Name: Slot: ENGLISH 1201: Essays and Prose Introductory Handout ESSAY DEVELOPMENT TYPES NARRATION: tells a story about an event or experience in the writer s life. The purpose of this writing is to reveal a life lesson (message) and contains the following narrative elements: setting detail, conflict and resolution, action and a clear emotional feeling (atmosphere and mood related). DESCRIPTION: presents sensory details about a person, place, event or thing. The purpose of this writing is to create a strong impression and paint a picture with words in the minds of the reader. Characteristics of this type of essay include the use of figurative language (similes, metaphors, imagery) and description begins general and becomes vivid and specific. EXPOSITION: objectively presents facts, statistics, expert opinions, details and examples. Two specific types of exposition include ARUGMENTATION and PERSUASION. Argumentative essays present evidence and reasoning to support an argument. The purpose is to convince the readers of an opinion. Persuasion uses the same approach as argumentation and tries to convince the readers to take action on the subject. The key differences between each type are listed below. PERSUASION ARGUMENTATION Writer is more committed to the subject or topic and therefore presents evidence using emotional appeals. Writer does not demonstrate emotional commitment to the subject or topic, meaning evidence is presented logically and rationally. Tone is emotional. Tone is rational. Ends with a CALL TO ACTION to ensure the audience is persuaded to do something or believe something. No CALL TO ACTION is included because the writing only attempts to convince the reader that the arguments being made are valid/true, which means the reader just needs to accept the points made as valid/true. There are a variety of different methods to INTRODUCE an expository essay. Some of the most common methods are listed below: Definition Relevant Fact Unusual Detail Rhetorical Question Personal Experience Short Narrative/Example Direct Statement of Purpose/Thesis Statement METHODS OF INTRODUCING EXPOSITION Used to introduce subject and arouse interest; are often personal slants on an emotional or abstract topic. Will help to define the main issue of the essay by suggesting some fact on that matter. Once again, the hope is to create audience awareness and interest. Used to create interest in a topic by exploring or presenting details about the topic that might not be commonly known by all and it also helps to show the research or knowledge level of the writer. Provokes thought from the reader as the question may not be answered. Sometimes the essay is organized to answer the question using many examples or arguments. Links the reader and writer. Sometimes interest is created by such a connection. The audience sees it as real or important. Creates interest in the topic by making the subject more concrete or real. These would be similar to personal experiences possibly but not seen as personal to the writer. The examples might be more global or societal. Is the least effective method to create interest but is needed to identify the topic and its treatment for the reader. For greatest effect, it is recommended that this method be used in conjunction with one of the other six. There are also various methods to DEVELOP an expository essay. Some of the common methods are listed on the next page.
Example and Illustration Cause and Effect Process Analysis Classification and Division Comparison and Contrast Analogy METHODS OF DEVELOPING EXPOSITION Used to support an idea, reinforce a contention or belief, or to clarify a subject or topic. When a writer uses examples to illustrate, the topic becomes more understandable as examples are concise explanations. Basically, the writer supports a general illustration or topic with very precise examples or explanations to provide clarity. Are interdependent relationships. They attempt to answer the why and what of a situation. The cause is considered the reason (why) of a situation and the effects would be considered the result (what/the cause). Gives directions and/or simply provides information about how to perform a particular task, how something happened or works. The analysis of that method may explain why it must be done in a certain way or include a history lesson or a comparison of methods. Is a means whereby items, information and ideas are organized. Classification puts or sorts things into categories; division attempts to analyze the parts or sections into which something is divided. Uses similarities and differences, or a combination of the two, to illustrate and discuss and idea. Typically comparison essays include both similarities and differences; a look only at differences is called contrast. Is a comparison of a literal object or simple topic to a figurative or complex idea throughout the course of an essay. Unlike an extended metaphor, this comparison is quite literally drawn. There are also various types of EVIDENCE used to develop an expository essay. Some of the common types of evidence are listed below. Authority Figures Experts in the field or topic that is being discussed Facts Unquestioned, concrete pieces of information that add credibility to one s argument Statistics Raw numerical data in the form of percentages, fractions, and charts that helps to show correlations between numbers and the topic Anecdotal and Personal Observations Evidence that is based on person s observations of the world. MUST be used in conjunction with the other three types of evidence above as it is not reliable on its own. TYPES OF EVIDENCE PROVIDED TO DEVELOP EXPOSITION David Suzuki on the topic of Environmental Awareness Chris Hadfield on the topic of space exploration Bob McKenzie/Don Cherry on the topic of fighting in hockey Cindy Crawford on the topic of body types and pressure from the media There are nearly 8 billion people on our planet. The worldwide climate has increased nearly 3 degrees over the past century. Students perform better on assessments when they study and prepare. There is a 97% consensus that global warming is real amongst scientists Two out of every three dentists recommend that you floss daily 49% of children in grades 4 12 reported being bullied by other students at school at least once during the past month By 2025, an estimated 1.8 billion people will live in areas plagued by water scarcity Case Studies Someone giving a presentation regarding drunk driving might research and discuss the circumstances of someone personally affected by it. Testimonials A written declaration certifying to a person's character, conduct, or qualifications, OR to the value, excellence, etc., of something. REMEMBER: When this evidence is used to convince, sway, emotionally influence, or lead us to the writer/presenter s opinion on the topic (i.e. why cellphones should be allowed in schools; why capital punishment should be abolished; why the penalties for drinking and driving should be harsher) it is persuasive in nature. When this evidence is used to present a reasonable discussion that is strongly supported with evidence, but is allowing the audience to reach their own conclusions (i.e. medical breakthroughs; the advances in space exploration; the differing types of family-oriented dog breeds; how the internet has created a global society) it is argumentative in nature. There are a variety of different methods to CONCLUDE an expository essay. Some of the most common methods are listed on the next page.
METHODS OF CONCLUDING EXPOSITION Climax Call to Action Summary Thesis Restatement Closing by Return Saving the strongest and most important argument for last, making it the culmination of the arguments presented. A definite request by the author that the reader DO something as a result of reading. This is a must in the persuasive essay. A simple repetition of the key points of the essay is often necessary if the essay is long and the writer wants to remind the reader of the key arguments. A rewording of the thesis (not a word-by-word repetition) reminds readers of the main topic and its method of treatment. Serves as a reminder to the reader. In this method the writer would use words or phrases from the introduction of the essay at the end, bringing the reader full circle (closing by returning to the beginning). AUDIENCE AND PURPOSE AUDIENCE: PURPOSE: The specific group of people an author attempts to appeal to in writing an essay. The reason a text has been written. When we re looking at specific essay types, the purpose will be related to one of the following: POSSIBLE PURPOSES OF AN ESSAY: To persuade/argue To explain/inform To entertain FORMAL AND INFORMAL STYLE Style is the manner by which a person writes. Style is often determined by subject matter essays written about more serious issues tend to be more formal in nature. FORMAL INFORMAL Written in THIRD PERSON POINT OF VIEW Features lengthy paragraphs and detailed sentences Does not use contractions ( I ve is the contraction for I have ) Uses sophisticated vocabulary Written in FIRST or SECOND PERSON POINT OF VIEW Features shorter paragraphs and more basic sentences Uses contractions ( Don t is the contraction for Do not ) Poses few, if any, rhetorical questions Uses common, more conversational vocabulary Does not include sentence fragments Poses rhetorical questions and devices Factual and well documented Uses sentence fragments Tone is RATIONAL, meaning detached, neutral, informative or scientific Tone is EMOTIONAL OTHER TERMS ASSOCIATED WITH STYLE Cliché A stereotyped sentence or phrase, usually expressing a popular or common thought or idea that has lost originality, ingenuity, and impact by long overuse. EX: Someone woke up on the wrong side of the bed! Colloquial A word, phrase, or aphorism used in plain and relaxed speech, but rarely found in formal writing. Colloquialisms can generally be understood across age and socioeconomic barriers as long as the speakers are all from the same geographic region. EX: She s as old as the hills! Dialect The language of a particular area, class, or group of persons. For example, some of Newfoundland s out port communities have interesting dialects. EX: Yes b y! Euphemism A mild or indirect word or expression substituted for one considered to be too harsh or blunt when referring to something unpleasant or embarrassing. EX: Passed away instead of died Idiom A phrase that has a different meaning that that of the words that make it up. The meaning of an idiom cannot be determined by looking up the meanings of the separate words. Rather, when these words are put together in a specific way, the meaning is something new and separate. EX: It s raining cats and dogs! Jargon Words and phrases used in an occupation, trade, or field of study. For example, we might speak of medical jargon, sports jargon, police jargon, or military jargon. EX: Political jargon uses the term left wing for progressive viewpoints or right wing for conservative viewpoints. Slang Informal diction or the use of vocabulary considered inconsistent with the preferred formal wording common among the educated or elite in a culture. It is usually specific to a culture, age, or time. It can also involve incorrect grammar (EX: ain t ), as well as lingo or jargon from a particular era. (EX: bread or dough instead of money in the 1960s).
EMPHASIS Emphasis is the means by which important elements are made to stand out in a paragraph or essay. WITHIN AN ESSAY: TO CONCLUDE AN ESSAY: Forceful topic sentences Call to action (persuasive) Effective closing sentences Summary Placement of key ideas near beginning / end Thesis restatement Elaboration with supporting ideas Closing by return Comparison and contrast Purposeful repetition of words and phrases Repetition and restatement of sentences Parallel structure Rhetorical questions Sentence brevity / use of fragments Use of punctuation marks or font UNITY AND COHERENCE Unity is when everything in a paragraph or essay contains only relevant information to the paragraph or essay. Coherence refers to the logical bridge between words, sentences, and paragraphs. UNITY INCLUDES The basic organization of an essay with a thesis supported by relevant details. The basic organization of a paragraph with a topic sentence supported by relevant evidence. The use of clincher sentences, closing by return, and thesis statements. The establishment of point of view which is carried throughout the essay. COHERENCE INCLUDES The arrangement of ideas in logical order or proper sequence. Showing the relationship between ideas connectives or transitions show smooth carryover of ideas (pronouns can function as connectors in this manner). Transitions are words or phrases that help to achieve a smooth carryover within and between sentences, paragraphs, and sections of writing. Can be framing words (in the first place, secondly, finally, etc.) Can be temporal references (last week, seconds later, than, we, etc.) Can be spatial references (in front of, behind, etc.) Can be general connectives / coordinating conjunctions (and, but, or, etc.) Can be subordinating conjunctions (because, hence, consequently, however, as a result of, etc.) Can be oppositional (unlike, whereas, despite, etc.) Pronoun reference is using a pronoun to refer to a noun in an earlier phrase or sentence to show linkage of ideas without being monotonous or awkwardly repetitive. EX: The students brought their books to class so that they could do their assignments.