Lecture (4) Introduction: key concepts in stylistics

Page (38) Cognitive models in and for stylistic analysis Stylistics focus on the methods of compositional technique has tended to make stylistics writerly in its general theoretical orientation. However, what has largely been missing from this approach has been any account of the mental processes that inform, and are affected by, the way we read and interpret literary texts. Stylistics has in other words lacked a readerly dimension.

Page (40) Cognitive models in and for stylistic analysis what an analysis of discourse would not account for is the way we are able to store a mental picture of a things which can be activated for the understanding of this utterance in context. This mental picture develops out of past experience of such places, experience gathered either through direct contact or through indirect sources.

Page (40) Cognitive models in and for stylistic analysis Pub Could I have a pint of lager, please?

Page (40) Cognitive models in and for stylistic analysis Mosque

Schema theory and discourse deviation Schema theory is an umbrella term covering a range of individual cognitive models at the heart of which are situated the core concept schema and the attendant concepts frame, scenario and script. a script (and by imputation a schema) is a chunk of knowledge which describes a predetermined, stereotyped sequence of actions that defines a well-known situation (Schank and Abelson 1977: 41). Scripts are expectation-based, preexisting knowledge stores, but they are also subject to modification in the course of an individual subject s experience and development.

Schema theory and discourse deviation Mosque

there is more to comprehending a discourse than knowing the words on the page, attempts to provide theoretical models that can explain the ways in which our knowledge of the world guides our efforts to comprehend a discourse.. work has been carried out by researchers in the field of artificial intelligence to develop programs that will enable computers to comprehend and produce natural discourse.

Human memory consists of sets of stereotypical situations, or 'frames, which are constructed out of our past experiences. These provide a framework which we use to make sense of new experiences. e.g. _ going to the doctor _ buying a car _ planning a wedding party One major problem is that it provides no explanation of why one frame might be selected rather than another.

Recession or no recession, retailers were preparing yesterday for the expected onslaught of thousands of bargain hunters. Shops around the country were getting ready to open their doors for the first day of traditional after-christmas clearance sales, with one large retail chain already predicting record trading levels. a 'recession' frame,? a 'Christmas' frame,? an 'economy' frame,? a 'shopping' frame,? (The Australian, Friday 27 December 1991)

the more text one has, the greater the chance of selecting the appropriate frame, and often, as listener or reader, we have to reserve judgement for some time until we have enough information to make a choice.

the knowledge we carry around in our heads is organized into interrelated patterns. These interrelated patterns are constructed from all our previous experiences and they enable us to make predictions about future experience.

meaning does not come neatly pre-packaged in aural and written texts. texts are little more than elaborate 'signposts' to the speaker or writer's original meanings, the reader or listener must use his or her linguistic and content knowledge to reconstruct the original meanings of the creator of the discourse.

Schema two dimensions or levels to any given discourse: 1. Systematic level: includes the reader or listener's linguistic knowledge 2. Schematic level: relates to background content knowledge In making sense of a given piece of discourse, we try and match our own schematic knowledge with that of the writer or speaker.

the importance of interpretation to comprehension we use procedure of interpretation to supply meanings that do not actually appear in the discourse itself.

the importance of interpretation to comprehension we use procedure of interpretation to supply meanings that do not actually appear in the discourse itself. The case of cohesive devices references [antecedent] [reference] I saw John yesterday. He gave me his hat.

the importance of interpretation to comprehension Statistical probability was discovered in a teapot. A postman saw it there and connected in to a petrol pump. He was wearing silk pyjamas at the time. They were old and dusty. it Statistical probability there teapot He postman NO DIFFICULTY

the importance of interpretation to comprehension Statistical probability was discovered in a teapot. A postman saw it[1] and connected it[2] to a petrol pump. It[3] was old and dusty. MORE DIFFICULTY 1. it Statistical probability, teapot 2. it teapot, Statistical probability 3. it teapot, a petrol pump

the importance of interpretation to comprehension Statistical probability was discovered in a teapot. A postman rinsed it[1] out. He has no idea what it[2] was of course. appeal to our knowledge of the world 1. it teapot 2. It Statistical probability NO DIFFICULTY

Schema theory and discourse deviation that restaurant (1) Cafe. Chorus of kitchen cafe menu sounds and phrases. EDDY: One coffee please and croissant and butter. WAITRESS: Right. Cream? EDDY: Please. (...) (2) EDDY: Where s my fucking coffee? I ve nearly finished this cheesecake and then my whole purpose in life at this particular moment will be lost. I ll be drinking hot coffee with nothing to wash it down with. WAITRESS: Here you are, sorry I forgot you! EDDY: About fucking time! WAITRESS: Oh shut your mouth, you complaining heap of rat s shit. (Berkoff 1983: 35f)

Page (42) Metaphor Metaphors are not some kind of distorted literal thought, but rather are basic schemes by which people conceptualise their experience and their external world.

Page (43) Metaphor Writers consciously strive for novelty in literary expression and this requires developing not only new conceptual mappings but also new stylistic frameworks through which these mappings can be presented.

Examples of Conceptual Metaphors A PROBLEM IS A BODY OF WATER ANGER IS HEAT BELIEFS ARE FASHIONS BELIEFS ARE GUIDES COMPETITION IS A RACE DESIRE IS HUNGER EMOTIONS ARE FORCES FEAR IS COLD HOPE IS LIGHT IDEAS ARE FOOD IDEAS ARE LIGHT SOURCES IDEAS ARE OBJECTS INTELLIGENCE IS A LIGHT SOURCE LIGHT IS A FLUID LOVE IS MAGIC LUST IS HEAT MORALITY IS PURITY PEOPLE ARE PLANTS PEOPLE ARE MACHINES SOCIETY IS A BODY THE MIND IS A BODY THEORIES ARE CONSTRUCTED OBJECTS TIME IS A CONTAINER (BOUNDED) WORDS ARE WEAPONS

Examples of Conceptual Metonyms PART FOR WHOLE+ (all hands on deck) WHOLE FOR PART+ (to fill up the car) CONTAINER FOR CONTENT+ (I'll have a glass) MATERIAL FOR OBJECT+ (a glass, an iron) PRODUCER FOR PRODUCT+ (have a Lowenbrau, buy a Ford) PLACE FOR INSTITUTION+ (talks between Washington and Moscow) PLACE FOR EVENT+ (Watergate changed our politics) CONTROLLED FOR CONTROLLER+ (the buses are on strike)

Metaphor and style The following poem is by the Liverpudlian poet Roger McGough: A HUMAN RELATIONSHIP IS A GAME OF SPORT.

Metaphor development Extending and elaboration (Kövecses 2002: 48). Extending a metaphor means expressing it through linguistic resources which introduce new conceptual elements from the source domain. Elaboration involves capturing an existing component of the source domain in an unusual or unconventional way.

Metaphor and metonymy in different kinds of texts 1) Downing Street is thought to be furious over the International Development Secretary s radio interview. (from British newspaper, The Guardian 2003) 2) I have other irons in the fire but I am keeping them close to my chest. (British football manager discussing his plans for the forthcoming season) 3) My luve is like a red, red rose That s newly sprung in June: My luve is like the melodie That s sweetly played in tune. (from a song by Robbie Burns)

Metaphor and metonymy in different kinds of texts 4) Top rod for the day was visiting angler Mr. Simpson who had eight trout (Angling Reports Wales; Tallylyn) 5) When the evening is spread out against the sky Like a patient etherised upon a table (from The Long Song of J. Alfred Prufrock by T. S. Eliot) 6) Houllier targets 13m Cissé. Gérard Houllier has reacted to Liverpool s costly failure to qualify for the Champions League by pledging to lure the France International striker Djibril Cissé. The Liverpool manager is also preparing to swoop on Blackburn Rovers Damien Duff... (from British newspaper, The Guardian 2003))

Metaphor and metonymy in different kinds of texts 7) When the still sea conspires an armor And her sullen and aborted Currents breed tiny monsters... (from Horse Latitudes by Jim Morrison of rock band The Doors 8) Of course, with the Soviets launch of Sputnik, the Americans had been Pearl Harbored in space. (Arthur C. Clarke, interviewed in 2001)

Metaphor and metonymy in different kinds of texts 9) Whether tis nobler in the mind to suffer The slings and arrows of outrageous fortune, Or to take arms against a sea of troubles, And by opposing end them? (from Hamlet by William Shakespeare) 10) The exercises developed in this sub-unit are more an appetiser than a main course. (the first sentence of a sub-unit in your textbook)

Metaphor and metonymy in different kinds of texts Instructions A. For each of 1 10, decide whether the example represents metonymy or metaphor. If you are in doubt, you should apply the simile test which was set out in A11. B. Specify which type of associated concept is the vehicle of the metonymy. For example, is the metonymy based on a part-for-whole relationship, a locationfor-institution relationship, or on a more contingent one-off connection between the associated concepts? C. Specify the source domain and the target domain for the metaphor. Follow this procedure even if there is more than one metaphor in the example. (Remember, the same target domain may be mapped through different source domains.)

Metaphor and metonymy in different kinds of texts 2) I have other irons in the fire but I am keeping them close to my chest. (British football manager discussing his plans for the forthcoming season) THE CHEST (HEART) IS THE CONTAINER (OF SECRETS) PLANNING IS WORKING IN A BLACKSMITH S WORKSHOP (Describing a blacksmith working on several pieces at the same time.)

Metaphor and metonymy in different kinds of texts 3) My luve is like a red, red rose That s newly sprung in June: My luve is like the melodie That s sweetly played in tune. (from a song by Robbie Burns) Concretisation: LOVE IS A PLANT Novel metaphor: LOVE IS A MELODY arrangement of single notes to form a satisfying sequence.

Metaphor and metonymy in different kinds of texts 4) Top rod for the day was visiting angler Mr. Simpson who had eight trout (Angling Reports Wales; Tallylyn) A PRIZE IS A PERSON

Metaphor and metonymy in different kinds of texts 5) When the evening is spread out against the sky Like a patient etherised upon a table (from The Long Song of J. Alfred Prufrock by T. S. Eliot) Concretisation: TIME (EVENING) IS A PERSON Novel metaphor: EVENING IS A PATIENT Novel metaphor: THE SKY IS A (SURGERY) TABLE

Metaphor and metonymy in different kinds of texts 6) Houllier targets 13m Cissé. Gérard Houllier has reacted to Liverpool s costly failure to qualify for the Champions League by pledging to lure the France International striker Djibril Cissé. The Liverpool manager is also preparing to swoop on Blackburn Rovers Damien Duff... (from British newspaper, The Guardian 2003)) Concretisation: COMPETITION IS HUNTING Novel metaphor: FOOTBALLERS TRANSFER IS BIRD HUNTING

Metaphor and metonymy in different kinds of texts 8) Of course, with the Soviets launch of Sputnik, the Americans had been Pearl Harbored in space. (Arthur C. Clarke, interviewed in 2001) THE PLACE FOR THE EVENT Novel metaphor: SPACE RACE IS A CONFLICT

Metaphor and metonymy in different kinds of texts 9) Whether tis nobler in the mind to suffer The slings and arrows of outrageous fortune, Or to take arms against a sea of troubles, And by opposing end them? (from Hamlet by William Shakespeare) Novel metaphor: FORUNE IS A WARRIOR Novel metaphor: TROUBLES ARE UNCONTROLLABLE NATURAL PHENOMENA \ TROUBLES IS AN ARMY

Metaphor and metonymy in different kinds of texts 10) The exercises developed in this sub-unit are more an appetiser than a main course. (the first sentence of a sub-unit in your textbook) Concretisation: IDEAS ARE FOOD

Page (45) Puns and verbal play humour requires an incongruity. the concept applies more generally to (i) any kind of stylistic twist in a pattern of language (ii) any situation where there is a mismatch between what someone says and what they mean. The stylistic analysis of humour therefore involves identifying an incongruity in a text and pinpointing whereabouts in the language system it occurs.

Page (45) Puns and verbal play A pun is a form of word-play in which some feature of linguistic structure simultaneously combines two unrelated meanings.

Page (45) Puns and verbal play I [The British PM] cannot ask the Queen to break the law.... He [The French Ambassador] smiled. I do not want the Queen to break the law, I merely ask the Prime Minister to bend it. (A Diplomatic Incident, 350)

Page (45) Parody and satire Parody and satire are forms of verbal humour which draw on a particular kind of irony for the design of their stylistic incongruity. Irony is situated in the space between what you say and what you mean, as embodied in an utterance like You re a fine friend! when said to someone who has just let you down.