Collective Archiving of Soundscapes in Socio-Cultural Context Sou Hwan Choe, Sungkyunkwan University Young Man Ko, Sungkyunkwan University Abstract Soundscape research aims to draw public awareness to the acoustic environment and to enhance our auditory experience. With the help of advances in audio technology, field recording and archiving of environmental sounds are getting popular among researchers and artists. Moreover emerging Web technologies promote various web-based sound projects such as collaborative sound archives, sound maps, and other experimental projects. These projects present innovative approach to soundscape research particularly improving user experience. However, the social and cultural contexts emanated by soundscapes are still buried in an unorganized way. The purpose of this paper is to provide an introduction and overview of soundscape research and to discuss the possibility of the Semantic Web technologies to link soundscape research with social and cultural contexts. We also suggest a preliminary design for the Soundscape Ontology to lead future research on conserving and managing soundscape as resources in the information system. Keywords: soundscape, acoustic communication, sound map, linked data, ontology Citation: Choe, S. H., Ko, Y. M. (2015). Collective Archiving of Soundscapes in Socio-Cultural Context. In iconference 2015 Proceedings. Copyright: Copyright is held by the authors. Contact: swann@skku.edu 1 Introduction I hear the soundscape as a language with which places and societies express themselves. In the face of rampant noise pollution, I want to be understanding and caring of this language and how it is spoken. (Hildegard Westerkamp) Acoustic environments provide sources to interpret social and cultural aspects of our society as well as physical phenomena of the nature. By analyzing the acoustic environment, we can infer the types of activity, communication modes and other actors involved in the activity (Smith et al., 2005). However, most scientific researches on sound and music are mainly focused on the physical characteristics of sound and the language of music rather than the socio-cultural context of the acoustic environments. The Canadian composer and educator R. Murray Schafer initiated the soundscape research during the late 1960s and early 1970s with the aim of enhancing our acoustic environment and human awareness of surrounding sounds. Pijanowski (Pijanowski et al., 2011) defined the term soundscape in the field of landscape ecology as the collection of biological, geophysical and anthropogenic sounds that emanate from a landscape and which vary over space and time reflecting important ecosystem processes and human activities. Because of its highly interdisciplinary characteristics, soundscape is being studied by researchers in diverse fields, including music, art, communication, education, social science, ecology, acoustics, engineering, psychology, cartography, and medicine (Truax, 2001; Regelski, 2002; Theberge, 2005; Pijanowski et al., 2011; Brooks et al., 2014). Although soundscape is one of the most interesting and important research topics in sound and music communities, it is still in its infancy and there are many obstacles and ambiguities as well. Rapid advances in audio technology have accelerated the popularity of environmental sound recording and the digital processing of those sounds among researchers and artists, not only for soundscape research, but also for artistic purposes. Moreover, emerging Web technologies promote various audio projects on the Web, such as online sound archives, real time audio signal processing for Web applications, and sound maps. In this paper, we provide an introduction and overview of soundscape research, sound projects on the Web, and suggest a preliminary design of conceptual model for collective archiving of soundscapes in terms of Linked Data.
2 Soundscape Research So Far 2.1 The World Soundscape Project The first experiment on soundscape was the World Soundscape Project (WSP) 1 conducted by Schafer and his colleagues at Simon Fraser University. WSP was an attempt to draw public awareness to the acoustic environment and to enhance sonic experience. This experiment resulted in documentation on soundscape, The Vancouver Soundscape, in double CD. Truax and Westerkamp extended the research into the field of acoustic communication and acoustic ecology (Traux, 1999; Traux, 2001). Truax tried to solve the sound-related problems, specifically environmental sounds problem, from a communicational approach where he explained sound as the exchange of information rather than energy transfer (Truax, 2001). The purposes of soundscape research can be summarized as follows: To draw public awareness to the acoustic environment where we live. To document and track acoustic changes in the environment and to preserve the sounds with historical, cultural, and social values. To establish a framework to discuss how to design our sonic environment in terms of urban design (Zhang & Kang, 2007). To discover hidden interesting environmental sounds and to extend our artistic expressiveness. To design intuitive methodology for music and sound education (Truax, 2002). 2.2 Acoustic Communication and Soundscape Ecology Truax describes sound as a mediator between a listener and the environment and extended the subjective concept of soundscape to communicational and information-based model in his seminal book Acoustic Communication (Truax, 2001). In this communicational model, sound results in meaning based on two types of information and knowledge provided by the listener: (a) information gleaned from the properties of the sound itself-such as its spectral and temporal patterns, and (b) listener s knowledge of the environmental, social and cultural context (Truax, 2011). In the context of landscape ecology, Dumyahn and Pijanowski (Dumyahn & Pijanowski, 2011) argued that soundscapes possess both ecological and social value such as human health and wellbeing, wildlife impacts, sense of place, landscape interactions, and ecological integrity. 2.3 Soundscape in Music The term soundscape composition is used in a wide spectrum of contexts, and the definition of the term is debatable among soundscape researchers. Westerkamp (Westerkamp, 2002) referred to tape pieces that are created with recorded environmental sounds, and Drever (Drever, 2002) proposed the notion of the convergence of ethnography and acousmatic music. In many cases, soundscape composition is regarded as a musical style, specifically a subgenre of electroascoustic music, although the goal and the approach are different. With regard to the characteristic principles of the soundscape composition Truax (Truax, 2008) suggests: Listener recognisability of the source material is maintained, even if subsequently undergoes trans-formations; The listener s knowledge of the environmental and psychological context of the soundscape material is invoked and encouraged to complete the network of meanings ascribed to the music; The composer s knowledge of the environmental and psychological context of the soundscape material is allowed to influence the shape of the composition at every level, and ultimately the composition is inseparable from some or all of those aspects of reality; The work enhances our understanding of the world, and its influence carries over into everyday perceptual habits. 2.4 Documentation of acoustic environments Documentation of acoustic environment literally means collecting and categorizing sounds from the environment to build a sound archive. But underlying notions of documentation of soundscape (or acoustic environment) are far more complex, since soundscape is evidence of our society at a certain place, of a certain time conveying cultural, social, historical, political, and esthetical implications. Soundscape is also an aggregate of a variety of sound objects surrounding us and these environmental sounds, in the similar way, have particular references and meanings. Thus, documentation of acoustic 1 http://www.sfu.ca/~truax/wsp.html 2
environment is related not only to the acoustic phenomena, but also to the various aspects of the society. Should documentation of soundscape, then, represent the reality itself? Grierson s renowned definition of documentary as the creative treatment of actuality presents an insight into the definition of documentation of acoustic environment. In this respect, we could define documentation of soundscape in two different perspectives: documentation of soundscape 1) as an act of representing reality and 2) as an artistic practice for creativity in terms of virtual reality. 3 Soundscape on the Web Advances in Web technologies have promoted a variety of sound projects on the Web such as online sound archives, sound maps, real time audio signal processing for Web applications, and experimental sound arts. Web 2.0 allows users to do more actions than just to retrieve information passively. O Reilly (O Reilly, 2005) illustrated in his seminal article that the core competencies of the Web 2.0 are service, participation, scalability, remix and transformation of data, and collective intelligence, and also introduced Google Maps, AJAX, Tagging, and Blogs as examples of the Web 2.0. 3.1 Online Sound Archives British Library Sound Archive is a distinctive sound collection including music, spoken words, and field recordings. Archival Sound Recordings is a project to increase public access to the vast amount of collections of the British Library Sound Archive into the Web. As of 2011, it has more than 40,000 sound recordings of music, spoken word, in both human and natural environments. This project as well is categorizing sounds in quite an interesting way in which sound collections are grouped as linguisticsrelated sounds, recordings on the arts, classical music, environmental sounds, popular music, oral history, historical recordings, and sounds from the world. Figure 1. British Library Sound Maps (Left) and FreeSound (Right) Freesound 2 project is an initiative of Pompeu Fabra University to build a collaborative database of broad range of audio collections under the Creative Commons License. This project allows the user to browse the sounds in an intuitive way by using tags, and also allows the user to interactively share their sounds with other users. The developers also aim to create an open database of sounds that can also be used for scientific research. 3.2 Sound Maps Soundscape is not only a record of an acoustical phenomenon but also is anthropological evidence in the form of acoustics that explains our society, culture, politics, history, and the arts. In addition, contrary to the planar information delivered by images, multidimensional information on space and time is delivered by soundscape. But the interpretation of information on sound is quite difficult as compared with 2 http://freesound.org 3
iconference 2015 information on image and experiencing the sonic environment has been limited as well by temporal and spatial constraints until the appearance of recording devices. Online map services and their open APIs stimulated the development of interactive sound maps 3 (Theberge, 2005) and map-based sound archives on the Web, such as the London Sound Survey, the 4 5 6 7 Open Sound New Orleans, the SeoulSoundMap, New York Sound Map, and the Sons de Barcelona. The Urban Tapestries project (Lane, 2003) is an attempt to incorporate elements of social research into creative projects blending the concerns of art and design with social science. Figure 2. SeoulSoundMap (Left) and Open Sound New Orleans (Right) 3.3 Soundwalk and Sonic Journey Soundwalk (Semidor, 2006; Adams et al. 2009) is a term coined by Schafer referring to an exploration of the soundscape of a given area using a score as a guide (Schafer, 1993), and its purpose is to train ears by means of practicing to identify the environmental sounds while walking. Several attempts of soundwalking and listening are on the Web in the form of blogs and communities including McCartney s 8 9 website Soundwalking Interactions and World Listening Project. 10 SoundTransit is a noticeable web-based audio project presenting new possibilities of employment on the Web for the sonic experience. Basically, SoundTransit is a collaborative online archive of field recordings and phonography. It also provides the visitors with a sonic journey, adopting a metaphor of a flight trip. One can book a virtual sonic flight trip and listen to the variety of sonic environments experiencing a sense of telepresence (Donati and Prado, 2001). 4 Linking Soundscape with Socio-Cultural Context The traditional Web technologies that construct the Web of documents have successfully changed the way people communicate with each other. However, information seeking on the Web has become more difficult as the structure of the Web has gotten more complex as the amount of information on the Web increased dramatically. This is mainly caused by the fact that the machine cannot understand the meaning of the Web content. The Semantic Web is a Web of data aiming to provide a common framework that allows data to be shared, reused, and extend the principles of the Web from documents to data. It is an alternative approach to represent Web content in a form that is more easily machine-processible (Antoniou and Harmelen, 2008). In the Semantic Web, it is most important to define and describe resources and the 3 http://www.soundsurvey.org.uk http://www.opensoundneworleans.com/core http://som.saii.or.kr/campaign 6 http://www.nysoundmap.org 7 http://barcelona.freesound.org 8 http://soundwalkinginteractions.wordpress.com 9 http://www.worldlisteningproject.org 10 http://www.soundtransit.nl 4 5 4
relations among them. The Semantic Web is also a set of technologies, tools and standards to realize the vision of the Semantic Web. 4.1 Linked Data The Linked Data is regarded as a set of best practices for publishing and connecting structured data on the Web (Bizer, Heath & Berners-Lee, 2009). Linked Data is to organize links between data from different sources to provide both human and machine with the meaning of the data explicitly. Tim Berners-Lee (Berners-Lee, 2006) suggested basic rules for publishing data on the Web as a Linked data. Use URIs as names for things Use HTTP URIs so that people can look up those names When someone looks up a URI, provide useful information, using the standard (RDF, SPARQL) Include links to other URIs, so that they can discover more things Technically, Linked Data is established based on several Web technologies such as Uniform Resource Identifiers (URIs), Hyper Text Transper Protocol (HTTP), Resource Description Framework (RDF), Resource Description Framework Scheme (RDFs), and Web Ontology Language (OWL). 4.2 Functional Requirements for Bibliographic Records (FRBR) The Functional Requirements for Bibliographic Records (FRBR) (Taylor, 2007) is a conceptual model that manages the bibliographical information in online library. One of the advantages of the FRBR model is the explicit and clear explanation of the structure of artistic works. In the FRBR model, several classes (entities) are defined to describe the artistic works, as shown in <Table 1>. Table 1. Entities in the FRBR model Group Entity Definition Group 1 Work a distinct intellectual or artistic creation Expression an intellectual or artistic realization of a work Manifestation the physical embodiment of an expression of a work Item a single examplar of a manifestation Group 2 Person an individual Corporate Body an organization or group of individuals and/or organizations Group 3 Concept an abstract notion or idea Object a material thing Event an action or occurrence Place a location For instance, the musical piece, Goldberg Variation which J.S. Bach conceptually created is a piece of work, and likewise, the score of the Goldberg Variation that Bach wrote is an example of the expression of the work Goldberg Variation. Finally, the recording of this score performed by Glenn Gould is the manifestation. In this way, FRBR model clearly disambiguates the explicit meaning of the entity Goldberg Variation. 4.3 Music Ontology The goal of Music Ontology(Raymond et al., 2007) is to create a formal modular framework for describing music-related information on the Semantic Web. Music Ontology is designed on the basis of several ontologies such as Timeline Ontology, Event Ontology, FRBR, and Friends Of A Friend (FOAF). Although the FRBR model describes the structure of the artistic work logically, it lacks the detail of the creation process of the work. Music Ontology reflects the whole process of music creation and consumption workflow by providing three levels of expressiveness, as shown in <Table 2>. Table 2. Layers of the Music Ontology Level Description Level 1 Editorial information (tracks, artists, releases, etc.) Level 2 Music creation workflow (composition, arrangement, performance, recording, etc.) Level 3 Complex musical event decomposition 5
4.4 Designing an Ontology for Collective Archiving of Soundscapes Despite of the difficulties in defining the term soundscape in a scientific way, several conceptual models and frameworks have been suggested for soundscape research (Schafer, 1993; Truax, 2001; Zhang & Kang, 2007; Payne et al., 2009; Pijanowski et al., 2011; Farina, 2014). The most common classification of sounds is speech, music, and other. This classification is quite acceptable in a variety of fields, particularly, in signal processing areas; however, this classification lacks social and cultural context that is intrinsically conveyed by soundscapes. Among the important schemes is Schafer s classification (Schafer, 1993) that consists of keynote sounds, sound signals, and soundmarks. Schafer emphasized the characteristics of a given landscape that also address the social and cultural factors in communities. Truax (Truax, 2001) proposed a continuum model as the system of acoustic communication, which is comprised of speech, music, and soundscape. Krause (Krause, 2002), Kull (Kull, 2006), and Pijanowski (Pijanowski et al., 2011) categorized soundscape into geophony, biophony, and anthrophony. Geophony refers to the aggregate of sounds originated from the earth. Biophony is the aggregate of sounds that vocalizing non-human animals, and anthrophony is referring to the aggregate of sounds produced by humans. Pijanowski (Pijanowski et al., 2011) extended the concept to address the underlying processes of soundscape dynamics. With regard to the importance of social and cultural contexts in soundscape research, Schafer (Schafer, 1993) explained that general acoustic environment of a society can be read as an indicator of social conditions which produce it and may tell us about the trending and evolution of that society. Researchers in other disciplines such as anthropology (Feld, 1984; Feld & Brenneis, 2004; Samuels, 2010) and political economics (Attali, 1985) have also investigated sound as Samuels (Samuels et al., 2010) argues that soundscape as a modality for integrating this work into an anthropological approach. We propose to design a conceptual model that enhances interoperability between metadata of soundscape recordings on the Web in terms of Soundscape Ontology. Although the purpose of the FRBR model is to provide a framework for bibliographic records, it clearly represents the products of intellectual or artistic endeavor and the relationships between the products and their related factors such as agent, object, concept, event, and place. Thus, we start from the FRBR model and try to adopt key concepts from the previous soundscape research and the Music Ontology. <Figure 3> illustrates a preliminary design for the Soundscape Ontology. This preliminary design is reflecting the factors and classification schemes in the previous research as shown in <Table 3> and <Table 4>. Figure 3. Preliminary design for Soundscape Ontology 6
Table 3. Classification and categorization of soundscape Classification Schafer (1994) keynote sounds, signal sounds, soundmarks / natural, human, sounds and society, mechanical sounds, quiet and silence, sounds as indicator Truax (2001) speech, music, soundscape Matsinos et al. (2008) anthropogenic sounds, biological sounds, geophysical sounds Payne et al. (2009) natural, human, mechanical Pijanowski et al. (2011) biophony, geophony, anthrophony Salamon et al. (2014) human, nature, mechanical, music Table 4. Factors in soundscape research Factors Job et al. (1999) environmental attributes, socio-cultural and psychological variables Kull (2006) sound source Zhang & Kang (2007) source, space, people, environment Cain et al. (2008) people (demographics), activities, temporal elements, place Farina (2014) resource, function (sonic eco-field model) / source, descriptor 5 Conclusion and Future Works The main goal of the soundscape research is improving our society and an individual s life by enhancing aural experience and providing the acoustic design optimized for time and space in public places in terms of urban design and acoustic ecology. Current Web technologies suggest new possibilities on soundscape research leading a variety of intuitive and creative sound projects. Building an archive of environmental sounds is, in particular, one of the main concerns in soundscape research and it will hugely benefit not only for soundscape research but also for education, and other purposes such as artistic expression. In this paper, we provided an introduction and overview of soundscape research, sound projects on the Web, and suggested a preliminary model for collective archiving of soundscapes in terms of Linked Data. With this essential study on soundscape, future work will hopefully design a universal framework for soundscape research and implementation of the real-world projects. 6 References Adams, M. D., Bruce, N. S., Davies, W. J., Cain, R., Jennings, P., Carlyle, A., Cusack, Plack, C. (2008). Soundwalking as a methodology for understanding soundscapes. Proceedings of the Institute of Acoustics Spring Conference, 548-554. Antoniou, G. & Harmelen, F. (2008). A Semantic Web Primer. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Attali, J. (1985). Noise: the political economy of music. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. Berners-Lee, T. (2006). Linked Data Design Issues. Retrieved from http://www.w3.org/ DesignIssues/LinkedData.html Bizer, C., Heath, T., & Berners-Lee, T. (2009). Linked Data The Story So Far. International Journal on Semantic Web and Information Systems, 5(3), 1-22. Brooks, B. M., Schulte-Fortkamp, B., Voigt, K. S., & Case, A. U. (2014). Exploring Our Sonic Environment Through Soundscape Research & Theory. Acoustics Today, 10(1), 30-40. Brown, A. L. (2004). An Approach to the Acoustic Design of Outdoor Space. Journal of Environmental Planning and Management, 47(6), 827-842. Cain, R., Jennings, P. A., Adams, M., Bruce, N., Carlyle, A., Cusack, P.,... & Plack, C. J. (2008). An activity-centric conceptual framework for assessing and creating positive urban soundscapes. Proceedings of the Institute of Acoustics Spring Conference, 546-551. Donati, L. P. & Prado, G. (2001). Artistic Environments of Telepresence on the World Wide Web. Leonardo, 34, 437 442. Drever, J. L. (2002). Soundscape Composition: The Convergence of Ethnography and Acousmatic Music. Organised Sound, 7(1), 21 27. Dumyahn, S. L. & Pijanowski, B. C. (2011). Soundscape conservation. Landscape Ecology, 26(9), 1327-1344. 7
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