What Is Rhetoric? While the official title to this course is Advanced Placement Language and Composition, it really should be called Rhetoric and Composition. Rhetoric, very broadly, refers to the study of the effectiveness and persuasiveness of language. Unfortunately, the word rhetoric has earned a bad and, really, wrong reputation. Many people think of rhetoric as the lies that politicians tell to get everyone to vote for them. Even the Greek Stoic philosopher Epictetus likened rhetoric to hairdressers fixing hair, a view that sees rhetoric as superficial decoration. Truth be told, a deep understanding of rhetorical techniques are useful to politicians and the best speakers do use them. Contemporary rhetoricians, however, agree with Aristotle. Rhetoric is the art of determining what will be persuasive in every situation, and the reality is that rhetoric is all around us. It is not a tool we keep in our pockets to use when the moment requires it. From this point on, start to view every moment or instance of communication as a rhetorical act. Rhetoric and Argumentation Rhetoric is an ancient art. In terms of its manifestation as a realm of study, it all started with the ancient Greek philosophers, most notably Aristotle, Plato, and Socrates. Plato s famous dialogues bring up many questions we still ask today about argument, persuasion, and truth.
Upon first hearing the word argument, most students think of one of two things: a fight or a pro-con debate. While both of these may be true, neither fully captures what we mean by argument in academic settings. Developing an argument is in fact much more complex; It involves making a controversial assertion or claim, justifying that assertion or claim, recognizing the development of an argument as an on-going process, and combining truth-seeking and persuasion in a product (the product being the resulting outcome, such as an essay or speech). One of the phrases you will hear frequently in this course is entering into or joining the conversation. It is now time for you to start thinking of academic topics, subjects, or texts, as strains of a larger conversation. Imagine you have just read an Op-Ed (an article that is written in first person and presents an individual s opinion about a particular topic) in The New York Times about immigration reform. Upon finishing the article, you find yourself agreeing with the author s perspective. However, is the discussion about immigration reform over? For how many days, months, years, decades has the conversation about immigration reform been going on? How many articles, books, speeches, novels, poems, and political cartoons have already been written and will be written about immigration reform? Do you think the author of the article has read anything about immigration reform in the past? Well, in order to be convincing, s/he most likely has been studying and reading about immigration reform for some time. By writing the Op Ed, s/he has entered into or joined the conversation about immigration reform. As an advanced student in an academic institution, it is now your job to enter into or join the conversation. Texts, opinions, and arguments are not made in isolation, and in order to make a convincing argument you must read widely, ask questions, listen to others, and, generally speaking, be well-informed. Dialectic Thinking The term dialectic is associated with the German philosopher Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, who postulated that each thesis prompts an opposing thesis and that the conflict between these views can lead thinkers to a new claim, a synthesis, that incorporates aspects of both views. Expert thinkers and scholars actively seek out alternative views and different ways of looking at the same issue. Dialectic thinking refers to this process of listening to and considering multiple perspectives. It is a natural and important part of making an argument. It is in fact another term to describe the idea of entering into or joining the conversation about a given issue. As mentioned above, Thinking dialectically is important for making your own arguments, but it is also important to recognize when reading someone else s claims or arguments. Think about it! 1. How important is persuasion in making an argument? 2. How does argumentation fit into our class? How does it relate to rhetoric?
3. Is the arguer s first obligation to truth or to winning the argument? 4. What is the nature of the truth to which arguers are supposed to be obligated? What does it mean to seek the truth? 5. When Socrates talked about justice and virtue, the Sophists could reply that these were fictitious concepts invented by the weak to protect themselves from the strong. Where do you reside in this debate? The Five Canons of Rhetoric Classical rhetoricians, who wanted to systematize the process of writing speeches, developed a pattern for steps in the writing process, so that speech writers could proceed in an organized fashion and consider everything necessary for composing a successful speech. This pattern became known as the canons of rhetoric. One influential version of this pattern included five canons: invention, arrangement, style, memory, and delivery. While the five canons are excellent to pay attention to in composition, they are also helpful in analysis. Try thinking about how each of the five canons is addressed in a single text and allow that thinking to guide you in writing a rhetorical analysis. Invention Invention refers to the process of coming up with ideas for making an argument. This process is not magical, and it does not refer necessarily to an idea being original or unique. Think about it: Entrepreneurs work with materials they already have to invent a new tool. Similarly, classical rhetoricians imagined invention as a process of finding ideas that already exist and using the ones that are most convincing in the most effective way. Classical rhetoricians recognized two main types of arguments: non-artistic (arguments that do not require invention, such as laws, witnesses, contracts, or oaths) and artistic (arguments that the speaker must invent). Artistic arguments include three kinds of persuasive appeals, called logos, ethos, and pathos. Effective arguments pay attention to all three points on this rhetorical triangle. Logos Logos is Greek for word, and this appeal focuses attention on the quality of the message. When analyzing logos, pay attention to the consistency, clarity, and structure of the argument. Pay attention also to the types of support the author uses in order to make his or her argument. The impact of logos on an audience is referred to as its logical or rational appeal.
Ethos Ethos is Greek for character and focuses attention on the author s character as it is projected in the message. It refers to the credibility of the author. Ethos is often conveyed through the writer s investment in his or her claim, through the fairness with which the author considers alternative views, through the tone and style of the text, and even through the message s professional appearance on paper or screen, including correct grammar, flawless proofreading, and appropriate formatting. In some cases, ethos is also a function of the writer s reputation for honesty and expertise independent of the message. The impact of ethos on an audience is referred to as the ethical appeal or appeal from credibility. Pathos Pathos is Greek for suffering or experience. It focuses attention on the values and beliefs of the intended audience. It is often associated with emotional appeal. But pathos appeals more specifically to an audience s imaginative sympathies--their capacity to feel and see what the author feels and sees. Thus, when we turn the abstractions of logical discourse into a tangible and immediate story, we are making a pathetic appeal. Whereas appeals to logos and ethos can further an audience s intellectual assent to a claim, appeals to pathos engage the imagination and feelings, moving the audience to a deeper appreciation of and investment in the argument s significance.
Arrangement Arrangement refers to the way in which a text is organized. Although we will explore multiple types of arrangement in this course, right now start to familiarize yourself with the Classical structure. Many texts use this as their base, particularly those that were composed prior to the twentieth century. The chart below represents the Classical structure. In analyzing (and in writing!), consider how and why a text might diverge from the model below. *Note that at times the refutation comes before the confirmation. Part Exordium Narratio Propositio Partitio Confirmatio Confutatio or Refutatio Peroratio Explanation An attention grabber that should capture the audience s attention and create exigence for the topic of the text s argument: inquisitive ( Does history repeat itself? -Arnold Toynbee), paradoxical ( As I type this, highly civilized men are flying above, trying to kill me - George Orwell), corrective (The peanut is in fact a fruit), preparatory ( Beginnings are apt to be shadowy, and so it is with the beginnings of that great mother of life, the sea. -Rachel Carson), narrative (an anecdote) An explanation of the issue and any needed background information. What circumstances, occurrences, or conditions does the audience need to be made aware of? The thesis, claim, or argument. The outline statement that previews the structure of the major points. The main body of the text that presents and supports each reason to support the thesis, claim, or argument. Summary or and/or response to opposing views. Refutes or concedes to opposing views. A conclusion that brings closure, sums up argument and main points, and leaves a strong impression as a final appeal to the audience.
Style How you say something can be as important as what you say. Analyzing and incorporating style is probably going to be the canon most familiar to you at this point. Style, in this sense, refers to appropriate and effective use of language. It is not ornamental, but it can be aesthetic. Style includes figures of speech and stylistic techniques such as: Parallelism: Similarity of structure in a pair or series of related words And through all this welter of change and development your mission remains fixed, determined, inviolable. (General Douglas MacArthur) Antithesis: The juxtaposition of contrasting ideas often in parallel structure. I am in Washington to help broadcasting, not to harm it; to strengthen it, not to weaken it; to reward it, not to punish it; to encourage it, not threaten it; to stimulate it, not censor it. (FCC Chairman Newton Minow, before calling the state of television a vast wasteland ) Alliteration Assonance Anaphora: A repetition of words at the beginning of successive clauses. We shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight on the landing-grounds, we shall fight in the fields and in the streets, we shall fight in the hills. (Winston Churchill, reaffirming England s dedication to victory) Metaphor and extended metaphor Simile Imagery o Tactile o Visual o Gustatory o Auditory o Olfactory Synecdoche: A part stands for the whole. All hands on deck! Personification Hyperbole Rhetorical question: Asking a question not for an answer but for the purpose of asserting or denying something indirectly. What! Gentlemen, was I not to foresee, or foreseeing was I not to endeavor to save you from all these multiplied mischiefs and disgraces? (Edmund Burke, Speech in the Electors of Bristol) Hypophora: Asking a question and answering it. Irony: Words that convey a meaning opposite to the literal meaning of the word. For Brutus is an honourable man; so are they all, honourable men. (William Shakespeare, Julius Ceasar) Connotation
Denotation Oxymoron: Juxtaposing two ordinarily contradictory terms (jumbo shrimp, bittersweet) Repetition Syntax Diction *Note that this list of stylistic techniques is in no way exhaustive! Memory Since classical rhetoricians were concerned primarily with composing speeches that would be delivered before an audience, they devoted a considerable amount of time and thought to techniques that would help speakers memorize their points and arguments so that they could deliver them without having to look at notes. Although today this canon does not play a prominent role, where arguments are stored or kept is still important. For this class, think of the way you save the documents you have written. If it is something important, it should be kept in multiple places. That being said, memory will not play a large role in how you approach rhetorical analyses, but you might consider commenting upon the role the internet plays in storing texts.
Delivery Delivery originally referred to the act of delivering speeches orally before a live audience. Being an effective speaker usually means speaking loudly enough and at the right speed so that the audience can easily hear and follow the speech, enunciating clearly and according to the audience s standards for public speech, and perhaps using gestures to emphasize a point. But even in writing, delivery is important. For writing, we can think of how an argument is transmitted to an audience, including considering the demographic of the audience, how it fulfills its purpose, and the conventions of its genre or text type. Rhetorical Situation The rhetorical situation of a text refers to the environment or situation which gave birth to the text and formulated it in such a way that it is effective for a particular audience, fulfills its purpose, and communicates a relevant and convincing message. A related rhetorical concept, connected to the appeals of logos, ethos, and pathos, is that of kairos, from the Greek word for right time, season, or opportunity. This concept suggests that for an argument to be persuasive, its timing must be effectively chosen and its tone and structure in right proportion or measure. Kairos is an important part of the rhetorical situation. Look at the additions to the rhetorical triangle featured just above. Logos, ethos, pathos, and kairos are all affected by the rhetorical situation. To situate an argument rhetorically, it is also important to know something about its genre, and cultural context. Genre A genre is a recurring type or pattern of argument. Texts within the same genre have similar organizational structures and styles. The genre of any given argument helps determine its length, tone, sentence complexity, level of informality or formality, use of visuals, kinds of evidence, depth of research, and presence or absence of documentation/citation. Generally, texts can be categorized as fiction or non-fiction although you will begin to see that these umbrella terms are at times insufficient, and you may prefer to use the terms literary and non-literary instead. Very elementary
definitions of fiction and non-fiction that you may have heard are untrue and true, but these simplistic ideas do not accurately reflect the meaning of these two terms. The terms fiction and non-fiction in fact, going back to the definition of genre, refer to organization and style. Let s look at some examples. A novel is a type of fiction, but it cannot necessarily be called untrue. What makes a novel a work of fiction is its organization into paragraphs and chapters, its characters, plot, and conflict, and its literary style. The Bible, a text that many people hold to be truth, is in fact also a work of literature because of its structure and style. However, you may feel strange calling the Bible a work of fiction because so many people wrongly associate the word fiction with untrue. This may be why the terms literary and literature feel more accurate. Additionally, many memoirs, such as Maya Angelou s I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings, are non-fiction, but have such a highly literary style that they are called works of literature. I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings is not a novel, but it is written like a novel. So what do we call it? Many have settled on literary non-fiction. Be very careful and very specific about how you categorize and label a text s genre. Go beyond just simple ideas of true and untrue, and look into organization and style. The term genre, as noted earlier, is an umbrella term. Start to recognize particular text types. Within the genre of non-fiction, or as some prefer to say non-literary works, text types include (but are not limited to!) letters to the editor, personal correspondences (letters, emails, messages), newspaper editorials or op-ed pieces, magazine articles, newspaper articles, journal articles or critical essays, legal briefs and documents, blog postings, Tweets, advertisements, websites, speeches, autobiographies, memoirs, biographies, political cartoons, and documentary films. Within the genre of fiction, or as some prefer to say literary works, text types include novels, novellas, dramas or plays, and poems (also an umbrella term! Epic, lyric, ballad, haiku, sonnet, free verse...). Each text type has a particular purpose, and it is up to the author to ensure that his or her text appropriately and effectively fulfills that purpose. Purposes, as described by James Kinneavy in A Theory of Discourse can be informative, persuasive, expressive, and/or literary. In choosing the text s mode of delivery, the author must recognize that a text s interpretation depends on the audience s knowledge, feelings, values, and beliefs. When reading a particular text, consider why the author has chosen the genre and text type s/he has. Why is that text type appropriate based on the audience, purpose, and message?
Cultural Context Everyone has a different point of view and, certainly in this class, it should be considered a given that no communicative act or text can be innocent or unbiased. Every communicative act or text is influenced by the writer/speaker/creator, the text type or genre, the purpose of the text and of the argument, the message itself, and the situation that has created the need for the communicative act. The situation that has created the need for the communicative act is referred to as the rhetorical situation. Recognizing the rhetorical situation of a text or of any communicative act is critical for us to understand all of the choices that have been made in the creation and composition of the text. Part of understanding the rhetorical situation is understanding the cultural context of the text. This refers to understanding the culture of the audience and the culture of the writer, speaker, or creator. Think about the topic of immigration reform, for example. All of the following people would be likely to write or speak about immigration reform, but their claims and the way they present their claims would be different, sometimes in a very obvious way and sometimes more subtly. lobbyists and advocacy groups legislators, political candidates, and government officials business professionals, labor union leaders, and bankers lawyers and judges media commentators professional, freelance, or staff writers think tanks or research institutions scholars and academics independent and commercial filmmakers citizens and students Imagine now how many different audiences could be reading or listening to the resulting texts. As critical readers, we must be aware of both the rhetorical situation and cultural context. Think about it! How different would the resulting texts be for each of these situations and why? 1. A PBS documentary about immigration reform directed towards middle-class voters 2. A BBC online news article informing British readers about the situation of immigration reform in America
3. A painting created by a professional artist whose parents were immigrants 4. A speech made by a political candidate up for re-election in Arizona 5. A fifth-grade teacher responding to a student s question about what his or her parents mean when they talk about immigration reform Questions to Ask to Develop a Rhetorical Analysis Whenever you encounter a new text, ask yourself the following questions. You might find that annotating the text based on these questions is helpful, too! What genre or text type is this? How do the conventions of the genre or text type help determine the depth, complexity, and even appearance of the argument? Who is the author? What are the author s credentials and what is his or her investment in the issue? Who is the intended audience? What motivating occasion prompted the creation of the text? What is the typical purpose of the chosen text type? Does the resulting text fulfill that purpose? Is the fulfilled purpose of the text and text type the same as the author s purpose in writing? What is the author s message or argument and how is it communicated? Sources Hiller, Mark. A Brief Summary of Classical Rhetoric. Harvard Rhetorical Society. Harvard University. 5 Oct. 2005. Web. 10 Aug. 2014. Macri, Linda C. Engagements with Rhetoric: A Path to Academic Writing at the University of Maryland. Boston: Pearson Learning Solutions, 2011. Print. Puhr, Kathleen M. AP English Language and Composition: Teacher s Guide. The College Board. 2007. PDF. Ramage, John D., John C. Bean, and June Johnson. Writing Arguments: A Rhetoric with Readings. 9th ed. Boston: Pearson Education, Inc., 2012. Print.