent contains five measures (and it is not very clear which measure actually can be heard as 'added') the antecedent ends on V and here the term plagal half cadence is applicable (and using this term we can distinguish 'open' phrases ending on a dominant from such phrases ending on a subdominant) the consequent is pretty 'free': the motives in measures 6 and 7 refer to measures 1 and, but are at the same time rather different (different pitch/register, and, maybe more important even: very different harmony); and the second half of the consequent refers only in a vague way to the second half of the antecedent. We can hear this theme rather as a 'continuous story', as opposed to the typical 'question/answer'-structure we normally find in periods. Apart from the motivic content the harmony also leads us to this interpretation, as the theme as a whole (when we leave out all the chromatic harmonies) basically forms just one cadence: 1 5 ---------> V ---------> 6/ V7 7 9
7. Sentence Sentences (or: sentential structures) can be seen as the opposite of periods. Whereas periods are based on symmetry in the harmony ('question/answer') and often parallelism between antecedent and consequent (a b / a b' ), and basically are 'closed' structures, sentences: are based on repetition and/or development of motives are not based on parallelism between antecedent and consequent, but rather on parallelism within the first half tend to have an 'open ending' (preferably HC) We may say that in periods the harmony ranks first. When there is no harmonic 'question/answer/relation (expressed by HC / AC, or by one of the alternatives, mentioned on page 5) a group of measures cannot be perceived as periodic. n a sentence motivic development ranks first. Sentences do not contain a 'question/answer'-relation between their first and second halves, which is a good reason not to label these halves as antecedent and consequent, but rather as presentation (or presentation phrase) and continuation (or continuation phrase). distinguish two main types of sentences: 1. sentences based on development of a motif. sentences based on repetition of a motif An 'ideal' sentence of the first sort (of measures) will look like this: measures 1 and present a motif (or a group of motifs) measures 3 and present a sequence of this motif Together these first four measures form the presentation. in measures 5 and 6 the motifs of respectively 1- and 3- return, but are shortened (measure 5 corresponding with 1-, measure 6 with 3-) in measures 7 and the sentence concludes with further development of the motif, and / or with a sort of 'conclusion' Together these four bars form the continuation. An open ending (half cadence) at the end is preferred, but not necessary. The first theme of Beethoven's Piano Sonata Op. No.1 is such an ideal sentence. The initial motif is repeated as a sequence in measures 3 and ; in 5 and 6 we see shortened repeats of the motifs in the first measures; the last two measures form a conclusion, and we end on HC: ( motif a ) ( 1 1 ) motif a motif a' (both shoretened) motief a' (sequence) motif b [ ( ½ ½ ) 1 ] (based on the harmonic rhythm) V6/5 presentation V6 6 6 V continuation
An 'ideal' sentence of the second sort (of bars) looks like this: measures 1 and present a motif (or a group of motifs) measures 3 and present a literal repeat of this motif Together these first four measures form the presentation. in measures 5 and 6 the motif is repeated again (complete, or partially) in measures 7 and we find a kind of 'conclusion'; sometimes in these final measures we find shortened motives Together these four bars form the continuation. An open ending (half cadence) at the end is preferred. The beginning of the second theme of the same Beethoven sonata (Op. No. 1) is a good example of this second sort of sentence: a motif of two measures is literally repeated (= measures presentation), and from the fifth measure we find a second repeat, followed by a 'conclusion' (the theme starts at the end of the first line, on het Fb - upbeat measure 1; the sentence goes until the Eb in the top voice in measure ): A very similar sentence can be found in the second section of the first theme of Beethoven's Piano Sonata Op. 10 No.1. When looking back at the beginning of Beethoven's Symphony No. 5 we can conclude that measures 61 clearly form a sentence though this sentence is more complex than the examples from the piano sonatas above. See again the example on page 5. 9