The structure of this ppt 1.1.-1.10.. Functional issues in the English sentence 2.1.-2.9... Grammatical functions and related relations 2.1.-2.2. A VP-internal alternation 2.3. The four dimensions 2.4. Subjects 2.5. Objects 2.6. Transformational relationships 2.7. Complements 2.8. Adverbials 2.9. Order of clause elements 2
1. Functional issues in the English sentence 3
1.1. Functional issues Quirk et al. (1985): basic binary division: subject predicate subject typically: topic (= theme, what is being discussed ) predicate: something new (about the subject) (1) The boy has opened the door. (2) The door has been opened (by the boy). determines agreement (concord), cf. subject-verb agreement (3) The boy has/*have opened the door. (4) The boys *has/have opened the door. involved in inversion in questions, cf. subject-auxiliary (operator) inversion (5) Has the boy opened the door? (6) What has the boy opened? 4
1.2. Functional issues Quirk et al. (1985) five elements of a sentence 1. subject: S (be careful! S = sentence vs. S = subject!) 2. verb: V 3. object (direct vs. indirect): O d vs. O i 4. complement (subject vs object complement): C s vs. C o 5. adverbial: A 5
1.3. Functional issues (1) John (S) searched (V) the room (O d ) carefully (A). (2) The girl (S) is (V) now (A) a student (C s ) in Debrecen (A). (3) His brother (S) grew (V) happier (C s ) gradually (A). (4) It (S) rained (V) steadily (A) all day (A). (5) He (S) had given (V) the girl (O i ) an apple (O d ). (6) They (S) make (V) him (O d ) the chairman (C o ) every year (A). (7) She (S) saw (V) [that it (S) rained (V) all day (A)] (O d ). (8) He (S) grew (V) happier (C s ) [when Mary (S) arrived (V)] (A). (9) [That she (S) asked (V) the question (O d ) correctly (A)] (S) pleased (V) him (O d ) enormously (A). 6
1.4. Functional issues subject and object complements ~(2) The girl (S) is (V) a student (C s ) / happy (C s ). (cf. a student girl, a happy girl ) Hungarian: A lány diák/boldog. A lány diák/boldog volt. ~(3) His brother (S) grew (V) happier (C s ). (+ become, turn ) cf. He is/was happier. (as a result) ~(6) They (S) make (V) him (O d ) the chairman (C o ). cf. He (S) is the chairman (C s ). (as a result) 7
1.5. Functional issues direct vs. indirect objects ~(1) John (S) searched (V) the room (O d ). ~(6) They (S) make (V) him (O d ) the chairman (C o ). ~(7) She (S) saw (V) [that it (S) rained (V) all day (A)] (O d ). ~(5) He (S) gave (V) the girl (O i ) an apple (O d ). cf. He (S) gave (V) an apple (O d ) to the girl (A). Quirk et al. (1985) --- a semantic approach direct object: the given/received entity 1st or 2nd object NP indirect object: the receiver 1st object NP or PP (A) -- a structural ( grammatical functional) approach is better 8
1.6. Functional issues NP S VP V NP NP He gave the girl O i O 1 an apple. O d O 2 NP S VP V NP PP He gave an apple O d O 1 9 to the girl. A A
1.7. Functional issues passivization of mono- and ditransitive constructions He ate the apple (O d O 1 ). The apple was eaten (by him). O d O 1 S He gave the apple (O d O 1 ) to the girl (A A). The apple was given to the girl. *The girl was given the apple to. O d O 1 S He gave the girl (O i O 1 ) the apple (O d O 2 ). The girl was given the apple (by him). *The apple was given the girl (by him). 10 O i O 1 S O d
1.8. Functional issues Quirk et al. (1985: 721) Type S(ubject) V(erb) O(bject)(s) C(omplem.) A(dverbial) SV SVO SVC SVA SVOO SVOC SVOA The sun The lecture Your dinner My office I The students You intransitive is shining monotransitive bored copular seems copular is ditransitive must send complex-trans. have found complex-trans. can put O d me O i my parents O d a letter O d her O d the dishes 11 C s ready C o very helpful S-related A in the building O-related A on the table
1.9. Functional issues problems 1. the columns appear to indicate syntactic positions, but in ditransitive constructions the two objects have two distinct (adjacent), designated positions: V NP 1 NP 2 the object complement (immediately) follows NP 1, the primary object it can be an adjectival phrase (see previous slide) but it can also be a NP, in which case it is in the same position as the second(ary) object, NP 2, i.e. the secondary object NP and the object complement NP should be represented in complementary distribution 2. the adverbials in SVA and SVOA are obligatory this calls for a more substantial functional distinction: OBLIQUE vs. ADJUNCT 12
1.10. Functional issues Type S V O 1 O 2 / C A:OBLIQUE A: ADJUNCT SV It intr. shines SVO SVC SVA SVOO SVOC SVOA It It It I I He monotr. bored copular seems copular was ditr. sent called compl-tr. found called compl-tr. can put O d me O i my friend my friend O d my friend my friend O d the book C s ready O d a letter a taxi C o helpful a genius 13 (obligatory) S-related A in the box O-related A on the table (optional) at night at night
2. Grammatical functions and related relations 14
2.1. Grammatical functions and related relations * A VP-internal alternation (~GYR) John loaded hay on the truck. John loaded the truck with hay. NP V NP PP category subject (predicate) function object oblique load < Agent, Patient, Goal >
2.2. Grammatical functions and related relations * A VP-internal alternation (~GYR) NP V NP PP NP V NP PP 1. load < Agent, Patient, Goal > NP NP(hay) PP(truck) 2. load < Agent, Goal, Patient > NP NP(truck) PP(hay)
2.3. GFs and related relations The four dimensions topic predicate discourse function subject object oblique (!) grammatical function NP V NP PP syntactic category Agent Goal Patient semantic role John loaded the truck with hay. topic predicate discourse function subject oblique oblique grammatical function NP V PP PP syntactic category Goal Patient Agent semantic role The truck was loaded with hay (by John).
2.4. Grammatical functions and related relations Subjects form (category) position syntactic function (features) semantics NP or S: John surprised me. - That John was late surprised me. before V/OP or after OP: Everybody left. - Everybody has left. - Has everybody left? obligatory except in imperatives (but implied): Open the door! determines the verb s number and person determines a reflexive pronoun s person, number (and gender): The boy likes/*like himself/*herself/*themselves. subjective pronouns: I like him. He likes me. O S (in passives): John invited Eve. - Eve was invited (by John). repeated in tag questions by a pronoun: The milk is sour, isn t it? typically: theme (topic), agentive (see the PREVIOUS three slides!) 18
2.5. GFs and related relations Objects form (category) NP or S: I know the story. - I know that he lied. position after V, O i usually precedes O d (!!!) O 1 vs. O 2 I gave him [O i ] my address [O d ]. syntactic function (features) semantics when coreferential with the subject reflexive pronoun & agreement with respect to person, number (and gender): The boy likes/*like himself/*herself/*themselves. objective pronouns: I like him. He likes me. O S (in passives): John invited Eve. - Eve was invited (by John). in ditransitive constructions either object can become the subject of the corresponding passive: We sent Jack a copy of the letter. (1) Jack was sent a copy of the latter. (2) A copy of the letter was sent Jack. (!!) (3) A copy of the letter was sent to Jack. (1) is far more common than (2). Instead of (2), (3) is more usual. (next slide!) the indirect object usually corresponds to a prepositional phrase: I ll send Charles another copy. I ll send another copy to Charles. typically: the affected argument 19
2.6. GFs and related relations Transformational relationships SVOO He gave Eve a book. passive Eve was given a book (by him). SVOA He gave a book to Eve. passive A book was given to Eve (by him). the general passive rule (PR): NP 1 V NP 2 NP 2 be V-en (by NP 1 ) He wrote a book. A book was written (by him). SVOO He gave Eve a book. PR Eve was given a book (by him). SVOA He gave a book to Eve. PR2 (!) A book was given to Eve (by him). SVOO He gave Eve a book. PR Eve was given a book (by him). SVOA He gave a book to Eve. PR A book was given to Eve (by him). 20
2.7. GFs and related relations Complements form (category) position syntactic function (features) NP, AP or S: Their son is/became a clerk. We find them very pleasant. - My assumption is that John made a mistake. C s : after V C o : after O d C s : (number) concord with the subject C o : concord with the object *They/He is a good boy. - I find them/*him good boys. C s : if reflexive, (person, number, gender) concord with the subject She is not herself/*himself/*yourselves today. *C s /C o S (in passives): *A clerk was become by their son. *Good boys were found them by me. vs. They were found good boys by me. C s : pronoun objective form vs. subjective form (more formal) That s him. - This is he. (formal) semantics typically: identifies or characterizes the referent of the relevant clause element (subject or object) She is my daughter/very pretty. I find her very pretty. 21
2.8. GFs and related relations Adverbials form (category) position syntactic function (features) semantics ADVP, PP, NP, or S: The children were playing loudly (ADVP) in the bedroom (PP) last night (NP) when I got home (S). relatively free; typically final; but obligatory A in SVA and in SVOA: John lives in London. John put the book on the table. except for the obligatory adverbial in SVA and SVOA types adverbials are optional: they may be added to or removed from the clause without affecting its acceptability and without affecting the relations of structure and meaning in the rest of the clause. (Q1985: 730) Last night John had put the book on the table unexpectedly in the kitchen just before Mary got home. the adverbials in SVA and SVOA are obligatory this calls for a more substantial functional distinction: OBLIQUE vs. ADJUNCT (see slide 12) negative characterization: the adverbial does not have the syntactic features subjects, objects and complements have (i) circumstances of the situation (adjunct) (ii) (speaker s) comments on the form/content of the clause 22 (disjunct) (iii) link between clauses (conjunct)
2.9. GFs and related relations Order of clause elements optional adverbials (=adjuncts) may intervene between the elements in the basic clause patterns (SVO(O)(C) ) yes/no questions: OP SUBJ VP wh-questions: WH OP SUBJ VP except: (i) WH subj VP (ii) exclamatives You have perhaps heard this before. It often rains in London. The house was badly damaged. Have you heard from Roger? What did John write? Who wrote the letter? What a nice letter he wrote! 2nd person imperatives: usually no SUBJ Show me your paper! Don t leave! informational highlighting and emphasis: initial or final position shorter elements > longer elements after V stylistically: shorter > V > longer That question I won t answer. Mary left, and so did John. This made possible new techniques for brain surgery. She told him calmly what she thought of him. A petition was circulated asking for a longer lunch break. 23