ENGLISH ESSENTIALS THIRD EDITION the wouldn t-be-without-it guide to writing well Mem Fox Lyn Wilkinson
To our much-loved students, with thanks for the memories First edition published 1993 (reprinted 10 times) Second edition published 2009 (reprinted 4 times) This edition published 2015 by MACMILLAN EDUCATION AUSTRALIA PTY LTD 15 19 Claremont Street, South Yarra 3141 Visit our website at www.macmillan.com.au Associated companies and representatives throughout the world. Copyright Mem Fox and Lyn Wilkinson 1993, 2009, 2015 The moral rights of the author have been asserted All rights reserved. Except under the conditions described in the Copyright Act 1968 of Australia (the Act) and subsequent amendments, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the copyright owner. Educational institutions copying any part of this book for educational purposes under the Act must be covered by a Copyright Agency Limited (CAL) licence for educational institutions and must have given a remuneration notice to CAL. Licence restrictions must be adhered to. For detail s of the CAL licence contact: Copyright Agency Limited, Level 15, 233 Castlereagh Street, Sydney, NSW 2000. Telephone: (02) 9394 7600. Facsimile: (02) 9394 7601. Email: info@copyright.com.au National Library of Australia cataloguing in publication data Author: Fox, Mem, 1946 Title: English Essentials: The wouldn t-be-without-it guide to writing well / Mem Fox and Lyn Wilkinson Edition: 3rd edition ISBN: 9781458653413 (paperback) Notes: Includes index Target Audience: For secondary school students Subjects: English language Writing Juvenile literature English language Rhetoric Juvenile literature English language Usage Juvenile literature Creative writing Juvenile literature Other authors/contributors: Wilkinson, Lyn Dewey number: 428 Publisher: Emma Cooper Project editor: Barbara Delissen Illustrator: Nik Scott Cover and text designer: Dimitrios Frangoulis Permissions clearance: Vanessa Roberts Typeset in 9.5/14 Merriweather Cover image: Shutterstock/Nagib Printed in Malaysia While every care has been taken to trace and acknowledge copyright, the publishers tender their apologies for any accidental infringement where copyright has proved untraceable. They would be pleased to come to a suitable arrangement with the rightful owner in each case.
Contents Introduction PART I: Writing with style and effect 1 1 Elements of effective writing 3 2 Getting started 25 3 Drafting 29 4 The nitty-gritty of rewriting 33 PART II: The essay 43 5 Hints for writing essays 44 PART III: Writing correctly 57 6 Language and its conventions 58 Our changing language 58 Conventions in language 60 7 Basic terms 63 Some parts of speech 63 Singular and plural 66 8 Nouns and pronouns 67 Nouns various types 67 Pronouns number and person 69 9 Adjectives and adverbs 72 Adjectives degrees of comparison 72 Adverbs degrees of comparison 73 What not to do 74 vi iii
iv Contents 10 Verbs 75 Conjugating verbs 75 Active and passive voice 77 Problematic irregular verbs 78 Auxiliary verbs 80 The subjunctive mood 82 11 So what s a sentence, anyway? 83 Three basic elements 83 Clauses in a sentence 85 Is the sentence correct? 86 12 Three big problems in sentences 87 The run-on sentence 87 Agreement in a sentence 90 Problematic pronouns 95 13 The basics of punctuation 97 Full stop and comma 97 Semicolon and colon 99 Dash 101 Apostrophe 101 Question mark and exclamation mark 102 Quotation marks 103 A note on punctuating conjunctive adverbs 104 14 Punctuating speech 106 Indirect speech 106 Direct speech 107 15 The apostrophe of possession 112 How to get it right 114 Hard-to-recognise possessives 117 16 Getting spelling right 120 About spelling 120 Spelling rules and generalisations 125 Multisensory skill 126 Helpful hints for hopeless spellers 127 Ask others to help you 133 In summary 133
Contents v 17 Proofreading with care 134 Why proofreading is important 134 Procedure what to check 135 The final result 137 Practice passages 138 18 The writer as a speaker 149 19 Is it this or is it that? 153 20 The effective writing checklist 156 PART IV: In conclusion 161 21 Writers and the writing process 162 The extremes of writers 162 Writers as readers 163 Misconceptions about the writing process 163 How to be successful 165 The last word 168 Index 169
Introduction Books like this are often boring. We hope this one isn t. We wrote it in particular for students at high school and university to help them with formal types of writing, but we hope that teachers and those fascinating people known as the man and woman in the street will also find it lively, useful and accessible. The first and second editions became hilariously out of date all too quickly due to the rapid changes in technology that have happened since we wrote the first draft back in 1992. At that time many writers and students were really cutting and pasting with scissors and sticky tape! It s hard to believe, we know. We ve had a lot of fun and a few headaches putting together this third edition. There are many subtle changes that drag it kicking and screaming into the age of technology. We hope you ll enjoy the hundreds of refreshing hints and pieces of advice that we ve provided and that you ll use them to write more effectively than ever. Our goals haven t been grand. For instance, we haven t aimed to cover every single complexity in the English language. Fusspot grammarians will groan and tut-tut over some of the things we ve said, and complain bitterly over what we haven t said, but they will have to remember we are writing for you, not for them. We ve tried to keep the book simple and uncluttered by discussing only the most useful guidelines and the most common mistakes. And for your sake and ours, we ve kept the style informal. May every success be yours! 2015 Mem Fox and Lyn Wilkinson Adelaide vi
PART I Writing with style and effect
1 Elements of effective writing This chapter focuses on the many different factors that make writing effective all writing, not just creative writing. Creative writing is a misleading term since all writing is creative, including every word in this obviously non-fiction book. We will be placing furious quotation marks around creative as an indication of our irritation. Another reason for distrusting the term creative is its negative connotations. Creative writing sets up an erroneous picture of wishywashy writers waiting for the muse to inspire them, wafting without reflection from one self-indulgent paragraph to the next, writing pieces that drip with sickly purple prose. We will be using the term creative from time to time but merely to differentiate two kinds of writing, each of which is as demanding and as difficult as the other. Truly creative writing is always well crafted and drafted. In the rest of this chapter the repeated term good writing means effective writing. There are many aspects of writing that make it effective. First, what is good writing not? Good writing is not showing off your vocabulary. Good writing is not being so clever that no one understands what you re trying to say. Good writing is not writing a piece longer than anyone else s; length often has less to do with being effective and more to do with not knowing when to stop. Good writing is not pleasing only yourself, unless you will be the only reader of what you write, as in a journal, for example. Good writing is not writing so you end up sounding a hundred years older than you really are. We could go on. But let s be positive rather than negative and look at what good writing is. ISBN 978 1 4586 5341 3 3
4 Part I Writing with style and effect ISBN 978 1 4586 5341 3 Good writing keeps the reader in mind If you were to be the only reader of your writing, life would be simple. As a writer, it s easy for you to understand what you are trying to say. You know what you are talking about, no matter how you write it down. There are no confusions in your own mind, no questions needing answers, no lapses of interest in the subject, no details needing to be elaborated, no tedious sections needing to be cut. You would never have to redraft since you could rest assured that you had written essentially matchless prose. However, when you know that someone other than your own uncritical self will be reading your writing, your problems begin. There s no reason to assume that other readers will be uncritically interested in what you have to say. None of us is God s gift to writing. This means you have to take many things into consideration, and one of the best ways of doing this is to ask yourself questions such as: % Who are my readers? Some of the important aspects you need to bear in mind are age, education, social status, values, politics, ethnic background, gender and religion. % How can I capture their attention and keep it? % What do they already know? % What might they not understand? % How or where might they be confused? % What effect am I trying to achieve? Don t believe the myth that writing to satisfy yourself is good enough. It isn t, unless you re the sole audience for that writing.
Chapter 1 Elements of effective writing 5 Remember, your readers are pleading for attention with every word you write. It helps to imagine that they re hard to please and cantankerous. Cajole them into paying attention to your message. Imagine them sitting beside you as you write, groaning with boredom, or moaning, I don t get it. Whaddya mean? If you listen to your readers as you write, and care about their imagined reactions, your writing will rapidly improve. We ve imagined you sitting beside us and deliberately decided to use contractions (isn t, don t, we ve). Although they re seldom found in academic texts, they reduce the distance between the writer and the reader and help to create the feeling that we re having a fireside chat with you. Good writing has the lightness of speech That s not to say that good writing is merely speech written down. It isn t. Written English is far more complex and clearly organised than spoken English. The two are very different indeed. However, good writing has the cadences, the rhythms and the lightness associated with speech. The tone of a piece of writing may force an alteration in the lightness; for example, a brave writer would say Before she went to bed, whereas a timid writer, not daring to be light-handed, would prefer Before retiring to her nocturnal resting place Referring to the work of authors who have written regarding this topic There s absolutely nothing wrong with who have written on this topic. It s clear, it s effective, and it has the lightness of speech. Good writing is clear writing Good writing effective writing is first and foremost writing that makes its message clear. If you can t understand something you ve read in a novel, newspaper, letter, story, article, journal, government form, advertisement, essay, recipe book or instruction manual, don t necessarily blame yourself. It might be the writer! Of course, when you re grappling with difficult novelists, poets or playwrights, or coming to grips with brand-new concepts in academic articles, you will be well aware that a cursory first reading isn t sufficient for an educated appreciation of the material you re reading. In those cases, don t blame the writers for being obtuse: ISBN 978 1 4586 5341 3
6 Part I Writing with style and effect they re inviting you to take part in a game and you have to work out the rules before you can play. However, most of us are neither writers of difficult literary works, nor creators of ground-breaking Aim first knowledge (who should, anyway, be writing as clearly as and always to express, possible), so we have no excuse not be clear. not impress. Frequently, the opposite of good writing is finalyear-at-school writing. In the panic to impress, students begin to develop an amazing style, full of long words, pompous sentence structures and fatuous padding. It isn t necessary to use long words like fatuous instead of short ones, nor is it necessary to write complex sentences instead of snappy ones. Aim first and always to express, not impress. Inappropriately long words and convoluted sentence structures interfere with getting the meaning across. Avoid them. Be brave. Turn over a new page in your writing life. Short sentences scattered among long sentences come as a relief to any reader. It s certainly acceptable to use long words or complex sentences whenever they re appropriate, but bear in mind their length alone does not make them impressive. And pretending to be clever doesn t fool anyone in the end. Really impressive writers are those who write simply and clearly, and get their meaning across without unnecessary clutter. ISBN 978 1 4586 5341 3 Good writing manages to capture hearts and minds early in a piece This is true of both fiction and non-fiction. There are many techniques used in writing to capture the reader s attention. For example, effective
Chapter 1 Elements of effective writing 7 non-fiction writing is carefully set out, with headings and perhaps dot points or diagrams, to help get the writer s message across. Let s focus on a phenomenon that s particularly important in winning readers hearts and minds. It s called the lead. Because readers of any writing (fiction or non-fiction) have limited patience and attention spans, the first sentence or sentences has to act as bait to hook them in. As a general rule, therefore, long, complicated sentences are not a good idea; for example: As she rounded the final corner, sweating slightly in the warmth of the late afternoon sun, her feet dragging, wondering how it would feel to return after all these years, fearing the worst about what the family would choose to remember, and noticing with deep disgust that the old house with the pepper tree had been replaced by a set of cheaply built apartments, Corrie slowed her pace, putting off the inevitable for yet another moment. Leads are usually more effective if they are more easily understood, which is why shorter sentences are generally (but not always) preferable; for example, Corrie slowed her pace. (You wouldn t have noticed at the time, but we deliberately started this non-fiction text with two very short sentences: Books like this are often boring. We hope this one isn t.) Of course, there s no rule about leads having to be Tease your short. Many successful leads are long, but the risks in readers into a long lead are that readers may lose interest and that continuing confusion may occur. Regardless of length, the main goal to read your of a lead is to make readers want to continue reading. So, piece. in creative writing don t give away too much in your first sentence or two. Tease your readers into continuing to read your piece. Make them wonder what the lead is actually leading to. A lead such as My birthday had arrived at last! may have the effect of turning a reader away. Who wants to know about a boring old birthday, anyway? the reader might ask. But if the lead tantalises readers into asking What happens next? the bait has worked and they will be hooked. Although the lead is obviously the first thing a reader will read, it may not be the first thing a writer writes. It s quite possible to write the lead last. Start with a temporary lead that sets you in the right direction a lead that serves its purpose, at a pinch. Then, when you re redrafting and have the rest of your piece as you want it, go back and ISBN 978 1 4586 5341 3
8 Part I Writing with style and effect ISBN 978 1 4586 5341 3 rewrite the lead until you re satisfied that it s right for what follows. In non-fiction, the lead might state your premise, your reason for writing; or you might set the focus by describing the scene of your field work, taking the reader to the place; or you might start with a snappy quote. Don t fall into the easy trap of thinking that non-fiction has to mean boring. The best non-fiction is riveting and is brilliantly written. Good writing flows smoothly from paragraph to paragraph When you have written a (temporary) lead, the next problem is ensuring smoothness in the rest of your piece. Huge bunches of text without breaks are daunting for any reader, so it s visually and psychologically important to divide your thoughts into clearly defined sections. This can be done in two ways: either by an indentation at the start of each new thought the method we are using in this book or by having no indentation and instead leaving a line between each chunk of text. The chunk of text known as the paragraph is a series of sentences, all of which relate to a single point you want to make. This means that some paragraphs might be longer than usual and others shorter. Paragraphs are roughly a hundred words, but that s an average only and no word counting should occur unless you find you have written a paragraph that s a page long. A short, one-sentence (or even one-word) paragraph can be electrifying, but paragraphs are more often three or four sentences bunched together around one idea.
Chapter 1 Elements of effective writing 9 It s considered courteous for the writer to try to vary the length of those sentences to assist understanding and prevent reader fatigue. In non-fiction it is critical that the most important idea you want to convey is in the first sentence of the paragraph, not the last. Less experienced writers sometimes write several points about the main idea before finally revealing it in the final sentence of the paragraph. Wrong! Help your idea by putting it up front before you flesh it out. Regardless of whether you are writing creative writing or nonfiction, you need to carefully connect one paragraph to the next so that readers don t become fatigued and confused. It isn t wildly difficult to connect paragraphs if you think of It isn t them as pieces in a game of dominoes whose endings wildly difficult and beginnings have to match, or as individual to connect pieces in a jigsaw, all of which have to fit together to paragraphs if complete the large puzzle that is your piece. The first you think of sentence in any paragraph is like a jigsaw piece that them as pieces in a game of has to ease snugly it mustn t be forced out of the dominoes. final sentence in the previous paragraph. The two sentences can t be completely unconnected, for the sake of the flow of your writing. Flow is important as an aid to the reader. It s not something that someone out there has recommended for no good reason. In trying to achieve a smooth flow between paragraphs it might help to regard your readers as being a little bit fragile and therefore needing to be gently helped across the bumpy roads of your thoughts, without being jarred in the process. Sometimes you will need to indicate that it s not a bump but rather a change of direction. Especially in non-fiction you will need to use a signal (an adverbial conjunction) that you are going to change tack. However, nevertheless, on the other hand, and despite this are just some of the signals used at the beginning of a paragraph to indicate to the reader that there is flow (or cohesion) in your work, but that for the moment you are going against the flow, so to speak, by putting an alternative point of view. We have tried in this section to practise precisely what we ve been preaching by writing model paragraphs that connect to one another without jarring. If you need to consolidate your understanding of paragraphing, read this whole section again, noting with a writer s critical eye the way in which it was written. ISBN 978 1 4586 5341 3