The Three Elements of Persuasion: Ethos, Logos, Pathos One of the three questions on the English Language and Composition Examination will often be a defend, challenge, or qualify question. The first step in learning how to do well on this essay is to be able to identify the three elements of argument and persuasion: ethos, logos, pathos. ETHOS: Ask these questions to evaluate the author s attempt to establish his credentials. 1. Does the author use a reasonable tone, treating the opponent with respect by avoiding such things as illogical statements or inflammatory language? 2. Does the author have some relevant experience with the issue? 3. Does the author seem to have any prejudicial attitudes, sentiments, or stereotypes? 4. Does the author make an attempt to embody some evidence of personal knowledge of the subject, good will toward the reader, good sense, perspective, taste in judgment, or disinterest in personal benefit? 5. What is the author's style? Are his sentences (syntax) or vocabulary (diction) effective, too simple, or too difficult? Where is the writing clear? Where is the writing difficult to follow? Where is the language appropriate or inappropriate for the intended audience? LOGOS: Ask the following questions to evaluate logical appeals. 1. What arguments (logical reasoning) are made? 2. Are the examples unified, specific, adequate, accurate, relative, and representative?) 3. Does the author represent the important opposing arguments fairly? This is usually mentioned early, then refuted throughout the remainder of the essay by confirmation and amplification. 4. Does the author use specific examples, detailed description, quotations from authorities, facts, statistics, etc.? 5. Does the author use amplification (the widening of perspectives through analogies, comparisons or other aspects of experience)? 6. Are there any omissions? 7. Does the author misuse the evidence or sabotage or distort the argument by relying on any of the following logical fallacies:
Hasty Generalization: Also called "the Bare Assertion." Be suspicious of any unsubstantiated conclusions. Don't be swayed by a speaker who refuses to back up a disputed claim by simply saying or implying "That's just the way it is." Any sound generalization must be based on a great deal of evidence (many examples of personal experience, observations, or reading). Stereotype: Do not allow a writer to convince you that all members of a certain group share certain characteristics just because they are members of that group. People should be judged on their individual merits (many examples of personal experience, observations, or reading), not on their group identities. Cause-and-Effect Fallacy: Avoid the mistake of assuming that just because one event preceded another, the first event caused the second event. Any sound generalization about effect must be based on a great deal of evidence (many cause/effect observations from personal experience, observations, or reading). Only-Cause Fallacy: Most situations are complex enough to have several causes. Be open-minded enough to be able to see that more than one cause is possible, and that, similarly, more than one solution exists. Almost no dispute among intelligent people can be boiled down to "It's as simple as that." False Analogy: Analogies are used to clarify a point. Because false analogies are weak or far-fetched examples, they usually confuse the message. All analogies selected must clearly clarify the point. Non sequitur: The statement means "It does not follow." Make sure the conclusion logically follows from the premise. Circular Reasoning: This common mistake occurs when no specific reasons are given to back up an opinion. Instead, the writer simply restates the point and rephrases the same position. Assertions must be developed with a series of different examples from personal experience, observation, or reading. Begging the question: This occurs when the writer expects the reader to accept a position just because everyone else accepts it. Assertions must be developed through a balance of good logic and plausible appeals to emotions. PATHOS: Ask the following questions to evaluate emotional appeals. 1. Does the author arouse desires useful to the persuader's purpose and demonstrate how these desires can be satisfied by acceptance of the persuader s assertion (proposition or proposal or claim)? 2. Does the author's summary include the arousal of indignation for the opponent s view and an arousal of sympathy for the author s view?
3. Does the author misuse the language by trying to persuade you emotionally through any of the following dishonest propaganda techniques: Loaded Words: Be aware of the strong negative or positive connotations that certain words carry with them. This technique is also known as using "slanted words" because the author will choose words because of their persuasive emotional charge. Bertrand Russell once illustrated how words have emotional bias when he chose three synonyms to define different emotional aspects of the word stubborn: "I am firm. You are obstinate. He is pigheaded." Glittering Generalities: This is a specific type of loaded word fallacy. Do not be swayed by words that are so overly positive that you feel good just hearing them. Do not reach a decision based solely on diction. Band Wagon: Do not come to a decision just because you do not want to be left out. These are also called "appeals to popular sentiment" because they are used to seduce the reader or listener into a smiling, mindless agreement. Plain-Folks Appeal: When the author tries to acknowledge the opposition by pretending to be just like all common people, he is using this appeal. Snob Appeal: When the author tries to associate himself with beautiful, wealthy, or special people, he is using this appeal. Testimonial: When a author uses an association with a famous person to sell an idea or product, he is using this propaganda technique. Copyright January 2002, School House Books, Inc.
Rhetorical Strategies 1. RHETORICAL SITUATION persona (rhetor writer or speaker) audience (reader or listener) content (subject) purpose (aim or intention of the created document) to inquire to assert to dominate to negotiate (differences) and reconcile context (time, place, and community or forum) genre (type of composition, structure, organization) 2. RHETORICAL APPEALS ethos author s credentials includes attitude, tone, style logos logical appeals includes arguments, examples, amplification pathos emotional appeals includes arousing sympathy and indignation, and using propaganda
3. TONE DICTION rhetor (writer, speaker, or narrator); voice and persona audience (reader or listener) subject (content, including supporting evidence); appeals 4. INVENTION systematic act scene agent agency purpose what when, where who how why enthymeme (syllogism, syllogistic reasoning) basic topics: major premise minor premise conclusion generalization particular statement logical statement that follows possible and impossible past fact future fact greater or less common topics: definition division and classification comparison or contrast cause and effect (relationships) circumstances, testimony, or other topics intuitive (from conversation, free-writing, journal writing)
5. ARRANGEMENT genre (prose, drama, poetry) format oration: beginning middle end exordium confirmation peroration narration refutation partition essay: beginning middle end context argument summary thesis conclusion 6. STYLE sentences (grammatical type, placement of details, variety) parallelism syntax diction (level of formality, difficulty, technicality) denotation versus connotation common language versus jargon formal versus informal Latinate versus Anglo-Saxon figurative language trope: artful variation from typical way a word or idea is expressed irony, oxymoron, paradox, hyperbole, litotes, rhetorical question, etc. metaphor, implied metaphor, simile, personification, etc. metonymy, synecdoche, anthimeria, etc. symbol, archetype, etc.
scheme: artful variation from typical arrangement of words in a sentence parallelism, antithesis, interruption (parenthesis), omission (ellipsis) repetition, alliteration, assonance, anaphora, epistrophe, anadiplosis, climax allusion (historical, literary, religious) 7. MEMORY 8. DELIVERY