Evolution of a Cultural Tradition

Evolution of a Cultural Tradition Contrary to Custom, Modern New Orleans Jazz Players Are More Likely to Praise and Absorb Styles of Past Jazz Greats by Michael C. White, Ph.D. Above: King Oliver's Creole Jazz Band, circa 1923, with Oliver on muted cornet, Louis Armstrong kneeling with slide cornet, Johnny Dodds on clarinet, and Warren "Baby" Dodds on drums. Photos courtesy the William Ransom Hogan Jazz Archive, Tulane University. ~e current resurgence of modern.i. ~azz that began during the 1980s with the appearance of young musicians such as Wynton Marsalis, varies significantly from previous innovative and revivalist jazz movements. The serious neoclassic, postbebop jazz of the "Marsalis generation" may not always be considered "contemporary" by the general publicunlike the intentionally simplified poporiented fusion-yet it has heralded a new image and level of respect for all forms of the music that Congress recently declared "a national treasure." Today's jazz artist is often portrayed as being stylistically steeped in music from a past era (most often bebop of the 1940s-1960s) and is considered no longer valid in today's culture. Although today's jazz has not yet engendered revolutionary new musical forms, or the creative and innovative genius of a Charlie Parker, John Coltrane, or a young Miles Davis, the current retrospective approach does have advantages. Long standing attitudes that favor only one form of jazz, and at the same time denounce or totally exclude other forms, have finally started subsiding in favor of a holistic approach to jazz history. This holistic approach objectively sees a more logical and natural evolution of styles from early New Orleans jazz to the latest modern forms. Today's young modern jazz player is more likely than ever to recognize, praise, study, and absorb elements from past greats of all eras, and not just post-swing bebop as had long been the custom. After all, in the hindsight of the 1990s all of the significant major jazz forms can be considered "old," whether classic jazz of the 1920s, swing of the 1930s, bebop of the 1940-50s, or free jazz of the 1960s. In this context the original jazz form that came out of New Orleans-which was once widely viewed as primitive, crude, corny, and illegitimate-is now rightfully being seen not only as the father of all jazz styles, but also as an artistically valid and complete form on its own. It is a musical style based on solid principles which produced its own share of "geniuses" such as Louis Armstrong, Jelly Roll Morton, and Sidney Bechet. Generally all jazz styles have contemporary features and are performed internationally with varying degrees of success. However, the early jazz variants are often presented under stereotypical and heavily commercial guidelines. Yet in the place of its birth, the original form of jazz has remained more "contemporary," from the perspective of cultural relevance, than other styles due to its role as a vital multi-functional part of New Orleans community life. It shares an important social and spiritual relationship with the New Orleans community that has continued for generations. Today, however, amidst a sea of tourism and com- 18 LOUISIANA ENDOWMENT FOR THE HUMANITIES/ Winter 1991

Left: Sidney Bechet, circa 1930. Below: Wynton Marsalis, 1985, Photo by Michael P. Smith. mercialism, the important historical, musical, and social concepts that gave birth to jazz are often forgotten or misunderstood in a continuing evolutionary process that remains full of ironies. Music in Constant Demand The very first jazz form sprang forth about 100 years ago as a direct result of social, historical, political, and musical developments affecting the unique African-American population in and around New Orleans. The city's position as a leading port and music center, coupled with its traditional affinity for celebrations and dancing, meant that music of all types were not merely present, but in constant demand. The somewhat less severe Franco-Latin treatment of slaves and free blacks in Louisiana meant for them exposure to and involvement in a broad range of existing musical forms by the 19th century: from the work songs, street cries, and spirituals of the Afro-American folk tradition, to military marches, popular music of the day and ethnic folk songs, to European classical symphony and opera. An unusual and important aspect in the early "musical education" of New Orleans' black residents was the congregation on Sundays of slaves at Congo Square, where they sang, danced, and beat out exciting polyrhythms in the authentic African tradition. After being banned before the Civil War, this practice continued underground and evolved, leaving a rich legacy of syncopated rhythms that 1 color all New Orleans music-from the street chants of the Mardi Gras Indians, to early jazz, and rhythm and blues. The post-civil War period yielded many changes in the position and conditions of the unusually diverse black population of New Orleans, which was greatly increased during the 19th century by West Indian migrations and an influx of newly freed slaves. As the century came to a close, an air of confusion, resentment, and defiance arose among the people of color, who in less than 40 years saw a shift from tolerant or indifferent attitudes towards blacks to new Jim Crow laws, racial violence, and an almost total loss of rights, political gains, and promises made by the early Reconstruction government. For many people of color, life became more restrictive and difficult than before emancipation. A significant aspect of the attempt to maintain Southern white economic and political dominance-and also to vent bitterness from the war-was the classification as "Negroes" of a group known as "Creoles of color," who spiritually, socially, and culturally were often as isolated from other blacks as if they were a separate race. The resulting "merger" of these historically distinct black groups led to an important synthesis between the diverse African and European musical systems. As their musical concepts contacted those of the Winter 1991/CULTURAL VISTAS 19

Evolution of a Cultural Tradition continued from previous page Buddy Bolden Band, prior to 1895; from left, standing: Frank Lewis, Willy Cornish, Buddy Bolden, Jimmie Johnson; seated: Willie Warner, Brock Mumford (guitar). dominant culture, the slaves performed music from an African perspective, employing a variety of musical devices, such as the coloring of the melodic line with "blue notes" and other emotional effects, call and response patterns, offbeat melodic phrases, and cross rhythms. These devices remained as fundamental elements of the work songs and black folk music derived from it: blues, spirituals, ragtime, and eventually jazz. The black Creoles had an equally rich musical tradition handed down from France, their spiritual "motherland." A classical music education including formal training, sight reading, proper playing techniques, and familiarity with European classical repertoire was fairly common among Creoles. As a result of the social and political changes that took place, there were varying degrees of teaching, exchange, and influence between untrained blues-playing improvisers and schooled readers, especially since the local demand for music exceeded both the amount of readers and written scores. The never-ending need for music at a wide variety of events afforded many opportunities for full and part-time musicians of all levels to practice, develop, nurture, and experiment with their art. A New Style Develops From the socially intense and evolving climate surrounding New Orleans in the 1890s, men like the legendary cornetist Charles "Buddy" Bolden and others began developing a new style that both synthesized several musical influences and expressed in music the spirit and emotion of the collective black New Orleans experience. As elements of the popular marching brass bands and smaller string ensembles began merging for dances-and since parades were extremely common-a freer, more improvised emotional interpretation was given to the ragtime, blues, spirituals, marches, and dance music that existed in various forms throughout the South. European instruments, structures, and melodic concepts were now distinctly colored with new or altered themes, driving rhythms, growls, buzzes, shouts, falsetto, and vibrato. This "vocalization" represented a transfer of African singing concepts to leading wind instruments such as cornets, clarinets, and trombones. Rather than direct transference of African cross rhythms, there was established a steady, often driving ground beat, which became the foundation for offbeat melodic devices. The solid rhythmic underpinning was the background for a polyphonic ensemble approach which, blended "call and response" patterns (in varying configurations of horns and a rhythm section) and collectively improvised "conversations" based around particular melodies, often creating a sense of "swing." In many ways the new form (not called "jazz" until later) was both a musical and social revolution. Though never universally accepted among some "conservative" factions of both black and white New Orleans, jazz was too hot, too emotional, too socially significant, too flexible by nature, and too universally appealing to be inhibited because of any potentially "embarrassing" or "socially undesirable" circumstances that it yielded. Despite some objection, jazz spread to all levels of the community and became an important and visible part of New Orleans daily life at many picnics, sporting events, dances, parties, concerts, and outings on Lake Ponchartrain. Jazz was also a music of the streets, as seen through the prominence of marching brass bands, used in parades and through band wagons used for advertising. Many now legendary "cutting contests" and "battles" to determine the best bands and instrumentalists were acted out on the streets. Despite popular perceptions, jazz was neither born in, nor mainly played in the brothels of Storyville, the city's famed red-light district, which used mainly solo piano "professors." The bands that played in "the district" usually worked in the several cabarets and small bars existing there. Whites also found the local form in character with the traditionally high spirit of New Orleans. There was widespread use of jazz early on by whites and there were a number of white jazz bands. Among the highly spirited African American population the new music had a deep-rooted and varied social significance beyond the role of mere entertainment or diversion. For the thousands of musicians and members of the community, jazz became a vehicle for the social, spiritual, and musical exercise of democratic prin- 20 LOUISIANA ENDOWMENT FOR THE HUMANITIES/ Winter 1991

ciples-freedom of expression, unity, creativity, competition, equalitymany of which were limited or denied to them in everyday life. The psychological effects of the new musical declaration were potentially far reaching. A sense of self worth and value could be found in the temporarily euphoric world surrounding jazz: a world in which one could be many things-free, proud, angry, militant, sensual, joyful, sad, majestic, equal, non-racial, judges, winners, truth speakers, or escapists. The social and spiritual dimensions of the jazz culture became especially evident in processions-parades by benevolent societies (also called "social aid and pleasure clubs), church parades, and jazz funerals-where large segments of the community would gather in an almost religiouslike "celebration" to commemorate special events and occasions (or just to gather in revelry "for no reason at all"). Right: Johnny Dodds, photographed in his Chicago home by William Russell in 1938. Below: Riverside Records recording seesion at Thomy LaFon Hall (also known as Societe des Jeunes Amis Hall), January 25, 1961; from left: Josiah ''Cie'' Frazier, Jim Robinson, Percy Humphrey, Willie Humphrey, "Sweet" Emma Barrett, Manuel Sayles, and McNeal Breaux While jazz was taken North and out West early in the 20th century by some of its African-American founders, it was not popularized nationally and "introduced" to the world until 1917, when the white Original Dixieland Jazz Band performed in Chicago and New York and made the first acknowledged jazz recordings. By the early 1920s many black New Orleans musicians had migrated North and throughout the "Jazz Age" performed, recorded, and created the main body of jazz that influenced and changed Western music. Among this group several performers stand out: cornetist Joe "King" Oliver, the "father of the modern trumpet style," whose Creole Jazz Band recordings remain among the greatest examples of polyphonic jazz; Ferdinand "Jelly Roll" Morton, pioneer of jazz piano and the first great jazz composer, who pointed the way for the big bands by demonstrating that intricate written scores and improvisation could be combined without losing jazz feelings and swing; Louis Armstrong, a musical genius and great improviser, who extended the range and possibilities of trumpet playing, expanded the popular vocal style, almost single-handedly shifted the emphasis of jazz from polyphony to the improvised solo, and influenced all future jazz performers with his inventive melodic and harmonic interpretations; Sidney Bechet, the soprano saxophonist and clarinetist described by Duke Ellington as "the essence of jazz," who became the first great saxophonist in jazz and one of its most passionate and expressive improvisers; and individual stylists like clarinetists Johnny Dodds and Jimmy Noone, who defined, characterized, or expanded jazz interpretation on their instruments. New Orleans Jazz Stays Unique The deep-rooted, wide spread spiritual and social connection that existed between jazz and New Orleans was never the same in the North, as changes occurred that reflected northern tastes, ideas, and musical concepts, as well as changes in time. In the Crescent City, which maintained much of its uniqueness among American cities, jazz continued to exist and to evolve on its own terms though dance hall and benevolent society activities declined in the 1930s and 1940s and newer generations and some elements of "modern" life influenced the music. At the demise of the big band era widespread interest in more "pure," less "commercial" forms of jazz led to a "New Orleans Jazz Revival," which continued on page 36 Winter 1991/CULTURAL VISTAS 21

Evolution of a Cultural Tradition continued from page 21 was not so much a revival of older jazz as it was one of outside interest by pockets of writers, fans, and small record companies. Many contemporaries of Armstrong and Morton, like Willie "Bunk" Johnson and George Lewis, now performed regularly, toured, recorded, and gained recognition, thus launching a small international following for New Orleans jazz that remains constant to this day. While the early revival period of the 1940s did not reflect the genius of an Armstrong, the harmonic imagination of a Bechet, or the complex artistic compositions of a Morton, its best recordings show a looseness, sense of freedom, and type of swing and spirit that are sometimes restrained on the 1920s recordings. Many of the "revivalists" show individual styles based on originality, similar concepts for the basic role of each instrument, and a conscious concern for collective ensemble playing. Eventually, the image and sound of jazz in New Orleans-a growing tourist attraction by the 1950s and 1960s-became covered over and confused with those of commercialized forms and watered down imitations performed by musicians who knew little of or were indifferent to the original nature, style, form, or meaning of the music and its principles. The result is a fast, loud, disjointed "pseudo-jazz" often seen on television, in movies, and in nightclubs. This style is believed by many to be "real New Orleans jazz," but is actually the same music heard at "dixieland" festivals and played by bands throughout the country. While parades and jazz funerals continued with brass bands in the black community, the standard six or seven piece ensemble was left mainly to the "old men," as dozens of older musicians continued to tour, perform, and record during the 1960s and 1970s. Younger generations had generally abandoned the "old folks music" in favor of more contemporary jazz or popular rhythm and blues. Ironically, the international following of authentic New Orleans-style jazz among fans and players of all ages gained momentum after increased tours and recordings of older pioneers, especially in Europe and Japan. Some of the newer black players that did enter the traditional arena (mainly for its economic potential) attempted to change its nature by playing older songs, but with dominant bebop or rhythm and blues overtones. During the civil rights struggle, some blacks viewed early jazz as an "Uncle Tom" remnant of a past that they wanted to forget, leading to further isolation of jazz from its roots. By the mid- 1970s, an increasingly common situation included the deaths of many older musicians, an almost total lack of traditional players under age 65, and the increasingly necessary mixing of what had been almost completely separate jazz communities in New Orleans (mainly determined by race, nationality, age group, and style). The result was a general decline in the sound, spirit, and unity of New Orleans jazz, which seemed to announce the certain death of a tradition passed on by several generations. An ironic turn of events, however, again gave new life to the old tradition. As the grade school generation of the 1960s civil rights heyday came to maturity, community interest, economics, and the traditional New Orleans need for creative self expression led to a resurgence of local jazz that is seen today in several distinct movements. Younger Players Take Over Many factors created a void in the street music scene, including the deaths or retirement of older brass band players, increased expenses in hiring professional union musicians (as almost all jazz musicians were), and the movement of the traditional style brass bands off the streets and into the more lucrative world of jazz festivals, conventions, recordings, films, and Louis Armstrong, 1925. international travel. Younger players eventually filled this void. Artistically, the second lines and social clubs had been ready for a change. While the idea of tradition was important, the music had always been hot, exciting, and creative. Though the introduction of younger traditional players did add life to the aging brass band sound, the music became somewhat static: some of the ensemble playing became more repetitive than creative, and the smaller number of players meant the appearance of the same faces and sounds every week. No new songs had become a regular part of brass band repertoire since the 1950s. Under such a scenario the eager, less expensive, work-hungry young brass bands came into a situation which they eventually dominated. Their music combines the functional and spiritual remnants of the jazz tradition with music and experiences currently at hand: top 40 hits, modern jazz, New Orleans rhythm and blues, "Mardi Gras Indian" chants and 36 LOUISIANA ENDOWMENT FOR THE HUMANITIES! Winter 1991

rhythms. This music is performed by younger brass band players in the heart of the black community in massive street parades and funerals as it was done for more than a hundred years. The spiritual and emotional impact of the younger brass bands remains, and these groups are generally accepted in the community. From a musical standpoint, however, the instrumentation, rhythm, repertoire, role of the instruments, and basic concept of ensemble playing have changed to such an extent that it cannot be considered traditional New Orleans jazz. This contemporary evolution of the brass band would correctly be viewed like local rhythm and blues and other forms that evolved from, but are no longer a direct part of the tradition. Another development of the mid- 1970s was an initially less visible, but significant appearance of several young traditional style players, most of whom are direct descendants of New Orleans musical families that date back to the beginning of jazz. Unlike their peers, the younger traditionalists had direct contact with and absorbed musical influences from the older jazz tradition, either through growing up in active jazz families, or by playing in the community with the remaining traditional brass bands. Some became members of an "extended family" that allowed them to hear, know, and perform regularly with a number of active veterans born between the late 1890s and 1910, such as Kid Thomas Valentine, Chester Zardis, Sweet Emma Barret, Louis Nelson, Emmanuel Sayles, or Percy and Willie Humphrey. The unusual demand for the septuagenarian and octogenarian musicians, whose ranks steadily diminished, made possible the transmission of traditional style and concepts to a receptive group whose members were 50 to 60 years younger. Most of the young traditionalists performed with a variety of brass bands and smaller groups, and eventually became regulars with the older bands and performed at Preservation Hall, which since 1961 has been the only local business recognizing and featuring older musicians and the more authentic jazz tradition. Some of the young traditionalists gained national recognition through repertory and theme concerts that fea- While romantic images of local music remain alive for many who visit New Orleans, reality reveals an ever evolving tradition still being shaped by social and economic conditions in the black community where it originated. tured the music of King Oliver, Jelly Roll Morton, or Louis Armstrong. In addition, documentaries and increased interest by large recording companies resulted in promotion of authentic early jazz, from both retrospective and more creative perspectives. While the newer brass bands and the younger traditional players represent the main force of performers in the jazz tradition, they are not the only ones. Among the local musicians are several who had been rhythm and blues players, beboppers, or swing band veterans and whose move into the traditional arena was due as much to a decline in live music of those styles as to the availability of traditional jazz jobs for conventions, parties, jazz brunches, and riverboat cruises. Another group of younger musicians in their middle to late 20s also appeared on the scene. Unlike other younger players, this group did not have direct contact with the living jazz culture of the streets or the remaining older pioneers. Most of them are welltrained music majors, whose experiences in jazz are from modern jazz and the college stage band. Most have pop music, fusion, or contemporary jazz aspirations and view traditional music as just an easy way to make money. Like many mainstream players around the country and musicians who migrated to New Orleans from other parts of the United States, they are more likely to feel that "music is music," and not see anything special in local jazz. Lacking a solid concept of what New Orleans jazz is, their thinking is more individualistic and technical than collective and conservative; their approach is more theoretical than spiritual. Songs are often viewed as sets of chords, melodies, and scales on which everyone exercises complete individuality and freedom. Though good musicianship is usually present, the lack of true polyphony, little knowledge of the roles of individual instruments, less supportive use of rhythm, and an imbalance between stylistic content and form lead to a slick commercialized or disjointed sound that is far removed from the authentic feel, spirit, and communicative New Orleans manner of expression. Maintaining Cultural Tradition As the New Orleans jazz tradition reaches its first 100 years, questions regarding its future are as highly debated as those about its past. While commercial and romantic images of local music remain alive for many who first visit the Crescent City, reality reveals a constantly evolving tradition still being shaped by the social and economic conditions of the local black community from which it originated. New Orleans is no longer the isolated "Caribbean city" that it once was. Conditions and factors that affect all major American cities today, such as crime, drugs, unemployment, poverty, and urban decay have all taken their toll. Universal problems in maintaining any cultural tradition or heritage also come into play. The orientation of youth in American culture today seems to be moving in an opposite direction from the values and discipline needed to develop and maintain jazz careers. The once promising and extensive high school marching band tradition of New Orleans is itself in decline. Electronic instruments, technologically created duplication of wind, string, and rhythm instruments, and the popularity of less musical forms like "rap" take much of the interest out of learning in traditional school band programs. Overall, the choices and options provided by computer video games, cable television, movie rentals, or compact disc players capture the imagination of today's youth and make the time and effort that it takes to develop musical ability-not to mention the lifelong developmental process of a good jazz musician-seem dated to say the least. And what of individual Winter 1991/CULTURAL VISTAS 37

Evolution of a Cultural Tradition continued from previous page values such as sharing, restraint, patience, and the collective team spirit necessary for jazz that even with many existing players are elusive? The current jazz tradition of New Orleans is in a state of transition, as many different styles and approaches co-exist. Despite present day conditions and the upbringing of youth in this "Computer Age," the future of jazz in its birthplace is unpredictable. Those who predicted an end to local jazz at phases from the 1920s, through the 1940s revival, and by the end of the 1960s were simply wrong. Already there are several factors which may not only keep the jazz tradition alive, but that may start a glorious revival. The overall national attention given to New Orleans culture and music has led to an interest in more authentic jazz. There are already local and national plans being formulated for perpetuating authentic New Orleans jazz and honoring its history. The young traditional players are often sought out to perform as guest artists, and frequently perform to sold out enthusiastic audiences in such places as Lincoln Center and Carnegie Hall. Trumpet virtuoso Wynton Marsalis has done much to underline the importance of the New Orleans style in jazz. He regularly performs in repertory concerts, encourages young jazz players to engage the early style, and pays tribute to the New Orleans style on several of his albums. The New Orleans public schools now have a jazz education program for selected students in which basic traditional jazz melodies and history are Jelly Roll Morton and his Red Hot Peppers, 1926, with Kid Ory on trombone, Jelly Roll Morton on piano, Johnny St. Cyr on banjo, and Omer Simeon on clarinet. taught. Jazz history and education programs on local college campuses have increased in recent years and, though primarily modern in orientation, show interest in broadening their scope to include some aspects of New Orleans jazz. It seems that New Orleans jazz as a living tradition will have a future. Exactly what shape it takes, who will play it, or how it might sound is uncertain. It is possible that several of the existing trends may merge, or that one of them will come to dominate. It is possible that, like the "Revival" of the 1940s and 1950s, outside interests may influence the direction that local players take. The current interest in history and culture may lead to a more artistically conscious type of player. The new-found popularity of repertory concerts may revive sounds not commonly heard for decades. Ideally an environment would exist in which the principles of New Orleans jazz can be utilized as a basis for new songs and fresh ideas. Such a movement would probably come from the Crescent City, but New Orleans jazz now also belongs to the world. :. Dr. Michael White is a jazz clarinetist, schola r, and historian. He teaches Spanish and African American music at Xavier University of Louisiana and, like many New Orleanians, was raised in a family intertwined with jazz musicians. ANITIES; Winter 1991