SOMALI PROSODIC SYSTEMS l

SOMAL PROSODC SYSTEMS l John Wllam Johnson t' A recent breakthrough by two Somal scholars, Maxamed Xaash Dhamac and Cabdullaah Drye Guuleed,2 has repopened the queston of Somal prosodc systems and has led to an understandng of the unts by whch Somal classcal and other poetry s scanned. These two scholars dscovered, apparently ndependently, that the four classcal genres are scanned quanttatvely, that s by countng temporal unts on the lne, They are not scanned by tone, or by stress patterns, or by any other method. What stumped us for years was the exact nature of the unts whch were to be scanned, Maxamed and Cabdullaah dscovered that the mora (also called chronos and chroneme), and not the syllable, s the key unt n Somal classcal prosody. We shall return to ths unt later, but frst a bt of background for the sake of orentaton would be useful here. The Somals lve on the eastern Hom of Afrca. They number somewhere around fve mllon and are approxmately 70 to 80 percent nomadc, beng herders of camels, sheep and goats, and (n the southern regons) cattle. Ther lterature s almost entrely oral, although there s now a growng body of wrtten lterature due to the government's decson to use the Latn alphabet for transcrbng the language. 3 By far the most mportant form of oral lterature n Somala s some 35 (or more) genres of poetry, all of whch have been skllfully descrbed by the Somal scholar Muuse Xaaj smaacl Galaal. 4 The most mportant of the tradtonal genres were descrbed and examples of them were publshed by Andrzejewsk and Lews n ther book Somal Poetry: An ntroducton (J 964). The modem poem, whch s also oral n nature and whch has had a powerful mpact on recent Somal socal and poltcal lfe, s called the heel/o or hees. t was descrbed n ts hstorcal context and examples of t were publshed n my book Heellooy Heel/eel/ooy: The Developmel1l of the Genre Heello n Modern Somal Poetry (1974),' The present essay wll concentrate only on a detaled textual descrpton of the prosodc systems of the four classcal genres called gabay. jflo. geeraar, and buraambur. The reader may refer to the above mentoned books for such other topcs as functon and context of Somal oral poetry. Let us put the four classcal genres nto perspectve n relaton to the rest of Somal poetry. Untl the advent of the two rado statons n Somala,6 and the brth and growth of the modem heello, Somal poets were non-professonal as the great majorty of them reman even today. That s to say, poets dd not earn ther lvng by ther sklls, ndeed, everyone was permtted and encouraged for reasons of ganng prestge to partcpate n ths artstc endeavor, but, obvously, a mnorty were really genus at t. The four classcal genres were consdered the hghest forms of poetc expresson and were reserved for the serous poltcal, socal, and phlosophcal com;nentary: thus, our desgnaton of them as "classcal" The Somal poetc creatve context s very nterestng to many students of oral lterature and folklore n that, whle oral n nature, t s not for.,

Volume 2. 10. 3 HOR 1 OF AFRCA / 47 mulac n the Perry-Lord sense of that ternl' n other words. composton and rectaton are not usually smultaneous. Verbatm or near verbatm memorzaton. an old topc n folklorstcs recently reopened by Ruth Fnnegan.~ s very mportant n the dffuson and ultmate preservaton of ths type of oral an. When varaton of a specfc poem occurs. whch s relatvely rare. t usually takes the fonn of transposton or omsson of entre lnes rather than of words on a sngle lne. Such memorzaton s made possble by the ncredble constrants of prosody placed on the genres, the rules of whch are ex planed below. Exceptons to the nornlal practce of composton n prvate occur. Frends sometmes assst a poet n hs creatve process of composton. Moreover, poetc combats n Somala often requre an on-thespot response to a poetc challenge, whch, ncdentally, requres the same allteraton n the reply as was found n the challengng poem. n these cases, lcense s gven the poet, a lcense whch would not be permtted n other contexts. The poet s gven more tme to work out hs lnes: he s permtted to leave a lne unfnshed whle he proceeds wlh other lnes and to return to the dffcult lne later; and he s permtted to "struggle through" a lne, sometmes mumblng through part of the lne wth whch he s havng dffculty. n the latter case, repetton s allowed, each repeat producng more words and fewer mumblng as the lne s completed and perfected. One result orthe normal composton n prvate s that the contexts of composton and performance may be separated; therefore, composer and recter represent two dfferent, albet overlappng, sklls. Once composton of the poem s completed n prvate, t can be rected by ether the poet or by an agent to whom the poet has taught hs poem. n ths context, authorshp of specfc poems may be assgned and remembered. Ths practce n fact s a pan of Somal poetc tradton. We must now tum to the queston of how genres of Somal poetry are dfferentated, for there s more than one method by whch ths process s accomplshed, and t s mponant to pont out that metrcal structure s not the only method. We are desgnatng a genre as such, not by a cross-cultural theory, whch s cenanly vald when dscussng other aspects of prosody not dealt wth here. but by Somal standards only. n shon, a genre of Somal poetry may be defned here as a form to whch a Somal name has been assgned. Frst of all, as mentoned above, there s quanttatve scanson. The numbers and combnatons of numercal unts dfferentate some of the genres of Somal poetry. Another major method s melody. n Somal poetcs, all genres can be sung; some may, also be rected as well as sung, whle others must be,.' put to musc. Examples of the latter case are the j genres we call mnature. n Somal they are called (, wglo. dhaaj1lo. hrwo. and hehvo, and they last " '.1 from two to ten lnes n length. Wth these genres t s the melody that makes the dfference.~ An experment tred wth the Somal poet and playwrght ""' Xasan Sheekh Muumn sought to prove ths thess. later leamed that B. W. Andrzejewsk had carred out the same experment wth the Somal scholar Muuse Xaaj smaacl Galaal some years earler and obtaned the same results. The hypothess was ths: rected, the genres could not be dfferentated; sung, the genres could be dentfed. The method used to test ths theory was smple. f melody were the only factor dfferentatng the genres, then the. same tex!. regardless of ts generc desgnaton,! could be sung to any of the four melodes. Ths : assumpton n fact turned out to be true. A wglo text was chosen, and the poet was asked to "convert" t from a wg/o to a dhaanro, then to a hrwo, and fnally to a he/wo, smply by changng the melody. Other genres appear to be dfferentated by a combnaton of quanttatve scanson and the approprate subject matter reserved for the form. Heesgeel. "camel-song," and hees-adh, "sheep and goat song," are examples. Context even appears to come nto play, as wth such genre dfferentaton as hees-wadaameed, "frst camel waterng song," and hees-rakaadeed, "second camel waterng song." The frst tme the camels are watered, the genre employed s rapd and rhythmc, as the workmen are not yet tred out and can keep up a quck pace n slngng water contaners up and down sometmes very deep wells dug nto dry rver beds. The "second camel waterng song," however, fnds two very tred workmen whose slower pace s matched by a very mlch slower rhythm to the song. But more research s needed to be certan of these ".

- 48 / HORN OF AFRCA Volume 2, o. 3, f 'e c rules, and ths research s beng vgorously pursued by several scholars and ther students at the Department of Somal Language and Lterature n the Natonal Unversty of Somala and at the Academy of Somal culture,o a research and publshng nsttute funded by the Somal government. The latter has accepted for publcaton the works on scanson by the two Somals mentoned at the begnnng of ths essay]j At the moment only Maxamed's work has seen prnt n the natonal daly newspaper, XddglQ OklOobar (October Star)12 The modem heello s delvered as a lyrc to song musc and s dfferentated from other genres by several crtera. Every heello melody s dfferent from every other heello melody, as wth any song. Quanttatve unts are not operatve, as the poetc lne s domnated by the melodc beat of the musc. Ths form of prosodc constrant external to the lngustc structure of the lne has been descrbed by Charles S. Brd 13 Wth the heello, muscal nstru ments are used to accompany the genre and there appear to be no constrants at all on the subject matter. Fnally, we come to the four classcal genres, whch we wsh to descrbe n detal. As mentoned above, t was the two Somal scholars who provded the breakthrough n ths study by solatng the smallest unts of ths quanttatve scanson. My own ~ contrbuton has been to solate metron or foot patv terns, thereby provdng a dstnct defnton of the ~ 11 meter ofeach genre. Altogether analyzed scanson r patterns of publshed texts of three gabays, three : geeraars, three buraamburs, and ajfto, amount >:,\ ng to some 6041nes. 14 Detaled statstcal analyses " followed, and my conclusons are based on ths :! work. t must be made clear at ths pont that ths j research has only just begun, and the conclusons to ll, H whch we have come to date must be consdered,.. ', tentatve. r ;,r " Let us begn wth a dscusson of characterstcs 'l common to all four classcal genres. Also a quck f word on termnology. Many phenomena found n Somal scanson are also found n Greek oral poetry, and t s from the study of Greek and some Latn prosody that many of the terms are taken 15 The smallest unt on the classcal lne s the mora, defned smply as the temporal duraton of a syllable contanng a short vowel. A syllable contanng a long vowel, then, s equvalent to two morae. nstead of countng syllables, as we tred for years to do, we have learned to count morae. Monosemc unts are one mora n length, whle dsemc unts are two morae n length. The latter may consst of two short syllables, or a long vowel, or a dphthong followed by a consonant. 16 The next largest unt on the classcal lne s the metron or foot, whch can be defned as a pentasemc unt. Put another way, a classcal foot contans from three to fve syllables, equvalent to fve morae. The remanng sublnear unt, the hemstch or half lne, occurs only wth the gabay and the jflo. Both these genres contan a caesura or pause between each half lne. The caesura has a tendency to occur between clauses or smaller sense groups but s constraned only n that t must not fall n the mddle of a word. As wth Greek prosody, there are several categores of syllables whch may be descrbed as permssble varatons to the "proper" rules of the lne. We have so far solated three acceptable varatons: syllabula anceps, anacruss, and truncaton. Frst, the anceps syllable s one whch may be counted as long or short accordng to the poet's needs on any gven lne of poetry. At least sx lngustc combnatons provde anceps possbltes for Somal. A dphthong of ether a long or short vowel, followed by the offglde, followed not by a consonant as n the above mentoned varety, but by a vowel or by nothng at all, wll allow the syllable to be counted as ether a monoseme or a dseme. 17 The second anceps varaton nvolves the preverbal pronouns whch normally have long vowels. Frst person aan, second person aad, and thrd person, masculne sngularuu, may be counted as long or short. The auxlares waa and baa normally have long vowels but are the thrd anceps varaton, whle the fourth s the conjuncton 00. The other conjuncton n Somal, yo, ncdentally, s often contracted to the word precedng t by elson of the last vowel n that word. Anga yo (fve morae), " and...", for example, may become ang'yo (four morae). The ffth anceps s the suffx -, a noun determner, and the last example of anceps s the negaton partcle aan. t should also be ponted out that there may be other anceps yet undecphered. For the tme...,.,. ~ -.-.-':.

_--.---------------------------------R!~-s. beng. they fall statstcally n the catagory of "bad lnes.'. The second varaton of the proper lne s the one whch permts an anacruss or up beal before the frst fool. thus allowng sx morae. but only n the frst fool. The result s ether an extra shan syllable or a long voweled syllable n place of the ntal lllonol;emc unt on the lne. Fnally, truncaton or loss of one or more syllables, permlled on the classcal lne. t takes several forms. Catalexs s the loss of one monosemc syllahle at the end of a half lne or lne. Brachycatalexs s the loss of a dsemc unt, whch can be ether a long-voweled syllable or two shons. The loss of three morae may also occur and may be classed under the general rubrc of hypercatalexs. ntal truncaton also occurs, producng an acephalous or "headless" fool. The latter s the opposte of anacruss. Tumng to the queston of meter, the gaba", the jfo, and the bllraall1/jur are tetropodes; that s, they contan four feet per lne. The geeraar, on the other hand, s a dpody wth only two feet per lne. The metron tself, as we have ndcated, s always a pentasemc unt, and eght varetes exst for the classcal genres. Greek names exst for all these feet, but they are somewhat napproprate for Somal prosody.1h We have smply assgned an alphabetc letter to each fool. Usng macrons to mark dsemc syllables and mcrons to mark monosemc syllables, the eght feet may be transcrbed as follows: B. c. D. E. F. G. H., : Volume 2, o. 3 HOR OF AFRCA / 49 ', ' ;' When these feet are employed n a classcal ' poem. the poem may be descrbed as an epsynthe n" ton: that s 10 say, the same type of foot does not j '. have to occur n each of the pentasemes on the same lne. t would be mpossble [0 descrbe a Somal! ~ poem as a tetropody n A foot, or a dpody n B foot, : V p. because both these feet and any of the others lllay occur on the same ne and on any of the other lnes " :1 n the same poem. n fact, the statstcs ndcate a tendency toward a lne of at least three dfferent " varetes of feet, the fourth one beng the same as one of the other three. The geeraar, whch s a.,. dpody, s the excepton to ths tendency. None of.; the several hundred lnes we scanned n (he other three genres permlled four dentcal feet on the same lne. To llustrate the epsynthetonc nature of these poems, the foot occurrence patterns of the, scanned examples gven below are lsted after the translatons. : Apan from the unts of quanttatve scanson, another constrant, whch s tnly amazng about classcal and other types of Somal poetry, s ts ' allteratve pattern. The gabay, jfto, and geeraar, requre that only one sound per poem may allterate, a sound beng defned as a sngle consonant or all the vowels collectvely. A SO-lne gabay, for nstance, wll have 300 words that allterate wth the same sound. Thus we may call any gven poem a gaba." n "Q", or ageeraar n "M", or ajfto n "vowels. " Allteraton does not occur n words that are sde by sde on the lne. The only requrement s that each half lne n thegabay andjfto, and each ne n the geeraar contan a word wth the specfed allteraton. The buraambur allterates on each half of the lne (there s no caesura n the buraambur), but ths genre s an excepton for another reason as well. Each lne must have two words that allterate wth the same sound, but each new buraambur lne may have a new allteratng sound. n ths respect, the bllraambur allteraton pattern resembles that of Old Englsh poetry. The tendency statstcally n about half of the cases s for the frst word on the half lne to allterate n the gaben' and jfto and for the frst word on the lne to allterate n the geeraar and buraambur. Where the frst word does not allterate, at least some word n the frst foot wll do so. n 80 percent L! : S::;J /.

--- SO/HORN OF AFRCA Volume 2, No.3 of the cases we scanned, the frst foot contaned an allteratng word. One fnal comment on classcal poetry n general concerns larger lne unts. Classcal poetry lnes are arranged n strophes and not n stanzas. That s, there s no set number of lnes n ths larger unt, although one classcal poet, the Sayyd Maxamed Cabdlle Xasan, now honored n Somala as the natonal poet, was known to compose some of hs gabays n trplets. A strophe s easly determned, for the last syllable of the last lne of the strophe s held on a low note for a much longer perod of tme than s ts counterpart on any nternal lne of a strophe. Moreover, t s also only at the end of a strophe that the audence s permtted to nterrupt the performance, and only then wth a renforcng statement of apprecaton, whch mght nclude repetton of the last half lne of the last lne of the strophe. Turnng now to specfc characterstcs whch whch dfferentate the genres, let us begn wth the most popular and the most structurally constraned genre, the gabay. The gabay foot pattern has nternal constrants and may be defned as a dseme, followed by another dseme, followed by a monoseme, and may be symbolzed by the followng dagram. The spaces between the lnes represent morae, whle a double vertcal lne ndcates a foot boundary. nternal foot boundares are of two types. The broken lne may be crossed by a long vowel, but the sold lne may not. P The foot boundary n any classcal poem s easy to recognze, because t s the smallest unt of recurrent patterns of morae on the lne. Four such patterns may be solated on a gabay lne, thus producng a lne n tetrameter. Because of the nternal foot boundares for thegabay, only the frst four feet, A, B, C, and D may occur n the gabay metron. The structure of the gabay lne may be symbolzed by the followng dagram: 19 U:\:~:l:\u:m:U::ln The unqueness of the gabay lne les n the fact that the caesura falls after the frst dseme n the thrd foot; n other words, t does not fall at the fc boundary. Thus the frst hemstch contans twelve morae, whle the second contans eght. Note also that an anacruss s permssble wth ths genre. The followng passage, allteratng n "D", wll llus trate how the gabay lne scans. 20 Somal text and scanson pattern: : : 1 c: : r :. 33. tl;;h.,;; d;bk~dy~ s;nd;hay,.:..:.. : ~~. r ~ r 3 4 Oedka lll;u me l1tasn e we8..:.' ~ J~.:. 1.r.:. 35. Afertaa sd Deleb La rday, ~: :.~.:..1:_ ~ ;6. O;'d;;n k;;; blssbyo myean. \l.:.~.~'~ '.,~ 37. Me deleeyay deylqssfku...as, Translaton: _:.1 J~~.U dflnabbadood ye.:.1.1: ~~ \ _C drr..sayeen e ~1.1.:.1 ~J l'lsysu debo joojay? ~l_::.: J~ _C deelka kc habow'shay? ~.u~ :.1 _ : Kea dls8 eebsy e 33. God has put out ther fre and has dampened (the valour of) ther heroes; 34. They are not the weakest among people and yet they have not fought (at all). 35. Have not put these four (ponts) one after the other, lke the (marked) stcks n the Deleb game? 36. Have lost the allteraton n the letter D wth whch began? 37. Have j not set t out clearly? Errors and prevarcaton spol a poem' Foot Patterns: 33. 0 - B - A - 0 (wth anacruss) 34. A-D-B - 0 35. C - B - C - C 36. B - B - 0 - C (wth anacruss) 37. C-D-D-B Thejfto as well as the geeraar have no nternal metron constrants, and thejfto lne pattern may be dagramed as follows: l : : : : l : : : : U There s, however, a defnte tendency for each foot to begn wth a short syllable, thus: ::: ll::: U11::: ::: All eght feet are therefore possble, but B, D, and H are df tcs r s ag, exact frst, ten m ng p: Note Somal 5. Amb ~ 6. Drt 7.. wexe 9. Me w Transl 5. " w~ 6. We we 7. W mf 8. SJ yo 9. Ca tac 10. Dc ga Foot {> 5. G tc 6. G 7. F 8. F 9. E 10. E st The dentc one al t.,..~~;;::...;';;;"~_j.;.._...

Volume 2, No.3 HORN OF AFRCA / 51 are decdedly unpopular wth thejjto, as the statstcs ndcate for the materals we analyzed. The lne s agan n tetrameter, but the caesura falls n the exact center, after the second foot boundary. The frst and second hemstchs are, then, equal, wth ten morae apece. Allteratng n "0", the felowng passage wll demonstratejjto lne scanson. 21 Note that ntal truncaton occurs. Somal text and scanson pattern: -~- 5. Amos... eb ka clabo ~el dekenkyo qaadkee, 6. Drbatll hadd BBn kegs ts[';o, ansa been dabbed eh e 1 R 7. wexaan KS8 delbahayaa, duunj.:ssgu VUX'Ul. qabo, ll _ 8. ntssd de...}ad u tbhlly 1 ad':;8a u dam1n ah e, 1-1 _ 9. Me wee dd nmenj.:aad, dabatay e soo dbacay? 1: 11 _ 10. "axay KB dudduubeen, may kor u dabs8sbsao? Translaton. 5. wll myself seek to recover the propel1y and the loot whch they sezed. 6. Were to leave a sngle penny wth them my pledge would be pervel1ed. 7. What clam from you s only what you yourself owe me; 8. Snce you are the government the responsblty s yours; 9. Can you dsclam those whom you trcked nto attackng me? 10. Do they not swm n the prosperty whch they have ganed from what they devoured of mne? Foot patterns: 5. G - A - G - F (ntal truncaton on both hemstchs) 6. G - A - F- E 7. F-G-D-E 8. F- G-C-E 9. E- G-C- E 10. E - F - E - F (ntal truncaton on second hemstch) Thegeeraar's foot constrants and tendences are dentcal to those of thejjo. Moreover, there s but one allteratng word per lne, so that the geeraar ne structure may be descrbed as half ajjto, thus:.. n. n [ n [ - - Dagrammng the tendency for an uncrossable nternal boundary to fall after the frst monoseme wll render the followng change: The geeraar, then, scans n dmeter, wth two feet per lne, a total of ten morae. t further dffers from the jfto n that ts truncaton s termnal. Also nterestng to note s that anacruss and truncaton may both occur. Fnally, the mode of delvery s dfferent for these two genres. The followng pas sage, allteratng n "C" wll exemplfy geeraar scanson. 22 Somal text and scanson pattern: 9. Nn habeenno casheeyay n U u 10. Cadar aan hadh lahayn D l u 11. lyo ceeryaamays ugu toosta, 11 12. 00 nuu caafyaddsa D u 13. Cabbaar meel la fadhsto lj 14. Caqlgaanay gelayn e. l! - - 15. Waar tolow, colka jooja~ Translaton: 9. He who sups plentfully every nght 10. (Whom prde and prosperty shroud lke) shadeless cloud, ", ",. ' " : :,! -,,.---....

52 / HORN OF AFRCA Volume 2, NO.3. And damp msl mxed together. 12. That n hs good fortune 13. He should repose n peace and tranqulty 14. Would be hard to cred!. 15. Oh clansmen, stop the war l Foot patterns: 9 C- F 10. C - E or F (wth brachycatalexs). F - G (wth anacruss; "bad" lne) 12. G-C 13. F-C 14. C - E (wth catalexs) 15. H-C The geeraar s more popular than the )fto tn modem tmes, and ts meter s sad to match the rhythm of rdng on horseback. t s n fact a battle poem, whle thejfto s a genre devoted largely to phlosophcal and melancholc topcs. The gabay deals mostly wth poltcs and socal commentary. These three genres are masculne poems, composed and rected by men and wthout any accompanment of muscal nstruments, hand clappng, or much audence partcpaton. The buraambur stands n opposton to the latter three n that t s composed and rected by and for women. A drum and hand clappng, as well as dancng, often accompany ts perfonnance. No ntemal foot constrants or tendences exst for the buraambur. All eght feet are employed; ndeed metron H, unpopular wth the masculne genres, was the most popular foot n the examples we analyzed. The lne, a tetrapody, looks smply lke ths: Lke the geeraar, the buraambur has a tendency to truncate, whch can be observed n all but the last lne of the followng buraambur.23 Somal text and scanson patterns: 1..Jalkeennyo Reer ';a100 rleyr La k;;lla rr.arsho..., C 2. Crkoo d'... aayay 00 dundu crtayo"",,.!: n 3. DayvxF nuurks<t oon db u ftmlnow, 4. "';oamsadll 00 daalacdoo Lega dam s11yayo'w, 5. BDsrB tlmrt1 ka menaysay 00 badd xdbdho... Translaton:. You were the fence standng between our land and the descendants of 'Al, 2. ( ow n your departure) you are the sky whch gves no ran whle mst shrouds the world. 3. The moon lhat shnes no more. 4. The rsen sun extngushed. 5. The dates on ther way from Basra cut off by the seas. Foot patterns: E - H - B - E or F (wth brachycalalexs) ") E-H-G-D 3. G - H - G - E or F (wth brachycatalexs) 4. G - H - G - 0 5. A-G - H - 0 n closng, one can see how hghly constraned Somal classcal poetry s, not only by foot and lne pattems, but also by allteraton Knowledge of the ntemal structure of these constrants now makes a clam by some Somal poets and recters much more credble, and that s ths: t s sad that some recters are so sklled at memorzaton that they can remember and recte a classcal poem after hearng t only once. Notes. A modfed form of ths paper was presented at the nth Annual Conference on Afrcan Lngustcs held at Mchgan State Unversty. East Lansng. Mchgan. from 7 to 9 Aprl, 1978. 2. The spellng system employed throughout ths essay s the one offcally adopled by lhe Somal government on 21 October, 1972. 1 have not. however. changed bblographcal clalons, where the spellng remans the same as t appears on the ltle page of the work. For a hstory of the aclvtes leadng up 10 the adopton of ths alphabet. and for a descrpton of the phonemc referents of ts graphemes, see Hussen M. Adam' (1968), Andrzejewsk, Strelcyn, and Tubana (1969), and Andrzejewsk (l974a), (1974b), (1977b), and (1978, forthcomng). The mosl mportant nnovalons n lhs alphabet are as follows: lhe symbol (x) s employed for the voceless pharyngeal [h] or [h and (c) for ts voceless counterpart [ ]. 3. For a good descrpton of the rse of Somal wrtten ltera ture. see Andrzejewsk (1975). a4. For a lsl of Muuse Galaal's publcatons. see Johnson (1969) and (1973) and Mohamed Khalef Salad (1977). 5. Publshed by ndana Unversty Press for the Research Center for the Language Scences. ths book s now dstrbuted by Humantes Press. 6. For a descrpton of the mpact of the rado on Somal poetry, see Suleman Mohamed Adam (1968) and Johnson (1974). For ts mpact on language change. see Andrzejewsk (197)). 7. The basc book on the formulac theory s Lord (1960).

~. Sec Flll1c~"11 (1'171»,,"d (1'177) for th'''''lll~h dscuss"lls nf h:-o topc. 9. For J horou~h J('~l'rrllln of (hl.':-'~ gel1re:-.. see Johnson ( lj7~l. 10. Fllr ~ O\. :-'..""lplo11 of tlll' Al..- Jdc..'ll~. ~C'('.A.ndrze.c\\'~k ( 977"l.. Sec Clbdull""h Dr)'e Guuked (197~1. ~. Scc M".\;11ed """sh Dh"ll"c ( 971>l. 13. SCe Brd (1971) "ld (1976). 1-1. Sc"nsull "nd "1l"lyss w"s performed on [exts n Andrzcjews~ :l1d Mus" H.. G""" (1963) "ld Andrzejewsk "nd Lews{ 191>-11.1,huuld l~e luth"nk the authurs "nd publshcrsof these..' 1\\'0 vlork:-. fur gr:.tl1tng perj1l~~on (0 reprnt portons of thesc lexts "s example, n ths essay. Note hal the spellng n hese p""ages has been "ltered to conform \\ th the new Somal llalon:1 onhogr"phy. 15. Works consulted fur termnolog\' werc Maas (1962l. Raven (196~). Rosenmeyer. Ostw"ld. and H"lporn (19631. and Premn!!er (1965l. 16. The dphthong whch must be coulllcd "s a long vowel may he symholzed hy be followng formul,,: # V G C #. The symhoj # represel1ls syllable boundares. whle V S"nds for a long or shon vowel The letter G symbolzes the off glde. ether.y/ or /w/. and C represems ~ conson"m. 17. The "ncep' dpthong may bc symbolzed by the formulj: # V G (V) #. The parentheses represem an optonal choce. 18. nthc sprt of the movement n Somala 10 modernze the lan!!u,,!!e. feel t would be more approprate for Somal scholars to ;"~n Som"l names to these feel. Moreover. bacchac and palmb'acch"c. named from odes to the Greek and Roman god of wne. are decdedly napproprate for namng poetc feet employed by a Moslem socety. Lstng the Greek names here s for edfcaton and reference an)': (A) Pemabrach. (B) Frst paean. (C) Thrd pacon. (0) Palmbacchac (Ambacchacl. (E) Second paean. (F) Bacchac. (G) Founh paean. (H) Cretc (Amphmacer) 19. The trple vencle lne may not be crossed by a dsemc syllable. and t represents the caesura boundary. but t does not necessarly occur between feel. Only wth thej{to does the trple vencle lne rcpresem both caesura and foot boundares. 20. The passage s from Andrzejewsk and Musa H.1. Galaal (1963), pp. 22 and 2-1. 21. The passage s from Andrzejewsk and Lews (1964). pp.74-77. 22. hd., pp.13q.--31 23. hd.. P'. 138-39 Bblography Andrzejewsk. B. W... 'The Role of Broadcastng n the Adaptaton of the Somal Language [a Modem Needs," n Language Use and Socal Change: Problems ofmulllngualsm ""lh Specal Reference 10 Easl Afrca, ed. W.H. Whteley (London: Oxford Unversty Press for the nternatonal Afrcan nsttute. 1971): 262-73. ---,.. Somala ntroduces a Natonal Orthography," Afrca 44:1 (London: mcrnatonal Afrcan nsttute. 1974): 84. ---, "The ntroducton of a atonal Orthography for Somal," Afrcall Lallguage Srudes 15 (London: School of Orental and Afrcan Studes. Unversty of London, 1974): 199-203. -. "The Rse of Wrtten Somal Lterature." Afrcan Re Volume 2. 0.::'\ HORN OF AFRCA / 53 se(lrch (lld Docul{'n/(lloll 8/9 (Blmngham: Afrcan Studes Assocaton of the Unted Kngdom. 1975): 7-1-1. ---. "The Somal Academy of Culture." A Bullelll:.4.f-call Srudes NOles (lld News. Supplement to Ajrc( -17: (London: nternatonal Afrcan nsttute. 1977): 7. ---. "Fve Years of \'rtten Somal: A Repon on Progress and Prospects." A Bulle/ll: A/kall Srudes N(){es (lld News. Supplement to Afrco 47:4 (London: nternatonal Afrcan nsttute.197): 4-5. ---..'The Development of a Natonal Orthography n Somala and the Modernzaton of the Somal Language." Hom ajafrca 1:3 (Summt. ew Jersey: Horn of Afrca Journal. July/September, 1978): 39-45. Andrzejewsk. B. W.. "The Role of Poetc Tradton n the Modernzaton of the Somal Language." Heegall (Vglance) (Mogadshu. Somala: Mnstry of nformaton and Natonal Gudance. 25 September, 1978): 4-5. --. "A Survey of Cushtc Lteratures. 194Q.--1975." Elhopallsl NOles 2: (East Lansng. Mchgan: Mchgan State Unversty Afrcan Studes Center, 1978): 1-27. ---. "A Survey of Cushtc Lteratures Before 1940." Nanh EaST Afrcall Sludes (llcorporalllg Elhopallsl Nares) vol. 3 (East Lansng, Mchgan: Mchgan State Unversty Afrcan Studes Center, 1979). [fonhcomng] Andrzejewsk, B. W., and.m. Lews,Samal Pae/r..-: All 11111'0 duclall (London: Oxford Unversty Press, 1964): pp. 167. Andrzejewsk, B.W., and Musa H.. Galaal, "A Somal Poetc Combat," Journal of Afrcall Lallguages 2 (East Lansng. Mchgan: Afrcan Studes Center. 1963):. pp. 15-28:, pp. 93-100;, pp. 190-205. (Republshed n monograph form by Mchgan State Unversty. n.d.). Andrzejewsk. B. W., S. Strekyn, and 1. TUbana, "Somala: The Wrtng of Somal," Samal."a: Anlolaga Slorco Cull/rale 7/8 (Mogadshu, Somala: Mnstry of Educaton. Department of Culture, 1969): 214-34. (Reprnt of UN.E.S.C.O. Report WS/0866.90, CTU Brd, Charles S...Aspects of Prosody n West Afrcan Poetry," n Currelll Trellds ll STylslcs, ed. Braj B. Kachru and Herben F. W. Stahlke (Edmonton: Lngustc Research, Ltd., 1971): 207-15. ---. "Poetry n the Mande: ts Fonn and Meanng,-' Poelcs 5 (Amsterdam: North-Holland Pub. Co., 1976): 89 100. Cabdullaah Drye Guuleed. "Buraanburka yo Msaanksa," Xddgra Okloobar 6:247 (Mogadshu, Somala: Mnstry of nformaton and Natonal Gudance. 8 November, 1978): 3. [For the second half of ths artcle, see under "Hojs yo Hoors Buraanbur.] ---, "Dhaantadana Msaan," Xddgra Okloohar 6: 164 (Mogadshu, Somala: Mnstry of nfornlaton and Natonal Gudance, 2 Au!!ust, 1978): 3. [Forthe second half of ths artcle. see under "Suugaanta Soomaalyeed."] ---. "Gabaygeenna Msaan." Xddgra Ok/oobar 6: 126 (Mogadshu, Somala: Mnstry of nformaton and Natonal Gudance, 18 June, 1978): 3. ---. "Gabaygeenna Msaan: Qaybta Labaad." Xddgw Okloahar 6: 134 (Mogadshu. Somala: Mnstry of nformaton and atonal Gudance, 28 June, 1978): 3. ---. "Geeraarka yo Msaanksa." Xddgra Okloobar 6: 190 (Mogadshu. Somala: Mnstry of nformalon and atonal Gudance, 2 September, 1978): 3.! ',l;,.,! ' '!' V, ' 1 :1!!

- 54 / HOR OF AFRCA Volume 2, NO.3 ---. "Geeraarka yo Msaanksa: Qaybta Labaad,"' Xddgra OklOobar 6: 191 (Mogadshu, Somala: Mnstry of nformaton and atonal Gudance, 3 September, 1978): 3. ---, Gor(a."nta Maansada [Anal."ss oj Poetry] (Mogadshu, Somala: Academy of Culture, Mnstry of Hgher Educaton and Culture). [forthcomng] ---, "Hawraarey Nnba S Kuu Qaaday," Xddgta Oktoobar 6:119 (Mogadshu, Somala: Mnstry of nformaton and Natonal Gudance, 10 June, 1978): 3. Cabdullaah Drye Guuleed, "Hawraarey Nnba S Kuu Qaaday: Qabta Labaad," Xddgta Oktoobar 6: 20 (Mogadshu, Somala: Mnstry of nformaton and 1 a tonal Gudance, June, 1978): 3. ---, "Heelladana Msaan," Xddg10 Oktoobar 6: 172 (Mogadshu, Somala: Mnstry of nformaton and a tonal Gudance. 12 August, 1978): 3. ---, "Heelladana Msaan: Qaybta Labaad," Xddgta Oktoobar 6: 73 (Mogadshu, Somala: Mnstry of nformaton and atonal Gudance, 13 August, 1978): 3. ---, "Hojs yo Hoors Buraanbur," XddglO Oktoobar 6:248 (Mogadshu, Somala: Mnstry oflnformaton and Natonal Gudance, 9 November, 1978): 3. [For the frst half of ths artcle, see under "Buraanbur yo Msaanksa.'.] ---, "Jftadana Msaan," Xddgta Oktoobar 6: 149 (Mogadshu, Somala: Mnstry of nformaton and a tonal Gudance, 16 July, 1978): 3. ---, "Jftadana Msaan: Qaybta Labaad," Xddgta Oktoobar 6: 150 (Mogadshu, Somala: Mnstry of nformaton and atonal Gudance, 7 July, 1978): 3. ---, "Suugaanta Soomaalyeed: Qaybta Labaad," Xddgta Oktoobar 6: 165 (Mogadshu, Somala: Mnstry of nformaton and Natonal Gudance, 3 August, 1978): 3. (For the frst half of ths artcle, see under' 'Dhaantadana Msaan. "] Fnnegan, Ruth, "What s Oral Lterature Anyway? Comments n the Lght of Some Afrcan and Other Comparatve Materal," n Oral Lterature and the Formula, ed. B.A. Stolz and R.S. Shannon, (Ann Arbor, Mch!!an: Center for the Coordnaton of Ancent and Modem Studes, nversty of Mchgan, 1976): 127-76. Fnnegan, Ruth, Oral Poetry: ts Nature. Sgnfcance and Socal COl/ext (Cambrdge: Cambrdge Unversty Press, 1977): pp. 299 Hussen M. Adam, A Naton n Search oja Scrpt: The Problem oj Establshng a Natonal Orthography (M.A. Thess, Makerere, Uganda: Unversty of East Afrca, 1968). Johnson, John Wllam, "A Bblography of the Somal Language and Lterature," AJrcan Language Revew 8 (London: Frank Cass, 1969): 279-97. ---, "The Famly of Mnature Genres n Somal Oral Poetry," Folklore Forum 5:3 (Bloomngton, ndana: Forum Socety, 1972): 79-99. ---, "Research n Somal Folklore," Research n AJrcan Lteratllres 4: (Austn, Texas: Afrcan and Afro Amercan Research nsttute, 1973): 51-61. ---, Heel/ooy Heel/eel/oo)': The Development oj the Genre Heel/o n Modern Somal Poetry (Bloomngton, ndana; ndana Unversty Press for the Research Center for the Language Scences, 1974): pp. 209. (Dstrbuted pre sently by the Humantes Press.) Latn. Davd, Poltcs. Lal'guage and Thought: The Somal Experence, (Chcago: Unversty of Chcago Press, 1977): pp. 268. ---, "Somal Becomes the Offcal Language," R.P.C. V./SOMAUA Nell'sleller : (Pub. by Returned Peace Corps Volunteers n the Somal Republc, 1979). [forthcomn!!] Lord, Albert B., ~The Snger of Tales (Cambrdge, Massachusens: Harvard Unversty Press, 1960): p. 309. Maas, Paul, Greek Metre (London: Oxford at the Clarendon Press, 1962): pp. 116. Maxamed Xaash Dhamac (Gaarye), "Toddobaadkan yo Suugaanta: Msaanka Maansada," Xddgra Oktoobar 4:2 (Mogadshu, Somala: Mnstry of nformaton and Natonal Gudance, 24 January, 1976): 3. ---, "Toddobaadkan yo Suugaanta: Msaanka Maan sada," Xddgta OklOobar 4:8 (Mogadshu, Somala: Mnstry of nformaton and Natonal Gudance, 31 January, 1976): 3. ---. "Toddobadkan yo Suugaanta: Msanka Maansada," Xddgta Oktoobar 4: 14 (Mogadshu, Somala: Mnstry of nformaton and Natonal Gudance. 7 February, 1976): 3. ---, "Toddobaadkan yo Suugaanta: Msaanka Maansada," Xddgta OklOobar 4:20 (Mogadshu, Somala: Mnstry of nformaton and atonal Gudance, 14 February, 1976): 3. ---, "Toddobaadkan yo Suugaanta: Msaanka Maansada,"' XddglO OklOobar 4:55 (Mogadshu, Somala: Mnstry of nformaton and 'atonal Gudance, 27 March, 1976): 3. ---, "Toodobadkan yo Suugaanta: Msaanka Maan sada," XddglO OklOobar 4:73 (Mogadshu, Somala: Mnstry of nformaton and Natonal Gudance, 17 Aprl, 1976): 3. ---, "Toddobaadkan yo Suugaanta: Msaanka Maansada," Xddgta Okroobar 4:86 (Mogadshu, Somala: Mnstry of nformaton and Natonal Gudance, 3 May, 1976): 3. ---, "Toddobaadkan yo Suugaanta: Msaanka Maansada," Xdd;glO Oktoobar 4:90 (Mogadshu, Somala: Mnstry oflnformaton and Natonal Gudance, 8 May, 1976): 3. Maxamed Xaash Dhamac (Gaarye). "Toodbaadkan yo Suugaanta: Msaanka Maansada," Xddgta Oktoobar 4: 108 (Mogadshu, Somala: Mnstry oflnformatonand Natonal Gudance, 29 May, 1976): 3. Mohamed Khalef Salad (comp.), Somala: A Bblographcal Sun'ey (Westport, Connectcut: Greenwood Press, 1977): pp. 468 Pre mnger, Alex (ed.), Prnceton Encyclopeda oj Poetry and Poetcs (Prnceton. New Jersey: Prnceton Unversty Press, 1974): pp. 992. Raven, D.S., Greek Metre: Anlll/roducton (London: Faberand Faber, 1962): pp. 125. Rosenmeyer, Thomas, James W. Halporn, and Martn Ostwald, The Meters oj Greek and Latn Poern' (ndanapols, ndana: Bobbs Merrll, 1963): pp. 137. Suleman Mohamoud Adam, The De\'elopment ojbroadcastng n Somala (Mogadshu, Somala: Mnstry of nfonna ton, 1968): pp. 34. John Wllam Johnson s an Assstant Professor of Folklore at ndana Unversty n Bloomngton.