To what extent can we apply the principles of evolutionary theory to storytelling? Coined by Sir Alan Wilson (2010) in Knowledge Power, the term superconcept refers to an idea which is applicable to many disciplines, even outside of its initial sphere of usage. Evolution is a superconcept par excellence: it emerged out of biology and has been transposed into countless other fields. The dominant theory of evolution is Darwinism, to the extent that the term is used almost interchangeably with evolution. For the purposes of this essay, we will consider the two as synonymous. The hallmark of Darwinian theory is the idea of natural selection, introduced in Darwin s seminal work On the Origin of the Species, published in 1859. Natural selection takes place when the environment exercises selective pressures on its inhabitants. Individuals with the most advantageous characteristics facing these pressures the fittest will have a higher chance of survival and thus will be more likely to pass on these traits to their offspring. Some scholars have applied evolutionary theory to the analysis of myths, legends and folktales. These genres of folklore are subtly different but their common denominator is that they are all orally transmitted prose stories. Axel Olrik was the first to take an explicitly Darwinian stance in folklore studies. In his work The Principles for Oral Narratives Research, Olrik (1992) writes there will always be a struggle for existence among narratives (p.62-63). Hence, one might ask: to what extent can we apply the principles of evolutionary theory to storytelling? One on hand, analogists believe that folklore evolves in precisely the same way as organisms do. They are able to retrace mythological evolutionary histories, establishing clear lineages from ancestral myths. On the other hand, Jungian theory proposes that myths are all independent of each other: evolutionary mechanisms are not at work. Overall, it could be argued that an evolutionary perspective is necessary to understand storytelling because its evolution is inseparable from that of humankind. A prominent school of folklore studies holds that myths, legends and folktales can be studied diachronically using the principles of evolutionary biology. Proponents believe that tales are analogous to organisms in their structure; both are composed of discrete units. For organisms, these units are genes. For myths, the unit is a mytheme : an irreducible and unchanging element of the myth that can be similar or different between two versions (Du Huy, 2013: p.2). This school advocates that myths evolve in the same way as organisms; through natural selection. They argue that folklore satisfies all four criteria necessary for natural selection to occur: heredity, reproduction, differential fitness and variability (Goldstein, 2017). As we all know, an organism reproduces by transmitting heritable genetic traits from parent to offspring, with clonal reproduction occurring in rare cases. Unlike genes, every mytheme is heritable (i.e. transmissible) when the story is told. Hence, the condition of heredity is fulfilled for myths and is even more efficient than in organisms. Folkloric reproduction occurs through oral communication by means of teaching, learning and imitation (Du Huy, 2015). Similarly to organismal reproduction, myths are transmitted from parent to offspring. Myths can also be transmitted intergenerationally, unlike organisms. On top of that, transmission often occurs between individuals of the same generation: there is not only vertical transmission but horizontal transmission (Ross, Greenhill & Atkinson, 2013). Myths also possess variability because of their unit
structure. Indeed, mythemes are susceptible to mutation, similarly to genes. As myths are transmitted, innovation and mistakes can be introduced. Lastly, differential fitness is also applicable to myths. Myths will be retained in a society if they have advantageous traits relative to the selective pressures of that particular environment. For instance, the taste of the community is a selective pressure. Tales which appeal to the community will be selected and perpetuated (Sharp, 1907). Linguistic barriers also act as selective pressures. Unless there is translation, a population cannot adopt a myth if it s in a language which they do not speak. Thus, some narratives can be considered more fit than others in a given environment. Therefore, all four of conditions for natural selection are verified. Hence, we can consider that natural selection is the mechanism by which myths evolve and the force which threatens their extinction. Having established that myths evolve by natural selection, one can study the phylogeny of myths. By looking at the mytheme makeup of myths, one can model how an ancestral myth has evolved and diverged into all the different forms we have today. If two myths possess the same mutated mytheme, they are considered sister myths derived from a parent myth. The more mutations two myths have in common, the more closely related they are. Using this logic, one can build phylogenetic trees to represent evolutionary lineages [See Figure 1] (Du Huy, 2015). The school of archetypal literary criticism disputes the idea that folklore evolves like organisms. Notably, Carl Jung states that all myths have arisen independently, in blatant opposition to the view that myths have lineages. Jung proposes that myths are part of the collective unconscious : the underlying structures of the unconscious mind shared by all humans. At the core of the collective unconscious are archetypes: common concepts and patterns of thought. Jung proposes that mythological motifs such as the recurrent image of the 'Tree of Life are in fact archetypes. According to Jung, we all incorporate archetypes into our folklore independently but the fact that we have the same archetypes explains similarities between myths. Indeed, in The Significance of Constitution and Heredity in Psychology, Jung (1929) writes the most far-fetched mythological motifs and symbols can appear autochthonously at any time, often, apparently, as the result of particular influences ( ) working on the individual, but more often without any sign of them (p.3). In other words, Jung believes that images constituting mythological motifs are independent. Thus, there is no lineage between two myths even if they have similar narratives. One could argue that Jung s theory is somewhat compatible with an evolutionary perspective, even if they seem contradictory. Indeed, in An Instinct for Dragons, Jones (2000) writes how widespread images of dragons are in folklore nearly constituting a cultural universal. Jones hypothesizes that this archetype is so widespread because of an innate human fear of predators. This trait has been selected over time as individuals who feared predators would manage to evade danger. Hence, Jones demonstrates that archetypes reflect traits which have been acquired in humans through natural selection and have become universal. Therefore, Jones incorporates evolutionary theory into his interpretation of Jung s ideas to explain mythological motifs
Finally, I will argue that myths and folktales can be evolutionarily beneficial for humans. Joseph Campbell outlines four functions of the myth, including the sociological myth, defined as supporting and validating a certain social order (Joseph Campbell and the Power of Myth, 1988). Sociological myths have a moralizing quality and aim to instil a shared set of values and rules in a society. Most cautionary tales fall into this category. For instance, the German children s book Struwwelpeter consists of ten stories of misbehaving children and the exaggerated punishments which they encounter. In Die Geschichte von den Schwarzen Buben (Hoffmann, 1945), three boys tease a black boy by comparing his skin color to ink. As punishment, they are thrown into a pool of ink. This tale condemns discrimination and aims to teach children to be tolerant. Thus, these stories condition members of a society to have similar moral values which ultimately makes communities more cohesive. According to theories of group selection popularized by E.O. Wilson, these communities will thrive. Using the example of ant colonies, Wilson proposes that eusocial (i.e. cooperative, cohesive) groups function more efficiently than noncohesive groups and that the members of the former will have a higher chance of survival than members of the latter. As Wilson (2012) puts it in The Social Conquest of Earth groups of altruists beat groups of selfish individuals (p.302). This is because members of eusocial groups will work together to achieve greater results than the sum of their individual actions. By fostering group cohesion, sociological myths are therefore evolutionarily beneficial. On top of that, the presence of myths in a society encourages social cohesion by creating a common culture shared by the entire population. Du Huy (2015) also proposes that group cohesion is augmented when folklore is specific to that group due to a we think that versus they think that (p.100) mentality. Therefore, moralizing stories and the very presence of stories in a community are evolutionarily advantageous for the group as a whole. In conclusion, it is clear that folklore is intrinsically linked to evolution. Evolutionary theory explains the nature of the myths we have today by allowing us to retrace their histories. Incorporating evolution into Jungian theory also helps explain the nature of mythological motifs. Moreover, moralizing narratives in folklore can be advantageous for human evolution humans, especially on the scale of the group. Finally, the very existence of folklore is evolutionarily beneficial for the community. This is why evolutionary theory is key in the reading of folklore.
Figure 1: (Du Huy, 2013) Phylogenetic tree representing the lineage of the cosmic hunt myth studied in 47 groups across the world. Works cited: Campbell, J. & Myers, B. (1988) Joseph Campbell and the Power of Myth. PBS. Du Huy, J. (2013) A Cosmic Hunt in the Berber Sky: A Phylogenetic Reconstruction of Palaeolithic Mythology. Les Cahiers de L AARS. 16(1), 93-106. Du Huy, J. (2015) Polyphemus: a Paleolithic Tale?. The Retrospective Methods Network Newsletter, Department of Philosophy, History, Culture and Art Studies, University of Helsinki. 9(1), 43-64. Hafstein, V. (2001) Biological Metaphors in Folklore Theory. In: Dundes A. (ed.). Folklore : Critical Concepts in Literary and Cultural Studies. Volume IV, Folkloristics: Theories and Methods. New York, Routledge, pp.407-435. Harris, S. & Platzner, G. (2001) Ways of Interpreting Myth. In: Classical Mythology: Images and Insights, 3 rd edition. New York, McGraw-Hill Education. Hoffmann, H. (1945) Der Struwwelpeter. Available from: http://www.gasl.org/refbib/hoffmann Struwwelpeter.pdf [Accessed 1st December 2017]. Jung, C. (1969) The Significance of Constitution and Heredity in Psychology. In: Collected Works of C.G. Jung, Volume 8: Structure & Dynamics of the Psyche. Princeton (NJ), Princeton University Press, pp.107-113. Mirsky, S. (2008) Individual versus Group in Natural Selection. Available from: https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/whats-good-for-the-group/ [Accessed 1 st December 2017].
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