A Short Guide to Writing about Science DAVID PORUSH Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute! HarperCoMinsCollegePublisbers
Detailed Contents CHECKLISTS PREFACE xxi xix 1 INTRODUCTION: SCIENCE WRITING AND THE IMAGINATION 1 Science Is Communication Writing as a Creative Opportunity in Science 3 Finding Your Real Audience 5 Define the Goals of Your Writing 6 Imagine Your Audience's Needs 6 Practice for Real-World Writing 8 2 WHY GOOD SCIENTIFIC THINKING CAN LEAD TO BAD SCIENCE WRITING Why Science Writing Tends to Be So Complex 11 Why Science Writing Contains So Much Passive Voice 12 l 1O Why Scientists Are Wary of Descriptiveness 13 Why Science Writing Is Plagued by Overly Conditional Language 14 Why the Style of Scientific Prose Is Conservative 18 A Simple Cure 19 IX
X DETAILED CONTENTS 3 WRITING FROM THE MOMENT OF OBSERVATION: LAB AND FIELD NOTEBQOKS 21 Writing Begins in the Lab and the Field 21 What Is a Lab Notebook For? 23 What Must Go in the Lab Notebook? 24 Prepare the Notebook 25 Introduce the Experiment 27 Describe the Materials Completely 27 Describe the Assembly of Your Apparatus 29 Sample Setup Description 31 Describe the Method or Procedure of Your Experiment 32 Prepare Data Sheets 33 Follow Guidelines for Recording Data 34 Should You Substitute the Computer for a Handwritten Lab Notebook? 35 Analyze the Data Briefly 37 Draw Basic Tables and Graphs 39 Interpret the Data Briefly 43 Define and Calculate the Precision, Error, or Standard Deviation in Your Observations 46 Draw Conclusions Briefly 47 Some Final Words about the Lab Notebook 47 4 FROM LAB NOTEBOOK TO LAB REPORT 48 Lab Notebook Versus Lab Report 49 Letter of Transmittal 50 Title/Cover Page 51
DETAILED CONTENTS XI Abstract or Summary 54 Table of Contents 54 Introduction 55 Hypothesis or Expected Outcome 56 Literature Review 57 Methods Section 57 Interpretations of Data/Conclusions 57 Sketches of Apparatus and Other Illustrations 58 Conclusion 58 Bibliography or Literature Cited 59 Nomenclature/Glossary 60 Appendices 61 Final Words about the Lab Report 62 5 PREPARING TO WRITE THE RESEARCH PAPER 63 Preparing to Write 65 From Lab Report to Research Article 65 6 HOW TO WRITE TITLES 71 7 HOW TO WRITE ABSTRACTS 75 What Is an Abstract? 75 When Do You Write an Abstract? 75 Where Does an Abstract Appear? 76 Why Do Readers Need Abstracts? 76 Rules of Thumb for Writing the Abstract 77 What You Can Leave Out 79 Types of Abstracts 79
Xll DETAILED CONTENTS Informative Abstracts 79 Indicative Abstracts 81 Descriptive Abstracts (Executive Summary) 83 Some Final Words about Abstracts 84 8 HOW TO WRITE THE INTRODUCTORY SECTION 85 Taking Too Broad an Approach 85 Taking Too Narrow an Approach 86 Finding the Middle Ground 87 Finding the Proper "Pitch" 87 A Digression on the Question of Where Problems Come From 90 Define the Problem Using "Prewriting" Exercises 91 What Am I Trying to Discover or Prove? 92 Which Kind of Problem Am I Working On? 92 Relate the Problem to Theory 93 Why Is This Problem New or Distinctive? 95 9 HOW TO WRITE ABOUT HYPOTHESES, MODELS, AND THEORIES (HMT) 98 Theories 99 Models Hypotheses 1OO 1O1 Formulate the Hypothesis with the Help of Prewriting 101 How to Evaluate and Compare Different Hypotheses, Models, or Theories 1O4 Discussions of HMT Require Especially Careful Wording 1O5 Where to Put Your Discussion of Hypotheses, Theories, and Models 1O9
DETAILED CONTENTS XJH 10 HOW TO CITE AND LIST REFERENCES 112 Why Cite the Literature? 112 Where to Cite the Literature 113 How to Cite a Reference from the Text 113 How to List References: The Bibliography 115 Final Words about Citations 12O 11 HOW TO WRITE THE MATERIALS AND METHODS SECTION 121 Parts of the M & M 121 What Is Method? 122 Points to Consider in the M&M 123 12 HOW TO PRESENT RESULTS 131 Final Words 135 13 HOW TO COMPOSE AND USE VISUAL MATERIAL 136 Visual Presentations Should Simplify Information 139 Tables 142 General Guidelines for Using Figures 144 Graphs 144 Charts/Computer Flowcharts 145 Illustrations, Schematic Diagrams, and Line Drawings 147 Final Words About Pictures 148 14 HOW TO WRITE ABOUT YOUR INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS 15O Make a Convincing Case 151 Order Your Presentation of the Data Logically 152
-XIV DETAILED CONTENTS Logical Language 156 Biased Language 157 How to Coordinate Your Presentation of Data 158 15 HOW TO WRITE CONCLUSIONS 164 State Your Conclusions 164 Restrict or Expand Your Results 165 Compare Your Conclusions with Those of Others - in the Field 167 Define Unanswered Questions 169 Don't Be Afraid to Express Uncertainties 169 Recommend Directions for Future Research 170 Express a Broader Vision 171 Final Words about the Research Report and Article 172 16 HOW TO WRITE ABOUT SCIENCE IN ESSAYS AND TERM PAPERS OR REPORTS 174 Formal Scientific Reports Versus Term Papers and Essays on Science 175 Steps In Writing the Essay, Report, or Term Paper 178 Choose a Topic 178 Begin Researching the Topic 178 Narrow Your Topic and Refine Your Thesis 179 Adopt an "Angle" or Point of View 179 Write the Paper 180 Kinds of Science Essays 18O Leads or Introductory Sentences 181 Exits or Closings 186
DETAILED CONTENTS XV Themes and Topics for Science Essays and Term Papers 189 The Style of Science Essays 194 Establish a Point of View 195 Use Analogies 196 Use Metaphors, But Exercise Caution 197 Some Cautionary Words about Telling Science as a Story 198 17 REVISING AND EDITING 2OO The Real Writing Is in the Rewriting 2OO An Exercise in Editing 2O1 Editing Means More than Fixing Errors 2O4 Six Steps to Deep Editing 2O6 18 A SCIENTIFIC APPROACH TO STYLE 2O9 How Do Sentences Work? 21O Avoid Orphaned Verbs 211 Links, Contexts, and/or the Subject of a Sentence Should Come First 213 Use Transitional Words to Help the Flow of Ideas 213 New and/or Important Information Should Be Placed in the Last Part of the Sentence 215 Using Forms of the Verb "to be" Makes Weak Links 216 Use Active Voice and Avoid Passive Voice 216 Use Verbs; Avoid Nominalization and Noun Strings 222 Getting Cheap With Words Is Inefficient 223 Don't Bury Important Points in Subordinate Clauses or Sub-Subordinate Clauses 225 Final Words about Scientific Style 227
XVi DETAILED CONTENTS 19 HO WAND WHEN TO DEFINE YOUR TERMS 228 How to Define Terms 229 A Note on Jargon 233 The Perils of Assuming Your Audience Is "In the Know" 234 2O HOW TO USE NUMBERS, SYMBOLS, UNITS, FORMULAS, AND EQUATIONS 235 Numbers 235 Measures and Dimensions 237 Numbering Lists and Items 238 Equations and Formulas 238 Final Words about Mathematics and Science Writing 239 21 CONCLUSION: ONE WORLD- SCIENCE AND WRITING 24O Science Is Not Only a Rational Activity 241 Science Always Involves a Point Of View 242 There is No Science Without Someone Telling Its Story 244 The History and Future of Science Writing 246 Science Tells Many Different Stories 247 The Scientist Coauthors the Script of Science 249 APPENDIX A: AVOIDING SEXIST LANGUAGE 25O Less Desirable Solutions to Sexist Language 253 APPENDIX B: STYLE GUIDES, ARTICLES, MANUALS, AND BOOKS ON WRITING ABOUT SCIENCE 256 Disciplinary Style Guides 256 American National Standards Institute Publications 256
DETAILED CONTENTS XVH General Style Guides 257 Research about Science Writing 258 APPENDIX C: SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING DICTIONARIES AND ENCYCLOPEDIAS 259 ENDNOTES 263 INDEX 269